欧洲:
英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine | ||||
奥地利 Austria
首都:维也纳 国家代码: at
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 奥地利【国旗】 呈长方形，长与宽之比为３∶２。自上而下由红、白、红三个平行相等的横长方形相连而成，旗面正中是奥地利国徽图案。此旗的来历可追溯到奥匈帝国时期，据说当时的巴本堡公爵在与英王理查一世激战时，公爵的白色军衣几乎全被鲜血染红，只有佩剑处留下一道白痕。从此，公爵的军队采用红白红为战旗颜色。１７８６年约瑟夫国王二世把红白红旗作为全军战旗，１９１９年正式定为奥地利国旗。奥地利政府机构、部长、总统等官方代表和政府驻外机构均使用带国徽的国旗，一般场合不用带国徽的国旗。 【国徽】 为一只鹰。黑色的雄鹰头戴金冠，两爪分别握着金色的锤子和镰刀，胸前的盾面上为国旗图案，鹰爪上还套有被打断的锁链。鹰是奥地利的标志，璧形金冠象征市民，镰刀和锤子象征农工，锁链被打断象征奥地利人民获得自由、解放。 【国歌】 《让我们拉起手来》 【国花】 火绒草 【国鸟】 家燕 【国石】 贵蛋白石 【面积】 83871平方公里。（资料来源：2004年奥地利统计年鉴） 【人口】 805.3万（2002年）。其中外国人75.8万人，占9.4%。少数民族有斯洛文尼亚人、克罗地亚人和匈牙利人，约占人口的0.52%。官方语言德语。73%的居民信奉天主教。 【首都】 维也纳(Wien)，人口155万人（2002年）。 【国家元首】 总统海因茨·菲舍尔（Heinz Fischer），2004年4月25日当选，7月8日就任。 国家概况 奥地利 意为“东方的国家”。位于欧洲中部，为著名的山国，连绵起伏的阿尔卑斯山横贯境内，美丽的多瑙河蜿蜒流淌。水力，森林，矿产丰富，经济发达。石墨，菱镁矿储蓄量居世界前列。 奥地利地处欧洲中心，是欧洲重要的交通枢纽。奥地利的工业特点是国有化程度高，国有企业控制了95％的基础工业和85％以上的动力工业,其产值及职工人数均占其总数的70％。主要工业部门是采矿、钢铁、机械制造、石油化工、电力、金属加工、汽车制造、纺织、服装、造纸、食品等，采矿业规模相对较小。钢铁工业在国民经济中占有重要地位。奥地利化学工业原料丰富,如木材、石油、天然气和煤焦油等,为化工的发展提供了有利条件。主要化工产品有纤维素,氮肥和石化产品。机械制造业主要生产工业机械成套设备,如水轮发电机、多钻头采煤机、铁路筑路机、木材加工机和钻探设备等。汽车工业是奥地利机械制造业的又一主要部门。主要生产载重汽车、越野车、拖拉机、牵引车、装甲运输车及散件等。采矿业是奥地利的传统工业,主要开采铁矿、褐煤、钨、膏、菱镁矿、大理石、滑石、高岭士、石英。矿产主要有石墨和镁，另有褐煤、铁、石油和天然气等。森林、水力资源丰富。森林占国土面积的42％，有林场400万公顷，木材蓄积量约9．9亿立方米。农业发达，机械化程度高。农产品自给有余。服务业从业人员约占劳动力总数的56％，其中旅游业是最重要的服务行业，主要旅游点是蒂罗尔州、萨尔茨堡州、克恩顿州和维也纳市。奥地利对外贸易在经济中占重要地位。主要出口产品是钢铁、机械、交通工具、化工制品和食品。进口主要是能源、原料和消费品。农业发达。 自然环境 位于中欧南部的内陆国。东邻斯洛伐克和匈牙利，南接斯洛文尼亚和意大利，西连瑞士和列支敦士登，北与德国和捷克接壤。属海洋性向大陆性过渡的温带阔叶林气候。平均气温1月为－2℃，7月为19℃。 国家历史 公元996年，史书中第一次提及“奥地利”。12世纪中叶在巴本贝格王族统治时期形成公国，成为独立国家。1278年开始了哈布斯堡王朝长达640年的统治。18世纪初，哈布斯堡王朝领土空前扩大。1815年维也纳会议后成立了以奥为首的德意志邦联，1866年在普奥战争中失败，邦联解散。1867年与匈牙利签约，成立奥匈帝国。1918年第一次世界大战结束后，帝国解体，成立共和国。1938年3月被希特勒德国吞并。二战后被苏、美、英、法四国占领。1945年4月成立第二共和国。1955年5月，四个占领国同奥签订《重建独立和民主的奥地利国家条约》，宣布尊重奥的主权和独立。10月占领军撤出，奥地利重新获得独立。10月26日，奥国民议会通过永久中立法，宣布不参加任何军事同盟，不允许在其领土上设立外国军事基地。自1965年起，10月26日被定为奥国庆日。 公元前400年，克尔特人在此建立了诺里孔王国。公元前15年被罗马人占领。中世纪早期哥特人、巴伐利亚人、阿勒曼尼人入境居住，使这一地区日耳曼化和基督教化。公元996年，史书中第一次提及“奥地利”。12世纪中叶巴奔堡家族统治时期形成公国，成为独立国家。1276年被神圣罗马帝国侵占，1278年，开始了哈布斯堡王朝长达640年的统治。1699年获得对匈牙利的统治权。1804年弗朗茨二世采用奥地利皇帝称号，1806年被迫辞去神圣罗马帝国皇帝之称。1815年，维也纳会议后，成立了以奥为首的德意志邦联。1860─1866年向君主立宪制过渡。1866年在普奥战争中失败，被迫解散德意志邦联。翌年与匈牙利签订协议，成立二元制的奥匈帝国。第一次世界大战中，奥军战败，帝国随即瓦解。1918年11月12日奥地利宣布成立共和国。1938年3月被纳粹德国吞并。二次大战中作为德国的一部分参战。同盟国军队解放奥地利后，奥地利于1945年4月27日成立临时政府。同年7月，德国投降后，奥地利又被苏、美、英、法军占领，全境划分为4个占领区。1955年5月，4国与奥地利签署条约宣布尊重奥地利的主权和独立。1955年10月占领军全部撤走。同年10月26日奥国民议会通过永久中立法，宣布不参加任何军事同盟，不允许在其领土上设立外国军事基地。 国家政治 2004年，奥政局基本保持稳定。政党力量对比有所改变。人民党和自由党联合政府加大各项改革力度，通过了二战以来最大规模的一揽子税改方案，推出养老金改革、新的难民法、安全警察法并对教育机构进行精减合并，以提高奥对外资的吸引力，减轻政府财政负担，减员增效，改善教育管理体系等。但这些改革方案，特别是养老金改革触动了社会各阶层的实际利益，在社会及各党内部引起争议。在萨尔茨堡州等州选、联邦总统选举及欧洲议会选举中，人民党和自由党得票率下降，社民党升势明显，绿党因坚持环保和可持续发展政策，在州选和欧洲议会选举中的支持率均有较大幅度提高。 【宪法】 现行宪法1920年11月10日生效。1925年和1929年通过两项附则。1934年宪法被废除。1945年奥重建后宣布1920年宪法和两个附则继续有效。宪法规定，奥为联邦制共和国，总统是国家元首，由普选产生，任期6年。总理为政府首脑。 【议会】 由国民议会和联邦议会组成。国民议会制定法律，主持新政府的就职仪式，通过不信任表决罢免联邦政府及其成员。联邦议会代表各州的利益，有权将国民议会通过的法律提案驳回，但如国民议会坚持原案，联邦议会不得再提异议。国民议会共183席，按比例代表制产生，任期4年。本届国民议会2002年11月产生，各党所占席位：人民党79席，社民党69席，自由党18席，绿党17席。议长任期4年，现任议长安德里亚斯•科尔 (Andreas Kohl，人民党)。联邦议会共62席，由各州按人口比例选派，议长由各州多数党议员轮流担任，任期半年。国民议会和联邦议会联合组成联邦会议，主要职能是接受总统就职宣誓以及在必要时决定对外宣战。 【政府】2003年2月28日人民党和自由党再次联合组阁。现政府组成如下：总理沃尔夫冈•许塞尔(Wolfgang Schüssel，人民党)，副总理兼交通、创新和技术部长胡伯特•戈尔巴赫（Hubert Gorbach，自由党），外交部长乌苏拉•普拉斯尼克（Ursula Plassnik，女，人民党）,经济、劳动部长马丁•巴尔滕施坦因(Martin Bartenstein，人民党)，财政部长卡尔－海因茨•格拉瑟(Karl-Heinz Grasser，无党派)，内政部长莉泽•普罗科普(Liese Prokop，女，人民党)，国防部长君特•普拉特(Günther Platter，人民党)，司法部长迪特•伯姆多夫(Dieter Boehmdorfer，无党派)，农业、林业和环保部长约瑟夫•普吕尔（Josef Pröll，人民党），社会保障部长乌苏拉•豪普娜（Ursula Haubner，女，自由党），教育、科学和文化部长伊丽莎白•盖勒（Elisabeth Gehrer，女，人民党），卫生、家庭与青年部长玛利亚•劳赫—卡拉特（Maria Rauch-Kallat女，人民党）。 【行政区划】 全国划为9个州，它们是：布尔根兰、克恩顿、上奥地利、下奥地利、萨尔茨堡、施蒂利亚、蒂罗尔、福拉尔贝格、维也纳。州以下设市、区、镇（乡）。 【司法机构】 全国有三个法院系统：宪法法院，审理涉及宪法、特别是地方与联邦政府纠纷的案件，院长卡尔•科里内克(Karl Korinek)；行政法院，审理涉及官方机构及其工作人员的行政纠纷案件，院长克莱蒙斯•雅伯伦纳(Clemens Jabloner)；最高法院，审理刑事和民事案件，院长约翰•雷舒特(Johann Rzeszut)。 【政党】 （1）奥地利人民党(Österreichische Volkspartei)：执政党。前身是1887年建立的基督教社会党，1945年改用现名。主席沃尔夫冈•许塞尔(Wolfgang Schüssel)。 （2）奥地利自由党(Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs)：执政党。1955年成立，前身是“独立者联盟”,曾于1983－1986年和社会党组成联合政府。主席乌苏拉•豪普娜(Ursula Haubner, 女)。 （3）奥地利社会民主党(Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs)：在野党。1889年成立。1919－1920年执政，1934年被取缔。1945年改名为社会党，1991年６月改现名。主席阿尔弗雷德•古森鲍尔(Alfred Gusenbauer)。 （4）绿党（Die Grünen）：在野党。主要组织是“绿色选择”和“联合绿党”。联邦发言人（主席）亚力山大•梵•德•贝伦(Alexander van der Bellen)。 （5）自由论坛(Liberales Forum)：议会外反对党。1993年２月由５名原自由党议员成立，11月成立全国性组织。联邦发言人（主席）亚历山大•扎赫（Alexander Zach）。 （6）奥地利共产党(Kommunistische Partei Österreichs)：议会外反对党。1918年成立。实行集体领导。联邦理事会总书记瓦尔特•拜尔(Walter Baier)。 【重要人物】 海因茨•菲舍尔：总统。1938年10月9日生于格拉茨市。1971年当选国民议会议员。1975年起历任社民党议会党团主席、联邦科研部长，并于1990年、1996年和1999年三次当选国民议会议长。2002年12月起任国民议会第二议长。2004年4月25日当选联邦总统，7月8日就任。曾多次访华。 沃尔夫冈•许塞尔：总理。1945年6月生于维也纳，维也纳大学法律系毕业，博士学位。1968至1975年任国民议会人民党议会党团秘书，1975至1991年任人民党经济联盟秘书长，1979至1989年任国民议会议员，1987至1989年任国民议会人民党议会党团副主席，1995年起任奥人民党主席。1989年起先后担任联邦经济部长、联邦副总理兼外交部长，2000年2月出任联邦总理，2003年2月连任。曾于1995年和1998年访华。 国家经济 2004年奥经济增长率为1.9%，通膨率1.8%，失业率4.2%。2004年主要经济数字如下： 国内生产总值：2318亿欧元。 人均国内生产总值：2.87万欧元。 国内生产总值增长率：1.9%。 国民收入：1970.9亿欧元。 货币名称：欧元(EURO), 1欧元=100分。 汇率（2004年12月）：1欧元=1.33美元。 通货膨胀率：1.8%。 失业率：4.2% 【资源】 矿产主要有石墨、镁、褐煤、铁、石油、天然气等。森林、水力资源丰富。森林覆盖率42%，有林场400万公顷，木材蓄积量约9.9亿立方米。 【工业】 2002年工业产值625.9亿欧元，占国内生产总值的28.7%。主要工业部门有采矿、钢铁、石化、机械制造、造纸和纺织等。2002年工业从业人员为116.5万，占从业人员总数的29.6%。 主要工业品产量如下（单位：万吨）： 2000 2001 2002 铁矿 185 184.3 194.2 石油 105.6 105 103.2 天然气（亿立方米） 18 19.5 20.1 （资料来源：2004年奥地利统计年鉴） 【农林业】 2002年农林业产值为68.1亿欧元，占国内生产总值的1.4%。农林业从业人数21.69万，占从业人员总数的5.5%。可耕地占全国面积的18%，牧场占27%。农业发达，机械化程度高，农产品自给有余。主要农产品产量如下（单位：万吨）： 2000 2001 2002 小麦和黑麦 150.1 172.8 160.5 玉米 185.2 149.3 166.7 马铃薯 69.5 69.5 68.4 甜菜 263.4 277.3 304.3 猪牛存栏数（单位：万头）： 2000 2001 2002 猪 334.8 344 330.5 牛 263.4 211.8 206.7 (资料来源：同上) 【旅游业】 旅游业发达。2002年接待游客2736万人次，其中外国游客1861万人次。全国有各类旅馆70834家，共有床位103.2万张。主要旅游点是克恩顿州、施蒂利亚州、萨尔茨堡州、蒂罗尔州和上奥州。游客主要来自德、荷、瑞(士)、英、意等国。 【交通运输】 奥地利地处欧洲中部，是欧洲重要的交通枢纽。近年来交通运输情况如下： 铁路：2002年全国铁路总长5616公里，客运量1.848亿人次，货运量8721.5万吨。 公路：2001年全国各类公路总长约11万公里，其中高速公路和快速路1999公里。 水运：内河航线长350公里。客船331艘，货船142艘。2002年多瑙河货运量1231.6万吨。 空运：奥地利航空公司、蒂罗尔航空公司和劳达航空公司共同组成AUA集团,有94架飞机,飞往65个国家129座城市。有六个机场，主要国际机场是维也纳施威夏特机场。 【财政金融】 2000-2002年财政收支情况如下（单位：亿欧元）： 2000 2001 2002 支出 568 604 618 收入 528 590 594 赤字 40 14 24 2002年，国债1465.5亿欧元，相当于国内生产总值的67.6%。 （资料来源：奥地利联邦财政部网站） 【对外贸易】外贸在经济中占重要地位。同150多个国家和地区有贸易关系。近几年外贸情况如下（单位：亿欧元）： 2000 2001 2002 进口额 1052 1112 1104 出口额 1039 1111 1152 差额 -13 -1 48 （资料来源：2004年奥地利统计年鉴） 主要出口产品是钢铁、机械、交通工具、化工制品和食品。进口主要是能源、原料和消费品。德国、意大利和美国是奥2002年三个最大的贸易伙伴。 【对外投资】 1991年成立“东西方基金”，鼓励到东欧国家投资，政府担保风险。2002年奥在国外投资额60亿欧元,其中在东欧地区直接投资约30亿欧元。 【发展援助】 2003年发展援助额4.45亿美元，占国内生产总值的0.2%。发展援助的重点是农业、水力、卫生、能源、基础设施、职业培训、科学合作和提供奖学金等。 【外国资本】 2002年外国在奥直接投资为16亿欧元，比前一年减少75%，达到1995年以来的最低值。共有约400家企业在奥投资，德国是奥最主要的投资来源国。 【人民生活】 实行全国社会保险和救济制度，主要有医疗、失业、退休和事故四大类保险。2001年工人月平均净工资1701欧元，职员月平均净工资2090欧元。2000年每千人拥有小汽车688.5辆,电视机970台,电冰箱980台,电话870部。2000年全国共有专业医生17445人。医院312家，病床72008张。 国家军事 奥地利防务由联邦政府负责。总统为武装部队最高统帅，政府则通过国防部长对部队实施作战指挥。1993年起实行新的义务兵役制，新兵服完6个月的基本役后，进行1个月的综合演习，并在此后10年内完成为期1个月的复训。对于不能服兵役的青年实行民役制。 奥平时兵力3.5万人，编为3个军、维也纳军区和1个航空师。第一、第二军下辖3个州军区；第三军除下辖2个州军区外，另下辖第三、四、九装甲兵旅；维也纳军区下辖第二轻步兵团；航空师约6000人，下辖3个航空团。奥有动员部队（即民兵预备役）7.5万人，编为8个步兵旅和26个本土防御团。2003年国防预算17.2亿欧元，占总预算支出的2.8%。 文化教育 【教育】 学龄儿童享受9年义务教育，学费、书费和上学交通费由国家负担。凡持有高中毕业文凭可免试上大学。2003年奥教育经费共计57.5亿欧元，占总预算支出的9.4%。2002年有各类中小学、职业学校6715所，在校学生123.3万人，大学19所，大学生19.7万人。著名的维也纳大学创立于1365年，系德语区最古老的大学之一。 【新闻出版】 2002年全国有各类报纸245种，其中日报31种，主要报纸2002年发行量为：《皇冠报》101.8万份，《信使报》25.8万份，《新闻报》12.4万份，《标准报》11.1万份。主要杂志三种：《新闻周刊》30.4万份；《侧面》周刊10.6万份，《趋势》经济月刊8.2万份。 奥地利通讯社：1946年建立，以向奥报纸和电台提供世界各大通讯社的消息为主，有时也发布奥官方消息。 1924年建立广播电台。2001年共有5家电台，并用德、英、法、西四种语言对外广播。1957年开播电视节目，现有三套节目。 【文化】 谈起奥地利，无人不知其音乐和歌剧。奥地利历史上产生了众多名扬世界的音乐家：海顿、莫扎特、舒伯特、约翰·施特劳斯，还有出生德国但长期在奥地利生活的贝多芬等。这些音乐大师在两个多世纪中，为奥地利留下了极其丰厚的文化遗产，形成了独特的民族文化传统。奥地利萨尔斯堡音乐节是世界上历史最悠久、水平最高、规模最大的古典音乐节之一。一年一度的维也纳新年音乐会可谓世界上听众最多的音乐会。建于１８６９年的皇家歌剧院（现名维也纳国家歌剧院）是世界最有名的歌剧院之一，而维也纳爱乐乐团则是举世公认的世界上首屈一指的交响乐团。 奥地利学龄儿童享受九年义务教育。学费、书费和上学交通费均由国家负担。凡持有高中毕业文凭者可免试上大学。著名的维也纳大学创立于１３６５年，系德语区最古老的大学。 在奥地利到主人家作客或应邀赴宴，可着深色装，也可着浅色装；较正式的重要场合（例如有较重要的人物参加）应着深色装，以示庄重，参加婚礼或生日庆祝活动可着浅色装；听音乐会、看歌剧须着深色装。奥地利的餐馆以"鸽子"作为餐馆的星级标志。"鸽子"越多，餐馆越高级，最高为四星级。宴请可分为工作宴请和私人宴请两种。如系工作宴请礼物可免；私人宴请则需带礼品。 趣闻： 日食五餐的奥地利人>>> 【名胜古迹】 维也纳国家歌剧院(State Opera Theatre of Vienna)是世界上一流的大型歌剧院，是“音乐之都”维也纳的主要象征，素有“世界歌剧中心”之称。建于１８６９年，原是皇家宫廷剧院，其前身是１７世纪维也纳城堡广场木结构包厢剧院，１８６９年迁到市区的环行街旁。１９１８年宫廷剧院变为国有，称国家歌剧院。二战时被炸得只剩下几处断垣残壁，战后重建，整修１０年，恢复旧观。外貌古色古香，整个舞台区完全现代化，配有最先进的音响设备。１９５５年１１月以演出贝多芬的费德利奥庆祝再生。歌剧院为罗马式宏伟建筑。前厅和侧厅都用大理石彻成，内部绘有精美壁画和挂有大音乐家和名演员照片。观众席共有６层，可容有座观众１６００多人。 维也纳音乐厅(Music Hall Vienna)：奥地利维也纳最古老也最现代化的音乐厅，是每年举行“维也纳新年音乐会”的法定场所。始建于１８６７年，１８６９年竣工。是意大利文艺复兴式建筑。外墙黄红两色相间，屋顶上竖立着许多音乐女神雕像，古雅别致。１８７０年１月６日，音乐厅的金色大演奏厅举行首场演出。１８７２年到１８７５年间著名音乐家勃拉姆斯曾负责组织音乐厅的演奏会。１９３９年开始，每年１月１日在此举行维也纳新年音乐会，后因战争一度中断，１９５９年又重新恢复。厅内有收藏馆，馆分两室。一间是展览室，定期举行收藏品展览，供人参观；一间是档案室，一边的书架 上放满大量历代手写的、木刻的、铅印的音乐书籍和乐谱，另一边是一排铁柜，藏有音乐大师的乐稿、书信和其他手迹，其中有莫扎特的乐稿：最后一个交响曲等。屋子中间是一长排桌子，供研究者查阅资料之用。档案室原为勃拉姆斯的办公室，他临终前一再嘱咐，要把他珍藏的几千册音乐书籍和乐谱全部捐献给档案室。音乐厅属于奥地利音乐之友协会，协会拥有会员７０００多人，据说是世界上历史最久、人数最多的音乐组织。 萨尔茨堡(Salzburg)是奥地利西北部萨尔茨堡州首府，濒临多瑙河支流萨尔察赫河，是奥地利北部交通、工业及旅游中心。这里是大作曲家莫扎特的出生地，素有“音乐艺术中心”之称。萨尔茨堡１０７７年设市，公元８世纪─１８世纪为天主教大主教驻地和活动中心。１８０２年萨尔茨堡脱离宗教统治，１８０９年，根据《舍恩布龙条约》归巴伐利亚，维也纳会议（１８１４—１８１５年）决定归还给奥地利。这里的建筑艺术堪与意大利的威尼斯和佛罗伦萨相媲美，有“北方罗马”之称。城市分布在萨尔察赫河两岸，偎倚在白雪皑皑的阿尔卑斯山峰之间。城市被苍郁的陡山围绕，充满魅力。河右岸南山坡的霍尔亨萨尔茨堡（１１世纪），历经９００年风雨，仍巍峨挺立，是中欧地区保存最完好、规模最大的一座中世纪城堡。本尼狄克隐修道院建于７世纪末，长期以来是当地布道活动的中心。圣方济会教堂建于１２２３年。模仿罗马圣教堂的大教堂建于１７世纪初，是奥地利第一座意大利式的建筑。大主教宅邸是１６—１８世纪的一座文艺复兴式宫殿。米拉贝尔宫原是１７世纪为萨尔茨堡大主教建造的皇宫，１８世纪又经扩建，现在是包括宫殿、教堂、花园、博物馆等的游览中心。城市南部是１７世纪建造的皇家花园，以“水的游戏”著称。花园内建筑物的门旁檐下，道路两旁都有暗道水管不时喷射，水花飞溅，雨帘雾障。走进花园内一座人工堆砌的山洞，潺潺的流水发出了２６种鸟鸣的声音，组成一曲悦耳动听的空山鸟语。在一处由机械装置控制的舞台上，通过水流的作用，１５６个活动小人再现了这里３００多年前小镇生活的情景。走进萨尔茨堡，无处不见莫扎特的踪迹。１７５６年１月２７日，大作曲家莫扎特出生在城中粮食街９号。１９１７年莫扎特的故居被辟为博物馆。 莫扎特故居（Mozartst Seburtuts）奥地利１８世纪著名音乐大师莫扎特出生的地方。它坐落在萨尔茨堡市粮食大街９号。这是一座金黄色的６层楼建筑。公元１７５６年１月２７日莫扎特就诞生在这里，并度过了他的童年。昔扎特１４岁被任命为宫廷乐师。１７８１年，他向宫廷提出辞呈，迁居维也纳，从而打开维也纳古典音乐的大门，直到１７９１年１月５日逝世。为了纪念他，１９１７年把这里辟为莫扎特故居博物馆。馆内陈列着莫扎特生前使用过的小提琴、木琴和钢琴、亲笔写的乐谱、书信以及亲自设计的舞台剧蓝图等。馆内如今还珍藏着莫扎特的一缕金色头发。故居前面是莫扎特全身铜像。莫扎特故居是到萨尔茨堡的游客们必到之处。在博物馆内陈列有莫扎特的一缕金发和少年时使用的小提琴、乐谱。馆前的莫扎特广场上竖有莫扎特全身铜像。广场附近还有莫扎特音乐专科学校等；连商店出售的巧克力糖果等也都以莫扎特命名。萨尔茨堡历史上就以音乐之城闻名，该城每年都举行国际音乐节活动。包括萨尔茨堡国际音乐节（为期５周），萨尔茨堡复活节音乐节（为期２周），萨尔茨堡国际艺术节（为期５周）。其中萨尔茨堡国际音乐节的前身即１８７７至１９１０年举行多次的莫扎特音乐节。它以维也纳国立歌剧院（世界十大剧院）和维也纳爱乐管弦乐团（世界三大爱乐管弦乐团之一）为主，广泛接纳世界各国的著名交响乐团、指挥家、独奏家和独唱家。萨尔茨堡国际音乐节已成为世界音乐盛会。 维也纳多瑙塔(Donau Tower in Vienna)位于市区北面的多瑙河公园内，于１９６４年建成。塔高２５２米，塔底直径３１米。多瑙塔高耸入云，为维也纳市容划出一条新的空中轮廓线。塔内设有两部高速电梯，游人可乘电梯从塔底直升到１６５米高的电梯终点。在电梯终点上下各５米处，分别是露天咖啡馆和室内咖啡馆。登上１７０米高的露天咖啡馆，顿感冷风扑面，寒气逼人，但俯首下看却有人上九天之感。进入１６０米高的室内咖啡馆，顿觉温暖如春。凭窗极目远眺，远方巍峨的阿尔卑斯山和穿城而过的蓝色多瑙河尽收眼底。由于两个咖啡馆环塔而建，其地板构架同塔轴相连，故能以３种速度围绕高塔转动，形成别致的旋转咖啡厅，咖啡厅每隔３９分钟自转一周。随着咖啡厅的转动，窗外的景色也随之慢慢移动。游人可边品尝饮品，边领略维也纳繁华的都市风貌和城郊的田园风光。 维也纳舍恩布龙宫(Schonbrunn Castle in Vienna)舍恩布龙宫位于奥地利首都维也纳西南部，亦称“美泉宫”，是奥地利哈布斯堡王室的避暑离宫。１６９４年由玛利亚·特利萨女王下令修建。整座宫殿占地２．６万平方米，稍逊于法国的凡尔赛宫。宫内共有１４００个房间，其中４４间是以１８世纪欧洲流行的洛可可式建筑风格修装的，纤巧华美、优雅别致；此外，还有以东方古典样式装修的厅堂，如镶嵌紫檀、黑檀、象牙的中国式和饰以泥金和涂漆的日本式。房间内部的饰品和陈设也与建筑风格相一致，在琳琅满目的陶瓷摆设中，尤以明朝万历年间的彩瓷大盘和描花古瓶最为珍贵。宫内有哈布斯堡王朝历代帝王设宴的餐厅和华丽的舞厅，现在奥地利政府仍在那里举行舞会或款待各国外交使节。在宫内，供人参观的几辆玛利亚·特利萨女王加冕大典时使用的鎏金马车，豪华无比，引人驻足。在长廊上，挂满了哈布斯堡王朝历代皇帝的肖像和记录他们生活场景的图画以及玛利亚·特利萨女王１６个女儿的肖像画，其中最惹人喜爱的是法国国王路易十六的皇后玛丽·安东涅特少女时代的画像，其优雅细腻的笔调将当时王朝豪华的盛景和奢丽的生活尽现于画上。后来，在这座宫殿里长大的玛丽皇后同其夫君路易十六一起在法国大革命中被送上断头台。在房间和回廊的拐角处是各种式样的火炉，其中俄式的大火炉造型最为奇特，堪称一景。在宫殿后面是一座巴罗特式的大花园，每当百花盛开之际，园中奇花异卉芬芳怡人，令人留连忘返，更增添了离宫之美。拿破仑曾两次占领过维也纳，两次都居住在这里。著名作曲家莫扎特幼年时期也曾在离宫的宫廷舞台上为女皇演奏过钢琴。拿破仑战败后，１８１４年９月—１８１５年６月，这里曾举行过有名的瓜分欧洲的维也纳会议。当时的奥地利首相梅特涅以其纵横捭阖的手腕，在欧洲诸列强之间玩弄均势平衡外交，显赫一时。 【历史名人】 沃尔夫冈·莫扎特 （Wolfgang Mozart，１７５６－１７９１)：奥地利伟大的作曲家，维也纳古典乐派的杰出代表。出身于萨尔兹堡宫廷乐师家庭，很小就显露出极高的音乐天赋，即兴演奏和作曲都十分出色，六岁即创作了一首小步舞曲，并在欧洲旅行演出获得了成功，被誉为“神童”。1773年任萨尔斯堡大主教宫廷乐师，1781年不满主教对他的严厉管束而愤然辞职，来到了维也纳，走上了艰难的自由音乐家道路。莫扎特的全部作品中洋溢着他追求民主自由的思想，并迸发出在巨大社会压力下的明快、乐观情绪。他广泛采用各种乐曲形式，成功的把德、奥、意等国的民族音乐和欧洲的传统音乐有机的联系在一起，赋予它们深刻的思想内容和完美的形式，为西方音乐的发展开辟了崭新的道路。其创作手法新颖，旋律纯朴优美，织体干净细致，配器注重音色效果，发挥了复调音乐的积极作用，对后世音乐创作产生极大的影响。他在短促的一生中共创作了七十五部作品，留下了《费加罗的婚礼》、《唐璜》、《后宫诱逃》、《魔笛》等著名歌剧，使歌剧成为具有市民特点的新体裁。并作有大量交响曲、协奏曲、钢琴曲和室内乐重奏。 弗朗兹·舒柏特（Franz Schubert，１７９７－１８２８）：作曲家、浪漫主义音乐的开创者之一。生于１７９７年１月３１日，父亲是维也纳近郊的一所小学的校长，有１９个孩子，舒柏特最小。他自幼喜欢音乐，８岁开始随父、兄学习提琴和钢琴，１１岁时进入免费寄读的神学院合唱团。１８１１年创作第一首歌曲《哈加尔的悲哀》，１６岁到他父亲的小学里当教员。他一边教课、一边进行音乐创作。１７岁为歌德的诗篇《纺车旁的葛莱卿》、《野玫瑰》等谱曲。１８岁那年，一天午后，他拿起歌德的叙事诗《魔王》来读，忽然心情激荡，一小时后，脍炙人口的世界名曲《魔王》诞生了。这首名曲，立即轰动了维也纳，使他从此走上音乐创作之路。舒柏特只活了３３岁，但他一生却写了６３４首艺术歌曲。此外，他还写了８部交响曲、一些重奏、奏鸣曲，即兴曲和其他音乐作品，《小夜曲》以其深情、优美为世人所赞赏。舒伯特采用和声上的色彩变化，用各种音乐体裁形式来刻划个人的心理活动，富有大自然的和谐和生命力的气息，他将瞬息间的遐想行之于乐谱，把感受到的一切化为音乐形象，构成了他独特的浪漫主义的旋律。他很崇拜贝多芬，１８２２年，舒柏特带着新发表的作品去见贝多芬，恰好贝多芬出去了。后来贝多芬在病中发现这首曲子，说“这作品充满了神奇的火花”。可是，当舒柏特再去拜见贝多芬时，贝多芬已病危不能说话了。舒柏特临终时要求亲友将他葬在贝多芬旁边，现在他俩的铜像并立在维也纳广场上。 小约翰·施特劳斯（Johann Strauss，１８２５－１８９９）：老约翰·施特劳斯的儿子，奥地利著名的轻音乐作曲家。出生在风行跳舞的维也纳一个音乐家家庭，与父亲同名。其创作以《蓝色的多瑙河》、《维也纳森林的故事》、《艺术家的生活》、《春之声》等一百二十余首维也纳圆舞曲著称，被后人冠以“圆舞曲之王”的头衔。他曾带领乐队访问欧洲各国，使维也纳圆舞曲风靡全欧洲。他的圆舞曲独具特色，旋律酣畅，柔美动听，节奏自由，生机盎然，是每年维也纳新年音乐会的主要曲目。他还作有《雷鸣电闪》等一百二十多首源自捷克的波尔卡舞曲及几十首其他舞曲。1870年起创作了《蝙蝠》、《罗马狂欢节》、《阿里巴巴与四十大盗》、《吉卜赛男爵》等十六部轻歌剧，对于欧洲轻歌剧的发展有着相当深远的影响。 斯蒂芬·茨威格 （stephen zweig１８８１～１９４２）：奥地利著名小说家、传记作家，出身于富裕的犹太家庭。青年时代在维也纳和柏林攻读哲学和文学。后去世界各地游历，结识罗曼·曼兰和罗丹等人，并受到他们的影 响。第一次世界大战时从事反战工作，成为著名的和平主义者。二十年代赴苏联，认识了高 尔基。１９３４年遭纳粹驱逐，先后流亡英国、巴西。１９４２年在孤寂与感觉理想破灭中与妻子双双自杀。茨威格在诗、短论、小说、戏剧和人物传记写作方面均有过人的造诣，尤以小说和人物传记见长。代表 作有小说《最初的经历》、《马来狂人》、《恐惧》、《感觉的混乱》、《人的命运转折点》、《一个陌生女人的来信》、《象棋的故事》、《一个女人一生中的二十四小时》、《危险的怜悯》等；传记《三位大师》、《同精灵的斗争》、《三个描摹自己生活的诗人》等。茨威格对心理学与弗洛伊德学说感兴趣，作品擅长细致的性格刻画，以及对奇特命运下个人遭遇和心灵的热情的描摹。 弗洛伊德·西格蒙德（Freud Sigmund 1856-1939）：奥地利精神科、神经科医生、心理学家，精神分析学派的创始人。１８５６年５月６日出生于摩拉维亚一犹太商人之家，是其父母八个子女中的长子。他４岁时随家人迁居维也纳。１７岁考入维也纳大学医学院，１８８１年获医学博士学位。后开业行医，担任临床神经专科医生，终生从事精神病的临床治疗工作。在探寻精神病病源方面，弗洛伊德抛弃了当时占主流的生理病因说，逐步走向了心理病因说，创立了心理分析学说（Psychoanalysis，又译精神分析），认为精神病起源于心理内部动机的冲突。他思考敏锐、分析精细、推断循回递进、构思步步趋入，探讨问题中，往往引述文学、历史、医学、哲学、宗教等材料，揭示出人们心灵的底层。主要著作有：《梦的解释》（1900年）、《性学三论》（1905年）、《心理分析导论》（1910年）、《文明及其缺陷》（1929年）。１８８６年与马莎·伯莱斯结婚，育有三男三女，女儿Ａ·弗洛伊德后来也成为著名的心理学家。 卡夫卡 （Franz Kafka，1883～1924）：奥地利小说家。１８８３年７月３日生于布拉格一个犹太商人家庭，１８岁入布拉格大学学习文学和法律，１９０４年开始写作，主要作品为４部短篇小说集和３部长篇小说。可惜生前大多未发表，３部长篇也均未写完。卡夫卡是欧洲著名的表现主义作家。他生活在奥匈帝国行将崩溃的时代，又深受尼采、柏格森哲学影响，对政治事件也一直抱旁观态度，故其作品大都用变形荒诞的形象和象征直觉的手法，表现被充满敌意的社会环境所包围 的孤立、绝望的个人。成为席卷欧洲的“现代人的困惑”的集中体现，并在欧 洲掀起了一阵又一阵的“卡夫卡热”。其最著名的作品有借小动物防备敌害的胆战心理，表现资本主义社会小人物时刻难以自保的精神状态和在充满敌意的环境中的孤立绝望情绪的短篇小说《地洞》（１９２３年）；通过小职员萨姆沙突然变成一只使家人都厌恶的大甲虫的荒诞情节，表现现代社会把人变成奴隶乃至“非人”的“异化”现象的短篇小说《变形记》（１９１２年）；写土地丈量员Ｋ在象征神秘权力或无形枷锁统治的城堡面前欲进不能，欲退不得，只能坐以待毙的长篇小说《城堡》；借银行职员约瑟夫· Ｋ莫明其妙被“捕”，又莫明其妙被杀害的荒诞事件，揭露资本主义社会司法制度腐败及其反人民本质的长篇小说《审判》等。 对外关系 2004年，奥对外关系发展平稳。奥坚持以欧盟为外交依托，积极推动欧盟深化和东扩，大力巩固和发展与中东欧国家关系。5月欧盟东扩后，奥从昔日冷战前沿和欧盟东部边界转而成为欧洲的中心地带。如今奥外交已更多地与欧盟整体外交联系在一起，在国际事务中，尤其在事关奥和欧盟整体利益问题上，须与欧盟协调一致。奥积极寻求加强与中东欧邻国的关系，推动开展与东欧邻国的区域合作，维护该地区的稳定，为本国发展创造良好的政治、经济环境。此外。奥还积极拓展与美、俄、中等大国关系。奥主张欧盟与美消除分歧，建立新型的平等伙伴关系。同时，奥还积极推动欧盟与俄发展长期稳定的战略伙伴关系。 【对当前重大国际问题的态度】 关于欧盟一体化问题。认为欧盟应加强共同外交和安全政策建设，尽快建立欧盟独立安全防务体系，加强欧洲在面临局部冲突时的干预能力。欧盟应提高决策和行动能力，制定统一宪法，并最终成为高度一体化的联邦。强调大小成员国应一律平等，中小国家只有结成利益共同体才能更有效地维护各自在联盟内的利益。主张欧盟各机构间权力平衡，维持欧盟轮值主席制，各新老成员国在欧盟委员会拥有一个表决席位。 关于欧盟东扩问题。认为欧盟东扩将长久确保欧洲的和平与稳定，对维护和促进欧盟周边地区乃至世界的和平、稳定与发展具有重要战略意义。东扩将进一步增强欧盟综合实力，扩大其在国际舞台上的发言权。欧盟还应向东欧、东南欧和地中海地区扩大。东扩将使奥安全环境得到根本改善，也将给奥带来经济利益。 关于中东问题。认为中东问题的核心是巴勒斯坦问题，关系到地区稳定乃至世界和平，只要中东问题存在，恐怖主义问题就不可能得到根本解决。中东问题应以谈判方式解决，以巴分别建国、和平相处是解决巴以问题的唯一途径，“土地换和平”原则应予以坚持。支持美、俄、欧盟和联合国四方为解决中东问题所做的努力，认为应推动实现中东“路线图”计划。 关于反恐问题。坚决反对各种形式的恐怖主义，认为世界各国应共同努力加强反恐，联合国应在国际反恐斗争中承担领导责任。但同时认为，应防止以反恐为名侵犯民主权利。主张将反恐防恐与维护人权相结合，积极培养共同的政治文化和价值观，促进不同文明间的对话。 关于伊拉克问题。不赞成美英等国在没有联合国授权的情况下对伊使用武力，认为美英应尽早结束占领并将主权归还给伊人民。联合国应在伊重建问题上起主导作用。表示愿在欧盟和联合国框架内积极参与伊战后重建，并向伊提供人道主义援助。 关于朝核问题。认为朝核问题源自朝鲜违背所作的国际承诺，寻求发展和制造核武器。支持国际原子能机构的立场，要求朝必须彻底放弃核武研发计划。认为应以和平方式解决朝核问题，对北京六方会谈持积极肯定态度，认为中国在稳定朝鲜半岛及地区局势中起到了重要的积极作用。 【同中国的关系】 1971年5月28日同中国建立外交关系，建交后两国关系发展正常。 2003年，中奥两国关系良好。最高法院院长肖扬（1月）、中共中央政治局委员、书记处书记、组织部部长贺国强（7月）访奥。奥联邦议会常务副议长哈塞尔巴赫（4月）、奥外长费雷罗－瓦尔德纳(11月)、联邦议会议长阿格尔(11月)和奥社会保障部部长豪普特(11月)相继访华。经贸关系保持较快增长，教育、科技、文化等各领域的交流与合作进一步加强。2003年双边贸易额为17.79亿美元，同比增加29.4％。其中中方向奥出口6.74亿美元，进口11.05亿美元。4月，奥联邦商会主席莱特尔访华。 2004年两国关系继续保持良好发展势头，两国高层互访频繁。全国人大常委会副委员长王兆国（7月）、全国政协主席贾庆林（8月）相继率团访奥。奥司法部长伯姆道尔夫（2月）、经济劳动部长巴尔滕施泰因（3月）、财政部长格拉瑟（5月）、国民议会第二议长普拉默（7月）、副总理兼交通、创新和科技部长戈尔巴赫（11月）等分别访华。2004年两国贸易总额为22.9亿美元，比上年增长28.8%。其中我出口7.8亿美元，增长15.8%；进口15.1亿美元，增长36.8%。 中国驻奥地利大使：卢永华。中国驻奥大使馆馆址：Metternichgasse 4,1030 Wien。电话：（431）714314948。电传：135794ＣＨＩＮＢＡ。传真：（431）7136816。商务处电话：（431）714314921。传真：（431）714314922。签证处电话：（431）7103648。 奥地利驻华大使：史伟（Hans Dietmar Schweisgut）。馆址：100600，北京建外秀水南街5号。电话：65322061。电传：22258，传真：65321505。商务处电话：65321677。电传：22270，传真：65321149。签证处电话：65322061 【同美国的关系】 重视与美国关系。奥虽对美单边主义倾向时有批评，但认为美是世界唯一超强，欧美有广泛共同利益，注意在伊战等问题上不顶撞美，加强与美“伙伴关系”符合奥根本利益。对美贸易额：2002年奥出口40 亿欧元，进口37.4亿欧元。美是奥在欧盟以外最大的贸易伙伴。 【同俄罗斯及东欧国家的关系】 十分看重俄在实现欧洲和平、稳定和发展方面的“关键作用”，以及俄市场潜力和自然资源，在推动欧盟与俄建立全面合作关系的同时，谋求加强奥俄双边关系。2003年，奥总理许塞尔和外长瓦尔德纳相继访俄。两国经贸关系发展较快。2002年奥向俄出口9.58亿欧元，进口10.32亿欧元。俄是奥第17 大出口国和第15大进口国。 重视与中东欧国家的关系，主张以传统关系为基础，以欧盟东扩为契机，与中东欧国家建立“战略伙伴关系”。2002年，奥对中东欧地区贸易出口额135.87亿欧元，占其总出口额的17.6%;进口额为101.91亿欧元，占其总进口额的13.2%。奥70%的对外投资流向该地区。 【同欧盟的关系】 1995年正式加入欧洲联盟，1999年1月1日成为首批欧元国。2000年2月4日奥人民党与右翼政党自由党联合上台执政，欧盟14国即对奥采取了冻结双边高层往来、降低外交接触级别和停止在国际机构中对奥人选支持的政治制裁。同年9月，欧盟在对奥内外政策进行评估后解除制裁。奥与欧盟及其成员国关系随之逐步恢复正常。奥外贸主要集中在欧盟国家。2002年奥对欧盟贸易出口额为465.17亿欧元，占其出口总额的60.1%；进口额为506.78亿欧元，占其进口总额的65.7%。 【同德国的关系】 由于德在2000年奥右翼政党自由党入阁一事上在欧盟内带头对奥制裁，双边关系一度变冷。随着2001年5月德国总理施罗德访奥，两国交往增多，关系逐渐恢复正常。德是奥最大的贸易伙伴，2002年奥与德贸易额占奥外贸总额的36.2%，奥向德出口247.8亿欧元，从德进口310.9亿欧元。 The origins of modern Austria date back to the ninth century, when the territory of Upper and Lower Austria became increasingly populated. The name "Ostarrichi" is first documented in an official document from 996. Since then this word has developed into the Österreich. Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states and is one of six European countries that have declared permanent neutrality and one of the few countries that includes the concept of everlasting neutrality in its constitution. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955 and joined the European Union in 1995. Etymology The German name Österreich is derived from Old German Ostarrîchi "Eastern Territory". The name was Latinized as "Austria", thus it has no direct etymological connection with the name of Australia, which derives from Latin Australis meaning The South (however, both words ultimately derive from Proto-Indo-European *aust- "dawn"). Reich can also mean "empire," and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the Austrian/Austro-Hungarian Empire, Holy Roman Empire, although not in the context of the modern Republic of Österreich. The term probably originates in a vernacular translation of the Medieval Latin name for the region: Marchia orientalis, which translates as "eastern marches" or "eastern borderland", as it was situated at the eastern edge of the Holy Roman Empire, that was also mirrored in the name Ostmark, for a short period applied after the Anschluss to Germany. However, Friedrich Heer, one the most important Austrian historians in the 20th century, stated in his book Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität (The Struggle Over Austrian Identity), that the Germanic form ostarrîchi was not a translation of the Latin word, but both resulted from a much older term originating in the Celtic languages of ancient Austria: More than 2,500 years ago, the major part of the actual country was called Norig by the Celtic population (Hallstatt culture); No- or Nor- meant East or Eastern, whereas Rig is the related to the modern German Reich; realm (among other things). Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean ostarrîchi and Österreich, thus Austria. The Celtic name was eventually Latinized to noricum, when the Romans conquered and Romanized the country that later became Austria. The name of Noricum was then used to designate the Roman province. The current official designation is the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich). It was originally known after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1918 as the Republic of German Austria (Republik Deutschösterreich) , but the state was forced to change its name to "Republic of Austria" in 1919 by the Treaty of Saint-Germain. The name was changed again during the Austro-fascist regime (1934–1938) , into Federal State of Austria (Bundesstaat Österreich) , but restored after regaining independence and the birth of the Second Austrian Republic (1955–present). During the period of monarchy, Austria was known as the Austrian Empire (Kaisertum Österreich) ; however no official designation existed since the empire was strongly multiethnic. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the empire became known as Austria-Hungary reflecting the dual monarchy character. History Prehistory and the Middle Ages Coats of arms of the Habsburg EmperorSettled in prehistoric times, the central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes. The Celtic kingdom of Noricum was claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province. After the fall of the Roman Empire, of which most of Austria was part (all parts south of the Danube), the area was invaded by Bavarians, Slavs and Avars. Charlemagne conquered the area in 788 and encouraged colonization and Christianity. As part of Eastern Francia, the core areas that now encompass Austria were bequeathed to the house of Babenberg. The area was known as the marchia Orientalis and was given to Leopold of Babenberg in 976. The first record showing the name Austria is from 996 where it is written as Ostarrîchi, referring to the territory of the Babenberg March. The term Ostmark is not historically ascertained and appears to be a translation of marchia orientalis that came up only much later. The following centuries were characterized by the settlement of the country. In 1156 the Privilegium Minus elevated Austria to the status of a duchy. In 1192, the Babenbergs also acquired the Duchy of Styria. With the death of Frederick II in 1246, the line of the Babenbergers went extinct. Otakar II of Bohemia effectively controlled the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia after that. His reign came to an end with his defeat at Dürnkrut at the hand of Rudolf I of Germany in 1278. Thereafter, until World War I, Austria's history was largely that of its ruling dynasty, the Habsburgs. Rise of the Habsburgs In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria. In 1438, Duke Albert V of Austria was chosen as the successor to his father-in-law, Emperor Sigismund. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year, from then on, every emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was a Habsburg, with only one exception. The Habsburgs began also to accumulate lands far from the Hereditary Lands. In 1477, Archduke Maximilian, only son of Emperor Frederick III, married the heiress Maria of Burgundy, thus acquiring most of the Low Countries for the family. His son Philip the Fair married the heiress of Castile and Aragon, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian, African, and New World appendages for the Habsburgs. In 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, Austrian rulers expanded their territories, bringing Bohemia and the part of Hungary not occupied by the Ottomans under their rule. Ottoman expansion into Hungary led to frequent conflicts between the two powers, particularly evident in the so-called Long War of 1593 to 1606. Austria as a European Power The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819.See also: Congress of Vienna, Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, and Austria-Hungary The long reign of Leopold I (1657–1705) saw the culmination of the Austrian conflict with the Turks. Following the successful defense of Vienna in 1683, a series of campaigns resulted in the return of all of Hungary to Austrian control by the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. The later part of the reign of Emperor Charles VI (1711–1740) saw Austria relinquish many of these fairly impressive gains, largely due to Charles's apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg. Charles was willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of the Pragmatic Sanction that made his daughter Maria Theresa his heir. With the rise of Prussia the Austrian–Prussian dualism began in Germany. Map of Austria-HungaryAustria became engaged in the war with Revolutionary France, which lasted until 1797 and at the beginning proved unsuccessful for Austria. Defeats by Napoleon meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Just two years before the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, in 1804 the Empire of Austria was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the dual-monarchy Austria-Hungary. However, in 1814 Austria was part of the Allied forces invading France and conquering it. Following the Napoleonic wars Austria emerged from the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as one of four of the continent's dominant powers (together with Russia, Prussia and defeated France). In 1815 the German Confederation, (German: Deutscher Bund) was founded under the presidency of Austria. Austria and Prussia were the leading powers of the German Confederation. Its central institution was the Bundesversammlung in Frankfurt. Because of unsolved social, political and national conflicts some of the German inhabitants took part in the 1848 revolution to create a unified Germany. The Frankfurt Parliament in the St. Paul's Church elected the arch duke Johann of Habsburg as a Reichsverweser, an administrator of the German Empire. For a new German empire would have been possible three options: a Greater Germany, Großdeutschland, with the German-speaking territories of the Habsburg Empire; a Greater Austrian solution, Großösterreich, the German Confederation with the whole Habsburgian territories; and a smaller German solution, Kleindeutsche, the German Confederation without Austria at all. As Austria was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to what would become the German Empire of 1848 the parliament offered the crown to the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Austria grew out of Germany; Prussia grew in. In 1864 Austria and Prussia fought together against Denmark, to free the independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Austria and Prussia could not agree on a solution to the administration of Schleswig and Holstein, which led to the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Austria, together with most of the other German states, was defeated by Prussia in the Battle of Königgrätz in Bohemia. Austria had to leave the German Confederation and subsequently no longer took part in German politics. After 1871, it was one of two Empires: the German Empire to the north and Austria-Hungary to the south. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Ausgleich, provided for a dual sovereignty, the empire of Austria and the kingdom of Hungary, under Franz Joseph I, who ruled until his death on 21 November 1916. The Austrian-Hungarian rule of this diverse empire included various Slav groups such as Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Serbs and Croats, as well as large Italian and Romanian communities. As a result, ruling Austria-Hungary became increasingly difficult in an age of emerging nationalist movements. Yet the central government tried its best to be accommodating in some respects; minorities were entitled to schools in their own language, for example. World War I and its aftermath The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 by Gavrilo Princip (a member of the Serbian nationalist group the Black Hand) was the immediate cause for the outbreak of World War I, leading to the downfall and the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. War left the country in political chaos and economic ruin, the Central Powers (being Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany and Turkey) having been defeated in 1918. The Empire was broken up - Austria, with most of the German-speaking parts became a republic (see Treaty of Saint-Germain) and the remaining subordinate territories became independent states. However, over 3 million German Austrians found themselves living outside of the Allied inspired borders of the Austrian Republic in the nations of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Italy. A particular large German minority was found in the newly-established Czechoslovakia with the entire historic German populations of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia cut off from their motherland of Austria. Austria was also deprived of half of Tyrol, which was awarded to Italy as a prize for entering the war on the Allied side. Austria has sustained this loss to the present day and this had been a major source of friction with Italy until the 1980s. Today the situation in Alto Adige/South Tyrol is resolved, serving as a model for inter-ethnic and transnational cooperation in Europe. Between 1918 and 1919, Austria was officially known as the Republic of German Austria (Republik Deutschösterreich). Many territories it claimed under its control included regions that were later assigned to neighboring nations. Not only did the Entente powers forbid German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name; it was therefore changed to the Republic of Austria. The monarchy was dissolved in 1919 and a parliamentary democracy was set up under the constitution of 10 November 1920. In the autumn of 1922, Austria was granted an international loan supervised by the League of Nations. The purpose of the loan was to avert bankruptcy, stabilize the currency, and improve its general economic condition. With the granting of the loan, Austria passed from an independent state to the control exercised by the League of Nations. At the time, the real ruler of Austria became the League, through its commissioner in Vienna. The commissioner was a Dutchman not formally part of the Austrian government. Austria had fallen under an international receivership, which had not been seen openly since Lord Cromer became the financial adviser to the bankrupt Khedivial Government of Egypt a little less than half a century earlier. Austrofascism and the Third Reich The First Austrian Republic, lasted until 1933 when Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss dissolved parliament and established an autocratic regime tending towards Italian fascism, (Austrofascism) in order, partly, to check the power of Nazis who were still advocating union with Germany. The two big parties at this time —the Social Democrats and the Conservatives— had paramilitary armies, which fought each other. The "Heimwehr" (later integrated into the "Vaterländische Front"), the paramilitary arm of the Conservative party supported Dollfuss's Fascist regime; the "Republikanischer Schutzbund", was the military arm of the Social Democrats which was outlawed in 1933 but still existed underground - civil war was to break out. After the Austrian Civil War in February 1934, several members of the Schutzbund were executed, the Social Democratic party was outlawed and many of its members were imprisoned or emigrated. In May of that year the Fascists introduced a new constitution ("Maiverfassung") which cemented Dollfuss's power but on 25 July he was assassinated in a Nazi coup attempt. His successor Kurt Schuschnigg, struggled to keep Austria independent (even a restoration of the Habsburgs was contemplated), but on 12 March 1938 German troops occupied the country and established a plebiscite confirming union with Germany. Hitler was himself a native of Austria who had lost Austrian citizenship in 1925. Hitler proclaimed the annexation (Anschluss) of Austria by Germany. Austria was incorporated into the Third Reich and ceased to exist as an independent state. The Nazis called Austria "Ostmark" until 1942 when it was again renamed and called "Alpen-Donau-Reichsgaue." Some Austrians joined the resistance, but many more joined the German armed forces (Wehrmacht). Vienna fell on 13 April 1945 during the Soviet Vienna Offensive. This was just before the total collapse of the Third Reich, the defeat of Nazi Germany, the fall of Berlin, and the end of the war in May. Karl Renner astutely set up a Provisional Government in Vienna in April with the tacit approval of the victorious Soviet forces, and declared Austria's secession from the Third Reich. After the defeat of Germany, Allied Occupation Much like Germany, Austria, too, was divided into a British, a French, a Soviet and an American Zone and governed by the Allied Commission for Austria. Largely owing to Karl Renner's action on April 27th in setting up a Provisional Government, however, there was a subtle difference in the treatment of Austria by the Allies. The Austrian Government was recognized and tolerated by the Four Powers. Austria, in general, was treated as though it had been originally invaded by Germany and liberated by the Allies. Although the Eastern part of Austria, including the greater Vienna area, lay in the Soviet Zone, the capital itself was equally divided into four occupational zones. Outside of Vienna, however, travel across zone borders, in particular leaving or entering the Soviet zone, was difficult and time-consuming if possible at all. During the time of the Berlin Air Lift, Soviet military pressure was increased further, but could be successfully overcome by skillful military, political and diplomatic influence on the part of the other Allies. On 15 May 1955 Austria regained full independence by concluding the Austrian State Treaty with the Four Occupying Powers. On 26 October 1955 Austria was declared "permanently neutral" by act of Parliament, which it remains to this day. Recent history The political system of the Second Republic came to be characterized by the system of Proporz, meaning that most posts of some political importance were split evenly between members of the Social Democrats (Labour Party) and the People's Party (Conservatives). Interest group representations with mandatory membership (e.g. for workers, businesspeople, farmers etc.) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so that hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus. The Proporz and consensus systems largely held even during the years between 1966 and 1983, when there were non-coalition governments, but this era has now passed. Austria today has five major political parties: The SPÖ (Labour Party) , the ÖVP (Conservatives) , the "Greens" (Environmental, social-liberal) and FPÖ/BZÖ (both right-wing, nationalist). SPÖ and ÖVP share about 75% of the parliamentary mandates, while the remaining 25% are divided between the other three parties. Austria became a member of the European Union in 1995 and retained its constitutional neutrality, like some other EU members, such as Sweden. The major parties SPÖ and ÖVP have contrary opinions about the future status of Austria's military neutrality: While the SPÖ supports a neutral role in the EU (together with other neutral EU members like Sweden), the ÖVP argues for stronger integration into the EU's security policy; even a future NATO is not ruled out by some ÖVP politicians. Since the "permanent neutrality" forms part of the Austrian constitution, a two-thirds majority in the Austrian parliament would be needed for such a change in policy. Politics Austrian Parliament in ViennaMain article: Politics of Austria Political system The Parliament of Austria is located in Vienna, the nation's largest city and capital. Austria became a federal, parliamentarian, democratic republic through the Federal Constitution of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine states of the Federal Republic. The head of state is the Federal President, who is directly elected by popular vote. The chairman of the Federal Government is the Federal Chancellor, who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by vote of no confidence in the lower chamber of parliament, the Nationalrat. The Parliament of Austria consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every five years by a general election in which every citizen over 16 years (since 2007) is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A recent extension of that term from four to five years will become effective after the next election. While there is a general threshold of 4 percent for all parties at federal elections (Nationalratswahlen) , there remains the possibility to gain a direct seat, or Direktmandat, in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the Bundesrat has a limited right of veto (the Nationalrat can — in almost all cases — ultimately pass the respective bill by voting a second time. This is referred to as 'Beharrungsbeschluss, lit. "vote of persistence"). A convention, called the Österreich -Konvent was convened in June 30, 2003 to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. However, some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented. Recent political developments In February 2000 the conservative People's Party formed a coalition with the controversial nationalistic Freedom Party, headed by Jörg Haider. The (at that time) 14 other member states of the European Union - but not the EU itself - condemned Austria's new coalition and froze diplomatic contacts. These measures were commonly referred to as "sanctions" although they were more or less just motions of diplomatic unfriendliness. Given the controversy, Haider chose not to join the government, but he continued to wield influence from the sidelines. This was not, however, the first time that the Republic of Austria had displeased international opinion. In 1986, the population voted for Kurt Waldheim as president despite his revelation that he had been active in the Wehrmacht as an intelligence officer during World War II. In September 2002, the coalition between the People's Party and the Freedom Party dissolved after a shake-up in the Freedom Party. In November 2002, the People's Party made large gains in general elections again. After a lot of coalition talks with other parties, the People's Party again formed a government with the Freedom Party in February 2003 with Wolfgang Schüssel as Chancellor. After general elections held in October 2006, the Social Democrats emerged as the largest party, whereas the People's Party lost about 8% in votes. Political realities prohibited any of the two major parties from forming a coalition with smaller parties. In January 2007 the People's Party and Social Democrats formed a Grand Coalition with the social democrat Alfred Gusenbauer as Chancellor. Foreign policy The 1955 Austrian State Treaty ended the occupation of Austria following World War II and recognized Austria as an independent and sovereign state. In October 1955, the Federal Assembly passed a constitutional law in which "Austria declares of her own free will her perpetual neutrality." The second section of this law stated that "in all future times Austria will not join any military alliances and will not permit the establishment of any foreign military bases on her territory." Since then, Austria has shaped its foreign policy on the basis of neutrality. Austria began to reassess its definition of neutrality following the fall of the Soviet Union, granting overflight rights for the UN-sanctioned action against Iraq in 1991, and, since 1995, contemplating participation in the EU's evolving security structure. Also in 1995, it joined the Partnership for Peace and subsequently participated in peacekeeping missions in Bosnia. Austria attaches great importance to participation in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and other international economic organizations, and it has played an active role in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Energy politics In 1972, the country began construction of a nuclear-powered electricity-generation station at Zwentendorf on the River Danube, following a unanimous vote in parliament. However, in 1978, a referendum voted approximately 50.5% against nuclear power, 49.5% for, and parliament subsequently unanimously passed a law forbidding the use of nuclear power to generate electricity. Austria currently produces more than half of its electricity by hydropower. Together with other renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass powerplants, the electricity supply from renewable energy amounts to nearly 80% of total use in Austria. The rest is produced by gas and oil powerplants. Military The manpower of the Austrian Armed Forces ("Bundesheer") mainly relies on conscription. All males who have reached the age of eighteen and are found fit get recruited for a six months long military service, which can be postponed under some circumstances. Conscientious objection is legally possible and obliges to serve an institutionalized nine months civilian service instead. Only since 1998, women can volunteer to become professional soldiers. The main sectors of the Bundesheer are Joint Forces (Streitkräfteführungskommando, SKFüKdo) which consist of Land Forces (Landstreitkräfte) , Air Forces (Luftstreitkräfte) , International Missions (Internationale Einsätze) , and Special Forces (Spezialeinsatzkräfte) ; next to Mission Support (Kommando Einsatzunterstützung; KdoEU) and Command Support (Kommando Führungsunterstützung; KdoFüU). In 2004, Austria expends about 0.9% of its GDP for defense. The Army currently has about 45,000 soldiers, of which about half are conscripts. As head of state, Austrian President (currently Heinz Fischer) is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the Bundesheer. In practical reality, however, command of the Austrian Armed Forces is almost exclusively exercised by the Minister of Defense, currently Norbert Darabos. With the end of the Cold War, and more importantly the removal of the former heavily guarded "Iron Curtain" separating Austria and Hungary, the Austrian military have been assisting Austrian border guards in trying to prevent border crossings by illegal immigrants. This assistance came to an end when Hungary joined the EU Schengen area in 2008, for all intents and purposes abolishing "internal" border controls between treaty states. Some politicians have called for a prolongation of this mission, but the legality of this is heavily disputed. In accordance with the Austrian constitution, armed forces may only be deployed in a limited number of cases, mainly to defend the country and aid in cases of national emergencies, such as in the wake of natural disasters etc. They may generally not be used as auxiliary police forces. Despite, or perhaps because of, its self-declared status of permanent neutrality, Austria has a long and proud tradition of engaging in UN-led peacekeeping and other humanitarian missions. The Austrian Forces Disaster Relief Unit (AFDRU) , in particular, an all-volunteer unit with close ties to civilian specialists (rescue dog handlers, etc) enjoys a reputation as a quick (standard deployment time is 10 hours) and efficient SAR unit. Currently, larger contingents of Austrian forces are deployed in Bosnia, Kosovo and, since 1974, on the Golan Heights. States As a federal republic, Austria is divided into nine states (German: 'Bundesländer'). These states are then divided into districts (Bezirke) and cities (Statutarstädte). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (Gemeinden). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government. State (Bundesland) Capital Population Rank 1 Burgenland Eisenstadt 280,350 9 2 Carinthia (Kärnten) Klagenfurt 560,753 6 3 Lower Austria (Niederösterreich) St. Pölten 1,588,545 2 4 Upper Austria (Oberösterreich) Linz 1,405,986 3 5 Salzburg Salzburg 529,085 7 6 Styria (Steiermark) Graz 1,203,986 4 7 Tyrol (Tirol) Innsbruck 698,472 5 8 Vorarlberg Bregenz 364,611 8 9 Vienna (Wien) Vienna (Wien) 1,660,534 1 Geography Austria is a largely mountainous country due to its location in the Alps. The Central Eastern Alps, Northern Limestone Alps and Southern Limestone Alps are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84 000 km² or 32,000 sq. mi) , only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 meters (1,640 ft). The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country. Austria can be divided into five areas. The biggest area are the Austrian Alps, which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the Alps and the Carpathians account for around 12% of its area. The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian granite plateau, it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the Vienna basin comprises the remaining 4%. Phytogeographically, Austria belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Austria can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, Alps conifer and mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests. Climate The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate climate zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the Alps the alpine climate is the predominant one. In the East, in the Pannonian Plain and along the Danube valley, the climate shows continental features with less rain than the alpine areas. Although Austria is cold in the winter, in the summer temperatures can be relatively warm reaching 20-35 degrees Celsius. The six highest mountains in Austria are: Name Height (m) Height (ft) Range Großglockner &0000000000003797.0000003,797 &0000000000012457.00000012,457 Hohe Tauern Wildspitze &0000000000003768.0000003,768 &0000000000012362.00000012,362 Ötztal Alps Weißkugel &0000000000003739.0000003,739 &0000000000012267.00000012,267 Ötztal Alps Großvenediger &0000000000003674.0000003,674 &0000000000012054.00000012,054 Hohe Tauern Similaun &0000000000003606.0000003,606 &0000000000011831.00000011,831 Ötztal Alps Großes Wiesbachhorn &0000000000003571.0000003,571 &0000000000011715.00000011,715 Hohe Tauern Economy Modern ViennaAustria is one of the 10 richest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita, has a well-developed social market economy, and a very high standard of living. Until the 1980s, many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised; in recent years, however, privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. Next to a highly-developed industry, international tourism is the most important part of the national economy. Germany has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the German economy. But since Austria became a member state of the European Union it has gained closer ties to other European Union economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Growth in GDP accelerated in recent years and reached 3.3% in 2006. Education Responsibility for educational oversight in Austria lies partly at the Austrian states (Bundesländer), and partly with the federal government. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between the ages of three and six years. School attendance is compulsory for nine years, i.e. usually to the age of fifteen. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Austria's education as the 18th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. Primary education lasts for four years. Alongside Germany, secondary education includes two main types of schools based on a pupil's ability as determined by grades from the primary school: the Gymnasium for the more gifted children which normally leads to the Matura which is a requirement for access to universities and the Hauptschule which prepares pupils for vocational education but also for further education (HTL = institution of higher technical education; HAK = commercial academy; HBLA = institution of higher education for economic business; etc.), where you also get the Matura. The Austrian university system had been open to any student who passed the Matura examination until recently. A 2006 bill allowed the introduction of entrance exams for studies such as Medicine. Currently all EU students are charged a fee of about €370 per semester for all university studies. A recent OECD report criticized the Austrian education system for the low number of students attending universities and the overall low number of academics compared to other OECD countries. Demographics Austria's population estimate in October 2006 was 8,292,322. The population of the capital, Vienna, exceeds 1.6 million (2.2 million with suburbs) , representing about a quarter of the country's population and is known for its vast cultural offerings and high standard of living. In contrast to the capital, other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants: the second largest city Graz is home to 250,099 inhabitants, followed by Linz (188,968), Salzburg (150,000), and Innsbruck (117,346). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. German-speaking Austrians, by far the country's largest group, form roughly 90% of Austria's population. The Austrian federal states of Carinthia and Styria are home to a significant indigenous Slovenian speaking minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of up to 50,000). In the east-most Bundesland, Burgenland (formerly part of the Hungarian half of Austria-Hungary) about 20,000 Austrian citizens speak Hungarian and 30,000 speak Croatian. The remaining number of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former East Bloc nations. So-called guest workers (Gastarbeiter) and their descendants, as well as refugees from Yugoslav wars and other conflicts, also form an important minority group in Austria. Since 1994 the Roma-Sinti (gypsies) are an officially recognized ethnic minority in Austria. According to census information published by Statistik Austria for the year 2001 there were a total of 710,926 foreign nationals living in Austria. Of these, 124,392 speak German as their mother tongue (presumably immigrants from Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, the Slovenes and also the South Tyrolian part of northern Italy.) The next largest populations of linguistic and ethnic groups are 240,863 foreign nationals from the former Yugoslavia (Serbian being the largest number of these at 135,376, followed by Croatian at 105,487); 123,417 Turkish nationals; 25,155 whose native tongue is English; 24,446 Albanian; 17,899 Polish; 14,699 Hungarian; 12,216 Romanian; 7,982 Arabs; 6,902 Slovenes (not including the autochthonous minority); 6,891 Slovaks; 6,707 Czech; 5,916 Persian; 5,677 Italian; 5,466 Russian; 5,213 French; 4,938 Chinese; 4,264 Spanish; 3,503 Bulgarian. The populations of the rest fall off sharply below 3,000. The mother tongue of the population by prevalence, is German (88.6%) followed by Turkish (2.3%) , Serbian (2.2%) , Croatian (1.6%) , Hungarian (0.5%) and Bosnian (0.4%). The official language, German, is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the country, however, belong to Austro-Bavarian groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its western-most Bundesland, Vorarlberg, which belongs to the group of Alemannic dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for Austrian German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany. As of 2006, some of the Austrian states introduced standardised tests for new citizens, to assure their language ability, cultural knowledge and accordingly their ability to integrate into the Austrian society. Politics concerning ethnic groups (Volksgruppenpolitik) An estimated 13,000 to 40,000 Slovenes in the Austrian state of Carinthia (the Carinthian Slovenes) as well as Croats (around 30,000) and Hungarians in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. The Slovenes in the Austrian state of Styria (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27, 1955 states otherwise. The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene- and Croat-Austrians live alongside the Germanic population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases show parts of Carinthia as Slovenian cultural territory. The current governor, Jörg Haider, has made this fact a matter of public argument in autumn 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called "Windischen-Theorie" stating that the Slovenes can be split in two groups: actual Slovenes and Windische (a traditional German name for Slavs) , based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenes, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenes who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. The term Windische was applied to the latter group as a means of distinction. This theory was never generally accepted and fell out of use some decades ago. Religion Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, also Charles I of Spain, Austrian Habsburg ruler and one of the major figures of the Counter-Reformation.At the end of the twentieth century, about 74% of Austria's population were registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% considered themselves Protestants. Both these numbers have been in decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicism, which has suffered an increasing number of seceders from the church. Austrian Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income —about 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which might (have) act(ed) as an incentive to leave the church. About 12% of the population declare that they have no religion. Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of Eastern Orthodox Churches and about 8,100 are Jewish. It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000 - was reduced to solely 4,000 to 5,000 after the Second World War. The influx of Eastern Europeans, especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from Turkey largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria — around 340,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities. Buddhism, which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983 has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 census). According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 54% of Austrian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God". 34% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force". 8% answered that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". While northern and central Germany was the origin of the Reformation, Austria (and Bavaria) was the heart of the Counter-Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the absolute monarchy of Habsburg imposed a strict regime to maintain Catholicism's power and influence among Austrians. The Habsburgs viewed themselves as the vanguard of Roman Catholicism and all other confessions and religions were oppressed. In 1781, Emperor Joseph II issued a Patent of Tolerance that allowed other Christian confessions a limited freedom of worship. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right in the Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich in 1867 thus paying tribute to the fact that the monarchy was home of numerous religions beside Roman Catholicism such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian Orthodox Christians (Austria neighboured the Ottoman empire for centuries) , and both Calvinist and Lutheran Protestants. Austria continued to remain largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918, First Republic Catholic leaders such as Theodor Innitzer and Ignaz Seipel took leading positions within or close to Austria's government and increased their influence during the time of the Austrofascism —Catholicism was treated much like a state religion by Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg. Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the Anschluss of Austria into Germany, Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of Nazism later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the Third Reich. After 1945, a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria, and religious influence on politics declined. Music Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791).Austria's past as a European power and its cultural environment have generated a broad contribution to various forms of art, most notably among them music. Austria has been the birthplace of many famous composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. and Gustav Mahler as well as members of the Second Viennese School such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg. Vienna has long been especially an important center of musical innovation. Eighteenth and nineteenth century composers were drawn to the city due to the patronage of the Habsburgs, and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music. Vienna's status began its rise as a cultural center in the early 1500s, and was focused around instruments including the lute. Ludwig van Beethoven spent the better part of his life in Vienna. Austria's current national anthem was chosen after World War II to replace the traditional Austrian anthem by Joseph Haydn. The composition, which was initially attributed to Mozart, was most likely not composed by Mozart himself. Austria has also produced one notable jazz musician, keyboardist Josef Zawinul who helped pioneer electronic influences in jazz as well as being a notable composer in his own right. Falco was an internationally acclaimed pop and rock musician. Art and architecture The Belvedere Palace, an example of Baroque architecture.Among Austrian Artists and architects one can find painters Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele and Friedensreich Hundertwasser, photographer Inge Morath or architect Otto Wagner. Science, philosophy and economics Sigmund Freud in 1938Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists with international reputations. Among them are Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess and Christian Doppler, prominent scientists in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, contributions by Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger and Wolfgang Pauli to nuclear research and quantum mechanics were key to these areas' development during the 1920s and 1930s. A present-day quantum physicist is Anton Zeilinger, noted as the first scientist to demonstrate quantum teleportation. In addition to physicists, Austria was the birthplace of two of the greatest philosophers of the twentieth century, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper. In addition to them biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel and engineers such as Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Marcus were Austrians. A focus of Austrian science has always been medicine and psychology, starting in medieval times with Paracelsus. Eminent physicians like Theodore Billroth, Clemens von Pirquet, and Anton von Eiselsberg have built upon the achievements of the 19th century Vienna School of Medicine. Austria was home to psychologists Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Paul Watzlawick and Hans Asperger and psychiatrist Viktor Frankl. The Austrian School of Economics, which is prominent as one of the main competitive directions for economic theory, is related to Austrian economists Joseph Schumpeter, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, and Friedrich Hayek. Other noteworthy Austrian-born émigrés include the management thinker Peter Drucker and the 38th Governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger. Literature Complementing its status as a land of artists and scientists, Austria has always been a country of poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Bernhard, Franz Kafka, and Robert Musil, of poets Georg Trakl, Franz Werfel, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Adalbert Stifter, and of writer Karl Kraus. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Nobel prize winner Elfriede Jelinek and writer Peter Handke. Cuisine Austria's cuisine is derived from the cuisine of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In addition to native regional traditions, it has been influenced above all by Hungarian, Czech, Jewish, Italian and Bavarian cuisines, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. The Austrian Cuisine is therefore one of the most multi and transcultural cuisines in Europe. Typical Austrian dishes include Wiener Schnitzel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. There are also Kasnockn, a macaroni dish with fresh Pinzgauer cheese and parsley, and Eierschwammerl (chanterelle) dishes. The Eierschwammerl are the native yellow, tan mushrooms. These mushrooms are delicious, especially when in a thick Austrian soup, or on regular meals. The candy PEZ was invented in Austria. Austria is also famous for its Apfelstrudel. Sports Skiing slopes at Sankt Anton am ArlbergThe most popular sport in Austria is alpine skiing and Austria shows constant dominance in the Nations-Cup. Similar sports such as snowboarding or ski-jumping are also widely popular. The most popular team sport in Austria is football. However, Austria rarely has international success in this discipline, though the 2008 UEFA European Football Championship is jointly being held with Switzerland. Besides football, Austria also has professional national leagues for most major team sports including ice hockey and basketball. Bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton are also popular events with a permanent track located in Igls, which hosted bobsleigh and luge competitions for the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics held in Innsbruck. |
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