欧洲:
英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| 西班牙 Spain 首都:马德里 国家代码: es |
 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙国名：西班牙(Spain，Espana) 重要节日：国庆节：10月12日；宪法日：12月6日。 首都：马德里 (Madrid)，人口310万（2004年）。 面积：505,925平方公里 人口：4411万（2005年）。主要是卡斯蒂利亚人（即西班牙人），少数民族有加泰罗尼亚人（681万）、加里西亚人（275万）和巴斯克人（212万）。 宗教：96％的居民信奉天主教。 语言：卡斯蒂利亚语（即西班牙语）是官方语言和全国通用语言。少数民族语言在本地区亦为官方语言。 国家体制：君主立宪制 国花：石榴花 国石：绿宝石 货币：欧元(旧货币：比塞塔) 时差：比北京时间晚7小时，夏令时期间6小时； 西班牙国旗：呈长方形，长与宽之比为3∶2。旗面由三个平行的横长方形组成，上下均为红色，各占旗面的1／4；中间为黄色。黄色部分偏左侧绘有西班牙国徽。红、黄两色是西班牙人民喜爱的传统颜色，并分别代表组成西班牙的四个古老王国。 有一种说法是红色代表碧血，黄色代表黄沙，碧血黄沙象征的是西班牙人民酷爱的斗牛运动，从中体现的是英勇顽强、不畏强暴的精神。 西班牙国徽：中心图案为盾徽。盾面上有六组图案：左上角是红地上黄色城堡，右上角为白地上头戴王冠的红狮，城堡和狮子是古老西班牙的标志，分别象征卡斯蒂利亚和莱昂；左下角为黄、红相间的竖条，象征东北部的阿拉贡；右下角为红地上金色链网，象征位于北部的纳瓦拉；底部是白地上绿叶红石榴，象征南部的格拉纳达；盾面中心的蓝色椭圆形中有三朵百合花，象征国家富强、人民幸福、民族团结。盾徽上端有一顶大王冠，这是国家权力的象征。盾徽两旁各有一根海格力斯柱子。亦称大力神银柱，左、右柱顶端分别是王冠和帝国冠冕，缠绕着立柱的饰带上写着“海外还有大陆”。 国歌：《皇家进行曲》 西班牙国歌最早源于十八世纪卡洛斯三世时期的格拉纳达军队进行曲，皇家名称为《西班牙荣誉进行曲》，民间则称为《步兵进行曲》。王室曾多次组织音乐家谱写新歌，但无一能够超过这个曲子，于是这首有曲无词的国歌便延续下来，直至2007年年底，由全国性发起征集歌词的活动，确定了西班牙国歌歌词，歌词为“西班牙万岁！／我们一起唱／用不同的声音／同一颗心；” “西班牙万岁！／从绿色的山谷／到浩瀚的海洋／是兄弟的赞歌；” “我们热爱自己的祖国／要去拥抱她／在她湛蓝的天空下／各民族亲如一家；” “光荣的子孙／伟大的历史／歌唱正义与繁荣／歌唱民主与和平。” 4段歌词体现了“团结、自由、民主、和平”。 1931年，第二共和国曾把《列戈颂歌》定为国歌，但是民主政府失败后又恢复了原有国歌的地位。 重要人物：胡安·卡洛斯一世：国王，西班牙国家元首。1938年1月5日生于罗马，西班牙波旁王朝末代国王阿方索十三世之孙。幼时随父旅居意大利、瑞士和葡萄牙等国。1955年起，先后在西海、陆、空三军军事学院和大学学习，毕业后到政府各部门实习行政管理，1969年7月经西班牙议会批准为王位继承人，1975年11月登基。爱好滑雪、狩猎、航海、航空。1962年与希腊公主索菲娅结婚，有二女一子。 何塞·路易斯·罗德里格斯·萨帕特罗：首相。1960年8月4日生于卡斯蒂利亚-莱昂自治区。法学学士。1979年加入工社党。1986年成为西最年轻的众议员，此后连续4次当选。2000年7月被选为工社党总书记。2004年4月出任首相。 行政区划 全国划分为17个自治区，50个省，8000多个市镇。17个自治区为：安达卢西亚、阿拉贡、阿斯图利亚斯、巴利阿里、巴斯克、加那利、坎塔布利亚、卡斯蒂利亚－莱昂、卡斯蒂利亚－拉曼恰、加泰罗尼亚、埃斯特雷马杜拉、加利西亚、马德里、穆尔西亚、纳瓦拉、拉里奥哈和巴伦西亚。 行 政 区 划/ 行 政 中 心 安达卢西亚 Andalucia/ 塞维利亚 Sevilla 阿拉贡 Aragón/ 萨拉戈萨 Zaragoza 阿斯图里亚斯 Asturias/ 奥维多 Oviedo 巴利阿里 Baleares/ 马略卡 Mallorca 巴斯克 Vasco/ 维多利亚 Vitoria-Gasteiz 加那利 Canarias/ 坎塔布里亚 Cantabria/ 桑坦德 Santander 卡斯蒂利亚－莱昂 Castilla y León/ 巴亚多利德 Valladolid 卡斯蒂利亚－拉曼恰 Castilla La Mancha/ 托莱多 Toledo 加泰罗尼亚 Catalu?a/ 巴塞罗那 Barcelona 埃斯特雷马杜拉 Extremadura/ 梅里达 Mérida 加利西亚 Galicia/ 圣地亚哥－德孔波斯特拉 Santiago de Compostela 马德里 Madrid/ 马德里 Madrid 穆尔西亚 Murcia/ 穆尔西亚 Murcia 纳瓦拉 Navarra/ 潘普洛纳 Pamplona 拉里奥哈 La Rioja/ 洛格罗尼奥 Logro?o 巴伦西亚 Valencia/ 巴伦西亚 Valencia 四大旅游区：加那利群岛--热带风光、太阳海岸--地中海沙滩、巴利阿里群岛--地中海浴池、马德里--文化古城； 人口 西班牙的主要民族是占总人口70％以上的卡斯蒂利亚人。加泰罗尼亚人、加利西亚人和巴斯克人是西班牙20个少数民族中最重要的三个。 加泰罗尼亚人主要居住在西班牙东北部，巴塞罗那即是加泰罗尼亚重镇。少数加泰罗尼亚人住在阿拉贡地区，在德国、意大利、安道尔以及其它国家还有约60万人；加利西亚人的聚居地在西北部的加利西亚地区，他们的起源同葡萄牙人有亲缘关系，文化、语言上也很接近，在国外加利西亚人主要集中在阿根廷，总共有97.5万；巴斯克人分布在比利牛斯山的西侧，沿着坎塔布连山麓和比斯开湾沿岸居住，在国外约有30万人，很多在法国。社会学家们至今未能找到巴斯克族的起源。在这三个地区，民族语言同西班牙语（卡斯蒂利亚语）一样都是官方语言。 西班牙最大的三个城市是马德里、巴塞罗那和瓦伦西亚，他们的人口都在200万人以上。在约占全国面积三分之二的内地，人口只有全国的三分之一，剩下的都集中在濒临地中海和大西洋的工业繁荣地区。沿海一带的比斯开省每平方公里有263人，巴塞罗那省更达284人。在一些工业区，如阿斯图里亚斯、巴斯克、加泰罗尼亚等，甚至每平方公里超过500人。而在特鲁埃尔、索里亚和拉曼恰某些人烟稀少的地区每平方公里只有9人。在内地，唯一人口密度比较高的只有首都所在地的马德里省，每平方公里也超过五百人。 西班牙人口严重趋向老龄化。西班牙被成为欧洲最适合居住的国家之一，随着生活水平的提高，人口平均寿命在1980年就达到76岁，在欧洲仅次于荷兰。尽管是传统天主教国家，但是由于受到现代婚姻家庭观念的冲击，青年人趋向于晚结婚、不结婚、不要孩子。婚龄男女结婚率只有千分之五左右，也就是说同居比例巨大。八十年代初期结婚人数一度每年减少百分之二十五。目前，平均每个妇女生育2.1个孩子，家庭规模缩小到每户三人左右，在欧洲属于较低水平。不过西班牙的离婚率也较低，只有千分之零点五。西班牙的儿童死亡率也是欧洲比较低的，在百分之一以下。大量海外移民也造成了西班牙人口的低增长率，这是她与其他西方国家人口低增长原因的不同之处。 目前在国外居住的西班牙人总计约有336万人，其中美洲有220.7万人，欧洲为107.3万。不断的迁移是西班牙人口统计的特点，这与她曾经的殖民地统治有关。新大陆发现之后，大量的西班牙人涌向中美洲和南美洲、甚至北美洲的一部分地区寻找黄金和冒险。到1913年，西班牙美洲移民共有22 万。战后，西班牙移民方向发生了方向性的逆转。1960年以前，最多有百分之八十五的移民的目标是大西洋对岸的美洲，后来骤降到百分之十；同时，大量移民把新的梦想转向了欧洲，他们最乐于去的地方是法国、德国和瑞士。战后，西班牙迁往国外的人口共有150万。 首都 西班牙首都马德里的标志是一只站立着够苹果吃的熊。它地处海拔670米的山间盆地上，是欧洲地势最高的首都之一。这里风光秀丽，阳光灿烂，空气清新，每年的晴天数居欧洲各大首都之首。 在古代，马德里不过是曼萨纳雷斯河畔的一个小村落，罗马人、西哥特人和阿拉伯人先后在这里统治。马德里的名字来自于公元十世纪阿拉伯人在这里修建的要塞马吉里特。1083年，西班牙人把外来统治者赶出了伊比利亚半岛。1562年，费利佩二世将首都从托莱多迁往位于半岛心脏地带的战略要地马德里。当时这座城市只有3万居民，但是今天马德里已拥有人口近四百万，成为西班牙政治、经济、文化、交通和金融中心。 现在的马德里是一座现代化的城市。西班牙工业总产值的10％来自这座首都的机器制造、化学工业、建筑、皮革及木材加工、食品等工业部门。自从 1851年马德里第一条铁路通车以来，马德里已同国内20多个城市以及世界各大城市通有飞机航线，西班牙的公路网以马德里为中心向全国各地延伸。地铁交通是马德里市内的主要交通方式，地铁总长约100公里，每天100万人次上下进出。 无数名胜古迹遍布马德里全城。1000多个凯旋门，3000多个广场，50座博物馆，这座1992年被评为“欧洲文化名城”的古城洋溢着浓烈的历史氛围。三个主要广场——太阳门广场、中心广场和西班牙广场之间的三角地带就是马德里的市中心。太阳门广场被称为西班牙的中心，在那里有一个标志，西班牙人以此为基点计算通往全国各地的汽车、火车、飞机的里程。西班牙广场上有西班牙著名的塞万提斯纪念碑，纪念碑的一面是西班牙开国女王伊莎贝尔像以及象征平静的地中海和汹涌的大西洋的两个水池，另一面是享誉世界的堂吉河德和桑丘主仆铜像。哥伦布纪念碑树立在哥伦布广场，遥望远方的哥伦布雕像和他脚下三桅船形状的喷泉也是马德里标志性建筑之一。大地女神广场上的雕塑“狮子战车”的形象也经常被用来标志马德里市，这个广场是著名球会皇家马德里球迷欢庆的地点。 随着近一二十年来旅游事业的发展，马德里除了新建了许多机关、商业大楼等以外，同时还新建了许多主要供外国旅游者休息的华丽饭店和旅馆。在新的建筑中，“欧洲门”无论在建筑上还是在美学上都令人叹服。两座对称的平行四边形塔楼分别坐落在高速路的两侧，向对方剧烈倾斜。这是为在马德里召开的欧盟会议兴建的建筑，显示出一种勇敢无畏的豪气。 政治 【政治】 2004年3月11日，马德里发生恐怖爆炸事件，对西政局造成深远影响。尽管政府更迭，但西社会安定，经济稳中有升。新任首相萨帕特罗大力推行“对话和协商”，采取一系列带有工社党传统左翼色彩的政策。实施以稳定宏观经济、维持财政平衡为重点的经济政策。推行民主革新，关注弱势群体利益。在反对家庭暴力、解决非法移民、提高最低工资和养老金以及增加奖学金等方面颁布或修改了相关法律或条例。加大反恐力度，积极开展国际反恐合作。 【宪法】 现行宪法于1978年12月6日全国公民投票通过，12月29日生效。宪法规定西班牙是社会与民主的法制国家，实行议会君主制，王位由胡安·卡洛斯一世的直系后代世袭。国王为国家元首和武装部队最高统帅，代表国家。政府负责治理国家并向议会报告工作。宪法承认并保证各民族地区的自治权。 【议会】 由参议院和众议院组成，行使立法权，审批财政预算，监督政府工作。立法权以众议院为主，参议院为地区代表院。议员由普选产生，任期4年。本届议会于2004年4月组成。众议员350名，参议员259名（其中51名由各自治区议会委任）。两院议席分配情况如下： 众议院 参议院 工人社会党 164 95 人民党 148 126 统一与联合 10 6 共和左翼 8 - 加泰罗尼亚进步联盟- 16 联合左翼 5 - 巴斯克民族主义党 7 7 加那利联盟 3 4 其他党派 5 4 众议长曼努埃尔·马林·冈萨雷斯（Manuel Marín González，男），2004年4月就任。参议长弗朗西斯科·哈维尔·罗霍·加西亚（Francisco Javier Rojo García，男），2004年4月就任。两人均属工社党。 【政府】 现政府于2004年4月18日就职，现有17名内阁成员。主要有：首相何塞·路易斯·罗德里格斯·萨帕特罗（José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero）、第一副首相兼首相府大臣、政府发言人玛丽亚·特雷莎·费尔南德斯·德拉维加·桑斯（女）（María Teresa Fernández de la Vega Sanz）、第二副首相兼经济、财政大臣佩德罗·索尔韦斯·米拉（Pedro Solbes Mira）、外交与合作大臣米格尔·安赫尔·莫拉蒂诺斯·库亚乌百（Miguel Ángel Moratinos Cuyaubé）等。 【司法机构】 司法领导机构是司法总委员会，由２０名成员组成，最高法院院长兼任主席。司法机构分司法法院和行政法院两大系统。最高法院院长弗朗西斯科·何塞·埃尔南多（Francisco José Hernando），国家法院院长卡洛斯·迪瓦尔(Carlos Divar)。 最高检察机构是国家总检察院，下辖各级检察院及派驻各司法部门的检察官。国家总检察长坎迪多·孔德-蓬皮多(Candido Conde-Pumpido)。 【政党】 西实行多党制。主要政党有： （1）西班牙工人社会党(Partido Socialista Obrero Español)：执政党。成立于1879年，现有党员约41万。该党在1982～1996年间，四次蝉联执政。主席曼努埃尔·查韦斯（Manuel Chaves），总书记何塞·路易斯·罗德里格斯·萨帕特罗（José Luis Rodriguez Zapatero）。2004年4月，工社党在大选中获胜，上台执政。 （2）人民党(Partido Popular)：原名人民同盟，1977年创立，1989年易名为人民党。执行“中间改良主义”路线。现有党员约60万。该党成立后不久便在国家的政治舞台上崭露头角，力量不断扩大。1996年5月首次上台执政。2000年4月蝉联执政。主席马里亚诺·拉霍伊（Mariano Rajoy），总书记安赫尔·赫苏斯·阿塞韦斯(Angel Jesús Acebes)。2004年在大选中失利，成为最大在野党。 （3）西班牙共产党(Partido Comunista de España)：成立于1920年，党员约4万，总书记弗朗西斯科·弗鲁托斯（Francisco Frutos）。西共和其他左翼党派组成以它为主的联合左翼（Izquierda Unida），党员约5万。加斯帕尔·利亚马萨雷斯（Gaspar Llamazares）任总协调人。 （4）加泰罗尼亚民主联盟(Convergencia Democrática de Cataluña)：与另外一个民族主义政党—加泰罗尼亚民主团结党(Union Democrática de Cataluña)在加泰罗尼亚自治区联合执政。1975年成立，党员约1万。主席霍尔迪·普约尔(Jordi Pujol)，总书记 阿图尔·马斯(Artur Mas)。 （5） 巴斯克民族主义党(Partido Nacionalista Vasco)：1895年成立，巴斯克自治区执政党，党员约4万。主席霍苏·霍恩·伊马斯(Josu Jon Imaz)。 【军事】 武装力量由正规军和准军事力量（国家安全部队）组成，国王为最高统帅。国防委员会是国防最高决策机构，国王任主席，政府首相主持工作。成员有副首相、国防、外交、内政大臣、国防参谋长、三军参谋长。国防部负责制定防务政策并领导国防工业。三军参谋长联席会议是首相和国防大臣的军事顾问机构。国防参谋长费利克斯·桑斯·罗尔丹（Félix Sanz Roldán）上将。2001年3月西部长理事会通过法令，决定于2001年12月31日取消义务兵役制，实现军队职业化。 2005年国防预算69.91亿欧元，占国内生产总值的0.8％。西正规军总兵力为12.1万人，其中陆军7.71万人，海军1.94万人，空军2.1万人，三军后备役共32.85万人。此外，国家警察5.3万人，国民警卫队7.1万人。自2004年起，三军撤销了原有建制，并根据职能和任务分工，成立了6个作战司令部、10个部队支援机关，以减少指挥层次、加强作战效率。 外交 【对外关系】萨帕特罗政府上台后，大幅调整外交政策。主张在处理国际事务中采取务实有效的多边主义政策，强调联合国的主导作用，倡导不同文明之间开展对话，建立世界文明联盟。把奉行“欧洲主义”作为重点，力图置身于欧盟建设的中心。大力巩固和加强与拉美国家的友好合作关系，并积极推动欧盟发展同拉美的合作。努力恢复和发展同北非地区国家的关系，推动地中海地区的安全与合作，主张欧盟和北约在东扩同时兼顾南下。关注中东地区的和平与稳定，积极推动“路线图”计划的实施，力求在解决巴以冲突方面有所作为。重视加强在亚太地区的政治和经济存在，重点发展与中国、日本、韩国及东南亚国家的关系。西与近200个国家和地区有外交、领事和商务关系。2003-2004年，任联合国安理会非常任理事国和安理会反恐委员会主席。 【同欧盟的关系】 西奉行欧洲主义，视欧洲为其对外政策三大传统支柱之首，融入欧盟并在欧盟内发挥更大作用是西对外政策的根本。认为强大和团结的欧洲是世界进步的保障，欧盟应拥有真正的安全防务政策，在预防和解决国际和地区冲突中发挥积极有效和可信的作用，根据联合国宪章担负起维护世界和平与安全的责任。2005年2月，西就《欧盟宪法条约》举行全民公决，成为欧盟第一个经公投通过欧盟宪法的国家。西与欧盟成员国保持密切关系，强化与法国、德国的“亲密传统友好关系”。同德国、法国、意大利和葡萄牙建立了政府首脑定期会晤机制。欧盟成员国是西的主要经贸伙伴，目前，西进口的64％和出口的71％以上与欧盟成员国进行，外国对西投资的50％以上来自欧盟国家。 【同拉丁美洲国家的关系】 西与拉美国家有特殊传统关系，把发展与拉美国家的关系作为其战略重点。强调维护双方优先关系，扩大政治对话与合作机制，帮助拉美国家加强和巩固民主政体，强化文明社会，支持拉美经济一体化、政治协商机制和可持续发展。2005年10月，西举办了第15届伊比利亚美洲国家首脑会议。继续加强与拉美国家在政治和经济领域的交流与合作，扩大贸易规模，促进双边合作与发展。西主张通过建立欧盟－拉美战略伙伴关系，推动欧盟与拉美进一步接近。 西班牙与中国的双边关系 该部分内容转自中华人民共和国外交部网站 一、双边政治关系回顾 1、中国与西班牙于1973年3月9日建交。 2、建交后，双边关系发展平稳，双方在政治、经贸、科技和文化等领域的交往与合作不断扩大。两国政治关系日益密切，双方领导人保持着经常性的往来。2005年11月，国家主席胡锦涛访西期间，两国宣布建立全面战略伙伴关系。 近年代以来，访西的中国领导人主要有：国家主席江泽民（1996年）、国务院副总理吴邦国（2001年6月）、国家副主席胡锦涛（2001年11月）、外交部长唐家璇（2002年11月）、全国人大副委员长王兆国（2003年11月）、全国政协主席贾庆林（2004年9月）和国务院副总理曾培炎（2004年11月）、国家主席胡锦涛（2005年11月）、中共中央政治局常委、中央纪委书记吴官正（2007年4月）。 来访的西领导人主要有：参议长巴雷罗（1998年11月）、第二副首相兼经济大臣拉托（1998年11月、2001年11月和2002年10月）、首相阿斯纳尔（2000年6月）、王储费利佩（2000年11月和2006年7月）、王后索菲娅（2003年3月）、外交大臣帕拉西奥（2003年7月和12月）、众议长鲁迪（2003年11月）、参议长罗霍（2005年4月）、首相萨帕特罗（2005年7月）、外交与合作大臣莫拉蒂诺斯（2006年3月）、第二副首相兼经济财政大臣索尔韦斯（2006年4月）、第一副首相兼首相府大臣德拉维加（2007年4月）。 二、双边经贸关系和经济技术合作 建交后，中西经贸关系发展迅速，贸易额不断增长。据中国海关总署统计，2006年，双边贸易额为144.92亿美元，同比增长37.7％。2007年1至2月，双边贸易额为28.08亿美元，同比增长69.6%。 中国对西主要出口商品是：纺织品、服装鞋类、机电产品、家用电器、旅行用品及箱包、陶瓷和药品等。我从西主要进口商品是：机械设备、钢材、塑料、化工、医药制品等。 1985年至今，西政府向我提供了9笔贷款，累计承诺金额达39亿欧元，实际使用29.3亿欧元，主要用于我铁路、城市轨道交通、交通控制、风电、太阳能、水处理、垃圾处理、环保、城市消防、医疗、教学培训、通讯、农业等领域的项目。两国间较大的合作项目有：冿沈铁路电气化工程、海南航空购买模拟机项目、天津轻轨、天津地铁、西安天然气工程等。 截至2006年底，西在华投资项目为1249个，实际投入10.29亿美元，是欧盟第六大对华投资国，主要分布在北京、天津、上海、广东一带，行业涉及金融、能源、电信和运输等。我在西设立约20家合资或独资企业，主要集中在贸易、渔业等领域。中西共签技术引进合同603项，金额为30.77亿美元。双方的主要合作领域是：电力、化工，机械、城建和环保等。 三、文化、科技、教育与军事交往与合作 中西两国签有《科技合作基础协定》、《文化、教育和科学合作协定》和《科技人才交流协议》。中西科技混委会已举行了6次会议，文化、教育混委会举行了7次会议。塞万提斯学院北京分院于2006年7月正式成立。两国互派留学生。 上世纪80年代初，两军开始进行军事交往，后曾一度中断。近年来，两军友好交往频繁。2002年，西海军参谋长托伦特访华。2003年，中央军委委员、总政治部主任徐才厚上将访西。2005年3月，中央军委委员、空军司令员乔清晨上将访西。2006年5月，西空军参谋长德拉维加上将访华。 四、双边重要协定及文件 中西驻法大使分别代表两国政府在巴黎签署建交联合公报（1973年3月9日） 中西签署贸易协定和民用航空运输协定（1978年6月19日） 双方签订文化、教育、科学合作协定（1981年4月7日） 两国签署发展经济和工业合作协定（1984年11月15日） 双方签署科技合作基础协定（1985年9月5日） 两国签署关于避免双重征税和防止偷漏税的协定（1990年11月22日） 双方签署关于相互鼓励和保护投资协定（1992年2月6日） 两国签订关于民事、商事司法协助的条约（1992年5月2日） 双方签订两国政府打击有组织犯罪的合作协定（2000年6月25日） 两国签订关于刑事司法协助的条约（2005年7月21日） 两国签订引渡条约（2005年11月14日） 两国签订关于移管被判刑人的条约（2005年11月14日） 两国关于互设文化中心的协议（2005年11月14日） 经济 【经济】 西是中等发达的资本主义工业国。80年代初，西开始实行紧缩、调整、改革政策，采取了一系列经济自由化措施。以1986年加入欧共体为契机，经济发展出现高潮。90年代初，由于出现经济过热现象，经济增长速度放慢并陷入衰退。90年代中期以来，在西政府采取的宏观调控政策的作用下,经济开始回升并持续稳步增长。西于1998年5月成为首批加入欧元的国家之一。目前，西经济继续保持稳定增长态势。 2006年主要经济数字如下： 国内生产总值：9762亿欧元。 人均国内生产总值：21834欧元 经济增长率：3.9％。 货币名称：欧元 通货膨胀率：2.7％ 失业率：8.7％ 【资源】主要矿产储藏量：煤88亿吨，铁19亿吨，黄铁矿5亿吨，铜400万吨，锌190万吨，汞70万吨。森林总面积1437万公顷。 【工业】2005年工业产值2662.75亿欧元，占国内生产总值的28.5％。主要工业部门有造船、钢铁、汽车、水泥、采矿、建筑、纺织、化工、皮革、电力等行业。其中汽车生产量居世界第七，列韩国之后。2004年西汽车生产量297.8万量，汽车从业人员7.1万人，直、间接就业人员占全国就业人口的11％，有18家汽车生产厂，汽车出口占西对外出口的1/4。近年主要工业产品产量如下（单位：万吨）： 2001年2002年2003年 钢铁 1651 - - 汽车（万辆） 284.7 285.4 252.0 水泥 4051 4238.3 4422.5 （资料来源：2005年西班牙统计局报告） 【农渔业】2005年农业产值327亿欧元，占国内生产总值的3.5％。农业占地3331万公顷，其中已用地2517万公顷，可耕地1665万公顷。猪、羊、牛存栏数分别为2120万头、2000万头、600万头。近年西主要农产品产量如下（单位：万吨）： 2001年2002年2003年 小麦501.9 679.5 629.0 大麦624.5 832.8 869.8 玉米493.6 448.7 433.9 稻米837 811 -- 酸性水果531.7 570.1 -- 葡萄酒（亿升）35.05 35.76 47.29 橄榄525.8 456.9 441.5 橄榄油102.1 88.3 83.7 （资料来源：2005年西国家统计局报告） 【服务业】 西国民经济的一个重要支柱，包括文教、卫生、商业、旅游、科研、社会保险、运输业、金融业等，其中尤以旅游和金融业较为发达。2005年西服务业产值6353.24亿欧元，占国内生产总值的68％。 【旅游业】 西经济的重要支柱和外汇的主要来源之一。2005年接待外国游客5560万人，较前年增长6％，净收入460亿欧元，较前一年增长1％。全国共有各种旅馆17402家，床位约151万张，入住率53.58％。全国共有7751家旅行社。2004年就业人口122.6万人，占就业人口总数7.2%。著名旅游胜地有马德里、巴塞罗那、塞维利亚、太阳海岸、美丽海岸等。 【交通运输】 以陆路交通运输为主。2003年，主要交通运输情况如下： 铁路：总长15661公里；客运旅客6.54亿人次,货运3230万吨。 公路：总长665637公里，其中国道24857公里，地方政府管理道路70270公里，其他类道路69457公里。客运旅客28.65亿人次,货运18亿吨。 水运：各类船舶118033艘；客运量和货运量分别为2350万人次和3.82亿吨。主要港口27个，其中最主要的有巴塞罗那、毕尔巴鄂、塔拉戈纳、阿尔赫西拉等。 空运：全国有机场47个。主要机场有马德里巴拉哈斯机场、帕尔马·德马略卡机场和巴塞罗那机场。2003年，客运量和货运量分别为1.52亿人次和5.8亿吨。 （资料来源：2005年西班牙统计局报告） 【财政金融】 近几年西财政收支情况如下（单位：亿欧元）： 2001年2002年2003年 收入2591.16 2767.48 2560.31 支出2593.45 2765.07 2680.96 赤字2.29 2.41 -120.65 （资料来源：2005年西银行统计报告） 西财政收入主要靠直接税和间接税，私有化所得近年来也占据相当比重。2003年，财政赤字相当于国内生产总值的1.6％。截至2005年底，西外债11373.22亿欧元，西外汇储备为146亿欧元。 西班牙主要银行：桑坦德中部西班牙美洲银行(Banco Santander Central Hispanoamericano)，毕尔巴鄂比斯开对外银行集团(Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria)和人民银行(Banco Popular)。 【对外贸易】2005年，西对外贸易增长8.86％，其中进口增长11％，出口增长4.5％。近年外贸情况如下（单位：亿欧元）： 2003年2004年2005年 进口额1840.9 2071.2 2337.1 出口额1378.1 1464.5 1552.4 逆 差-462.8 -606.7 -784.7 （资料来源：2006年西班牙银行统计） 主要进口石油、工业原料、机械设备和消费品。主要出口汽车、钢材、化工产品、皮革制品、纺织品、葡萄酒和橄榄油等。主要贸易伙伴是欧盟、亚洲、拉美和美国。2004年西对欧盟的进、出口额分别占当年进出口总额的64.6％和73.9％，对亚洲进、出口额分别占14.6％和5.5％，对美进、出口额分别占3.6％和4％。 【直接投资】2003年，西在境外直接投资为243.41亿欧元，比上年减少了41.61%。主要投资部门有交通、电信、能源、金融、保险、房地产等，主要投资地区为拉丁美洲。2005年，西实际引资为166.18亿欧元。 【人民生活】 近年来，西政府福利开支不断增加。职工均可享受社会保险，费用由国家负担30.8％，企业和个人承担69.2％。西男性平均寿命为77.2岁，女性为83.7岁。2004年西共有综合医院774所，19万名医生，平均每所医院有2034张病床，每万人有37张病床。每百人有62辆汽车。人均月工资2616.5美元。 （资料来源：2005年西国家统计局报告） 文化和民生 宗教： 西班牙自从罗马人统治时期开始就确立了天主教国家的地位。公元八世纪“再征服”战争将阿拉伯人赶出半岛之后，天主教完全控制了整个西班牙。中世纪西班牙 “宗教裁判所”横行整个欧洲，滥施酷刑，捕杀异端，上至王公大臣，下至平民百姓无不谈虎色变。欧洲宗教改革时期西班牙成为西欧各国的眼中钉。十八世纪以后，教会和世俗力量之间的矛盾不断激化，反教权运动日益高涨，教会势力逐渐衰败。但是，目前仍有百分之九十四的西班牙人信奉天主教，其余也有新教徒、犹太教徒和伊斯兰教徒。 西班牙全境分十一个教区，其中托莱多教区是最大也是最重要的一个。托莱多主教从哥特时期以来就是西班牙的红衣大主教。 天主教的影响更多地表现在西班牙人的日常生活中。像其他天主教徒一样，西班牙人一生中最重要的时刻都是在教堂中度过的：出生后的洗礼，第一次领圣餐，婚礼和死后的葬礼。西班牙节日众多，有一个原因就是每一个城市、每一个村子、每一种职业都有一个圣徒作为守护神。每到圣徒生日的时候，这个城市或者行业公会就要举行大弥撒和宗教游行。另外，每一个教徒也都有自己的守护神，不仅要过自己的生日，也要过圣徒的生日，称作 “Día del Santo”。西班牙人的名字大多取自圣徒，最常见的男女名字就是圣父圣母“何塞”和“玛丽亚”，而且不论男女，都经常把这两个名字连用。比如西班牙前任首相就叫“何塞·马利亚·阿斯纳尔”。 教育： 西班牙的教育一度受到天主教会的控制。现在西班牙的教育体制主要分为学前教育、普及教育、学士教育、高等教育以及职业培训。 2到3岁德的儿童可以自愿上幼儿园小班，4到5岁上大班。国家的幼儿园是免费的，义务普及教育（6～16岁）也是如此，并且交通和食堂也是免费的。普及教育的对象是6到14岁的儿童。初小三年，高小两年，初中三年。 小学主要课程有语文、数学、社会和自然体验、艺术表达、音乐和体育。 初中增加了人文与自然科学、外语和宗教等课程。学生完成初中学业后可以选择升入综合中学（高中，也称大学预科），也可以自谋职业。 综合中学主要有三大类的课程：一是文学，包括人文科学和古典语言；二是科学，重点是数学；三是有关农业、工业和其他方面的技术课程。学生在校期间自己选择分科学习，完成任何一个学科的课程，经考试合格，即可获得学士学位。在车间学校和行业之家两种形式的职业学校里，职业培训分专业理论和企业实践，职业培训也是免费的。在那里除了基础课以外，还可以学到工业绘图、管理学以及各种专业课程。 西班牙的萨拉曼卡大学和格拉纳达大学都是欧洲最古老的大学之一。在西班牙宪法中规定，大学社团有学习自由、教学自由和大学自治。自制大学可自定规章，选举学校领导机构，制定预算和人员编制，自主进行学位评定。 西班牙有三十所公里大学和四所由教会主办的私立大学，马德里自治大学是西班牙最大的高等学府，其它著名大学还有马德里大学、萨拉曼卡大学、巴塞罗那中央大学等。 小学为6年，中学为4年，大学4~5年。2003年，教育费用占国内生产总值的4.35%，其中大部为公共部门的投资。 2004～2005学年学生总数8441616人，其中各级学校和学生情况： 学校（所） 学生（人） 学龄前教育3596 1419307 小学12272 2494598 特殊学校-- 29283 中学6276 1876322 预科-- 632154 专科-- 516504 大学 72 1473448 从事非高等教育的教师共562510人，其中公立学校教师411399人、私立学校151111人，高等教育共有师资86774人。 （资料来源：西班牙教育、科学部2004～05年统计报告） 西班牙社交礼仪 仪态礼仪 当地妇女有"扇语"，如当妇女打开扇子，把脸的下部遮起来，意思是：我是爱你的，你喜欢我吗？若一会儿打开一会儿合上，则表示：我很想念你。因此初到西班牙的妇女，如果不了解扇语，最好不要使用扇子。 相见礼仪 西班牙人通常在正式社交场合与客人相见时，行握手礼。与熟人相见时，男朋友之间常紧紧地拥抱。西班牙人的姓名常有三四节，前一二节为本人姓名，倒数第二节为父姓，最后一节为母姓。通常口头称呼称父姓。 商务礼仪 西班牙人很重视信誉，总是尽可能地履行签订的合同，即便后来发现合同中有对他们不利的地方，他们也不愿公开承认自己的过失。如在这种情况下，对方能够善意地帮助他们，则会赢得西班牙人的尊重与友谊。西班牙人只有在参加斗牛比赛活动时才严守时间，但客人应当守时，即便对方晚到，也不要加以责怪。 旅游礼仪 西班牙人性格开朗，热情，但容易激动，有时发生争吵是很正常的，他们对此已习以为常。西班牙人吃东西时，通常会礼貌地邀请周围的人与他分享，但这仅是一种礼仪上的表示，不要贸然接受，否则会被他们视为缺乏教养。 新闻出版：全国共有报刊155种，全国性杂志170种，销售量共420万。主要报纸平均日发行量：《国家报》，发行量46万份；《世界报》，31万份；《阿贝塞报》，28万份；《先锋报》，20万份；《加泰罗尼亚报》，17万份；《道理报》15万份。 主要通讯社：埃菲社，官方通讯社，1939年1月创办。另外还有私营的欧洲通讯社、罗戈斯通讯社。 广播电视总局统管电台、电视台。全国共有200多家电台，主要有西班牙国家广播电台和私营的西班牙广播公司、洲际电台、西班牙人民广播电台。 电视台：西班牙电视台为国营、全国性电视台，有两个频道。此外还有安达卢西亚、加泰罗尼亚、加里西亚、巴斯克和马德里等地方电视台。1989年政府批准建立了多频道、天线－3和电视5台3家私营电视台。1997年两家数码电视台开始运营。 饮食：种类因地而异，但是大多菜都要加橄榄油 。 自然地理 气候：中部梅塞塔高原属大陆性气候，北部和西北部沿海属海洋性温带气候，南部和东南部属地中海型亚热带气候。西北部较湿润，内陆和东南部较干燥。月平均气温从北到南：1月9.4-10.3℃；7月19.1-28.1℃。年降水量一般350-500毫米，山地高达1，500毫米。 矿藏：汞储量占世界首位，并有煤、铁、铝土、钼、黄铁矿、石油等。森林面积广阔，有欧洲栓皮栎、橡、栗、杉等。盛产沙丁鱼和龙虾等。 位置：位于欧洲西南部伊比利亚半岛。北濒比斯开湾，西邻葡萄牙，南隔直布罗陀海峡与非洲的摩洛哥相望，东北与法国、安道尔接壤，东和东南临地中海。海岸线长约7800公里。境内多山，是欧洲高山国家之一。境内高原和山地相间，全国平均海拔660米，全国35％的地区海拔1000米以上，平原仅占11％，是欧洲地势最高国家之一。主要山脉北有坎塔布连、比利牛斯，南有莫雷纳山脉和安达卢西亚山脉。南部的木拉散峰海拔3478米，为全国最高峰。 西班牙地处欧洲西南部，与葡萄牙共同分享伊比利亚半岛。西班牙位于北纬36度到44度、西经9度18分和东经3度19分之间，南北跨840公里，东西 1000公里。国土面积为504750平方公里，西班牙人说他们的国家形状像一块熟牛皮。西班牙在欧洲仅次于俄罗斯、德国和法国居第四位，相当于欧洲总面积的二十分之一。半岛之外，西班牙的领土包括还地中海的巴利阿里群岛和大西洋的大小加那利群岛。 西班牙北部沿海是比斯开湾，东北同法国和安道尔接壤，高耸的比利牛斯山把这几个国家分隔两边；东面和东南面向地中海，向南越过只有14公里宽的直布罗陀海峡便能达到非洲的摩洛哥；长方形的葡萄牙是西班牙西边的邻居。直布罗陀海峡是地中海出大西洋的要道，战略地位极为重要，西班牙与英国长期以来一直在争夺此地的主权。 不包括巴利阿里群岛和加那利群岛，三面环海的西班牙的海岸线长约3904公里，但是海岸比较平直，真正的天然良港都集中在北部，如费罗尔、蓬特维德拉和维哥等。卡塔赫纳是唯一地处地中海的天然港湾。东南部的海岸线不是以港口，而是以风景旖旎的海滩胜地闻名。西班牙著名的海湾有加的斯湾和瓦伦西亚湾。 西班牙不仅有美丽的海岸，还有巍峨的高山。在欧洲，她是除了瑞士之外最高的国家。西班牙全境大部分是古老的高原。著名的中央高原耸立西班牙正中，约占全国面积的60%，海拔600-700米。中央高原三面被高山阻绝：北部是坎塔布连山脉，南部伫立着莫雷纳山，东部的伊比利亚山脉隔开中部高原与阿拉贡平原。高原西边那一面缓缓延伸，地势渐趋平坦，最后消失在大西洋沿岸。如果你驾车游览西班牙全境，不时映入眼帘的是一座座白雪皑皑的山峰，一片片起伏不平的丘陵。 西班牙全境大致可以分为五个地理区： 北部山区：这里有欧洲著名的比利牛斯山脉，整个山脉绵延千里，景色如画。一年四季，无论山上山下，还是平原陆地，到处是一片翠绿。尤其是阿斯图里亚斯地区，山脉连绵，松涛茫茫，林海郁郁。 紧靠比利牛斯山脉的坎塔布连山脉，海拔达2000米以上，北临茫茫无边的比斯开湾，陆地上林木茂盛，景色十分迷人。许多宽广的河谷置于其间，湖水清澈如镜。更值得一提的是，那里还有数不胜数的飞瀑，从高处倾泻而下，整日水雾弥漫，蔚为壮观。这里既是重要的软木产区，又是牛羊遍地的牧区和工业区。 中央高原：位于高原中部的科迪勒拉山脉，将梅塞塔高原分为北部旧卡斯蒂利亚高原和南部新卡斯蒂利亚高原。在这块广袤无垠、山岭起伏的土地上，有着大片著名的橄榄树林和动物保护区。中央高原的西北部和北部大西洋沿岸，大部分地区是崇山峻岭。一条条山间公路首尾相接，汽车有时在山间行驶大半天，好像还在原来的位置。 阿拉贡平原：阿拉贡平原位于比利牛斯山脉东南面的埃布罗河流域，是个大致呈三角形的波状平原。在古地质时期，这里曾是一片浩瀚的内陆湖泊，后来湖水流入地中海，慢慢变成了干涸的陆地。阿拉贡平原常年气候宜人，雨水充沛，土质肥沃，被称为富饶的“丰水宝地”，既是西班牙的天然粮仓，又是重要的葡萄、柑桔等水果产地。 地中海沿岸山地：沿岸山地从东南部安达卢西亚到东北部加泰罗尼亚，长达1500公里。走在细软的沙滩上，海天一色，游人如潮。南端安达卢西亚山脉中的穆拉萨山峻峭高耸，海拔3478米，是伊比利亚半岛的最高点，号称西班牙“民族的脊梁”。这座山终年云烟袅袅，清风悠扬，是个避暑消夏的好去处。 安达卢西亚平原：位于莫莱纳山脉和安达卢西亚山脉之间。这里一马平川，坦坦荡荡；瓜达尔基维尔河由西往东横贯整个平原，灌溉着千万亩良田。由于高耸的安达卢西亚山脉挡住了来自海洋的湿润空气，所以这里气候干燥，盛夏骄阳似火。 西班牙斗牛(corrida de toro) 斗牛是西班牙的国粹，风靡全国，享誉世界，尽管从动物保护的观点上看目前人们对此存在争议，但是作为西班牙特有的古老传统还是保留到现在，并受到很多人的欢迎。斗牛季节是3月至10月，斗牛季节里，每逢周四和周日各举行两场。如逢节日和国家庆典，则每天都可观赏。 历史 简史 公元前9世纪凯尔特人从中欧迁入。公元前8世纪起，伊比利亚半岛先后遭外族入侵，长期受罗马人、西哥特人和摩尔人的统治。西班牙人为反对外族侵略进行了长期斗争，1492年取得“光复运动”的胜利，1516年卡斯蒂利亚女王胡安那和王夫菲利普一世的儿子查理（西班牙文名:卡洛斯）以特拉斯塔马拉家族的外孙资格继承卡斯蒂利亚、莱昂、阿拉贡、瓦格纳等国的王位，是为卡洛斯一世。建立了欧洲最早的统一中央王权的共主联邦的国家。 十六世纪是海上强国，以后渐衰。1837年伊莎贝拉二世在通过君主立宪的法案之后将其正式合并为一个国家,决定用西班牙一词“España”(腓尼基语，意为“野兔”)命名,自此结束了历经300多年的共主联邦模式。 1931年王朝被推翻，成立共和国，1936年成立由人民阵线领导的联合政府。1936年佛朗哥发动内战，于1939年夺取政权，1947年宣布为君主国。 1492年10月，哥伦布发现西印度群岛。此后，西班牙逐渐成为海上强国，在欧、美、非、亚均有殖民地。1588年“无敌舰队”被英国击溃，开始衰落。1873年，爆发资产阶级革命，建立第一共和国。1874年12月王朝复辟。在1898年的美西战争中，失去在美洲和亚太的最后几块殖民地——古巴、波多黎各、关岛和菲律宾。在第一次世界大战中保持中立。1931年4月王朝被推翻，第二共和国建立。1936年2月成立有社会党和共产党参加的联合政府。同年7月佛朗哥发动叛乱，经三年内战，于1939年4月夺取政权，实行独裁统治达36年之久。1943年2月与德国缔结军事同盟，参加侵苏战争。1947年7月佛朗哥宣布西班牙为君主国，自任终身国家元首。1966年7月立末代国王阿方索十三世之孙胡安·卡洛斯为承继人。 1975年11月佛朗哥病死，胡安·卡洛斯一世登基，恢复君主制。1976年7月，国王任命原国民运动秘书长阿·苏亚雷斯为首相，开始向西方议会民主政治过渡。 史前历史 在西班牙发现最早的人类考古学遗迹大约可以追溯到公元前三万到五万年，穴居人类的史前岩画为我们提供了伊比利亚半岛史前文明的生活场景。在西班牙发现的最重要的遗迹包括“黑窟”洞穴和“松林”洞穴，当然还有著名的阿尔塔米拉岩洞。 凯尔特西班牙 最新的理论研究认为伊比利亚人是从北非来到半岛的，他们主要定居在地中海沿岸以及更往南的地区，在那里伊比利亚人创造了许多不同的文化，对于考古学来说都具有重大的意义。古希腊的历史中对其中最重要的一支有过记载，希腊人称他们为“图尔多人”。他们是伊比利亚人的一个部落，在瓜达尔基维尔河流域建立了文化灿烂的王国。 公元前1200年，来自中北欧的凯尔特人从北部进入半岛。金发凯尔特人和深色皮肤的伊比利亚人通婚，并且扩展到整个半岛。伊比利亚半岛历史上唯一未被任何外来势力侵入的地区恐怕就是巴斯克人居住的北部山区。历史和社会学家至今没有弄清巴斯克人的起源，她和任何邻近民族之间找不到亲缘关系，却有人在巴斯克语和日语之间找到了共同点，现在唯一知道的就是巴斯克是一个十分古老的民族。 腓尼基，希腊和迦太基人 公元前1100年，强大的航海民族腓尼基人在半岛上建立了殖民地，其中最重要的一个就是加迪尔，也就是今天的加的斯。同时，希腊人则在南方和地中海沿岸确立了自己的统治。 布匿战争期间，迦太基人趁机占领了西班牙的大部分土地，他们留下的著名城市包括卡塔赫纳，这个词正是“新迦太基”的意思。 罗马人和哥特人 罗马人在布匿战争中打败了迦太基人之后，也把殖民地扩展到了西班牙，并且很快占领整个半岛，著名的努曼西亚英雄故事就诞生在伊比利亚人抵抗罗马人入侵的过程中。从此，半岛便作为威震海内的罗马帝国的“西班牙省”而存在。西班牙省在帝国内地位十分重要，两位罗马皇帝特拉加诺和阿德里安以及斯多噶学派伟大的哲学家塞内卡都是在这里出生的。西班牙完全吸收了罗马文化，包括希腊拉丁人和犹太基督教政治、法律、家庭、宗教和习俗，罗马的语言也在半岛上开始使用。梅里达是今天保存古罗马遗迹最完整的西班牙城市，在塞哥维亚，还可以看到古罗马的水渠从半空中穿越城市。半岛上第一次出现了统一的文明。 公元409年，强悍的哥特蛮族侵入日渐衰颓的罗马帝国，并于公元419年在伊比利亚半岛建立了自己的王国，定都托莱多。但是哥特人没有对西班牙文明的发展做出多大的贡献。 穆斯林西班牙和光复战争 西哥特人的统治持续到了公元711年。当时五万穆斯林战士横跨直布罗陀海峡，用手中的弯刀战胜了曾令罗马人闻风丧胆的哥特武士，赢得了瓜达莱特战役大捷。四年之后，阿拉伯人席卷整个半岛，把她变成了一个埃米尔国，也是庞大的阿拉伯帝国的一部分，叫做“安达卢斯国”。我国古代称之为“绿衣大食”。尽管半岛北部地区的抵抗运动从未停止过，公元八世纪到十一世纪穆斯林帝国的势力仍旧令人惊叹地不断巩固。西班牙在这个时期吸收了灿烂的阿拉伯文化，但是逐渐脱离了大马士革的中央统治。 阿卜杜拉三世最终把西班牙变成了一个独立的哈里发王朝。在他的统治下，西班牙迎来了文化上的空前繁荣。城市建设和商品经济的得到了长足的进步，甚至推动了整个欧洲的发展。阿拉伯人带来了医学、数学和天文学方面最先进的知识，并且在西班牙的音乐、美术、文学、建筑等方面留下了深刻的印记。阿尔罕布拉宫便是阿拉伯艺术登峰造极之作。同时，阿拉伯语也在西班牙语里留下了许多词汇。当时最重要的城市有瓦伦西亚、萨拉戈萨、塞维利亚和科尔多瓦。拥有五十万居民和一座巨型图书馆的科尔多瓦是十世纪西欧最大的城市和文化中心。 然而，到了十一世纪，王族间（39个王子）的不断内讧使穆斯林帝国分裂败落，光复运动愈演愈烈。北方的国王们一个接一个地取得胜利。到了十四世纪，在西班牙的穆斯林只剩下了格拉纳达最后一个据点，他们又坚持了近一百年，直到“天主教国王”将她也并入了卡斯蒂利亚王国的版图。 遗产 2008年，西班牙的世界遗产已达37处，在所有国家中名列第一。 科尔多瓦历史中心 格拉纳达的阿兰布拉宫和赫内拉利花园 布尔戈斯大教堂 埃斯库里亚尔修道院 巴塞罗那的圭尔公园 圭尔宫和米拉大楼 阿尔塔米拉洞窟 塞哥维亚古镇及高架引水渠 阿斯图里亚斯王国时期教区 圣地亚哥-德孔波斯特拉城古镇 阿维拉古镇及城外教堂 特鲁埃尔的穆德哈尔式建筑 历史名城托莱多 加拉霍奈国家公园 卡塞雷斯古镇 塞维利亚大教堂 阿尔卡萨尔和西印度群岛档案馆 古城萨拉曼卡 波布莱特修道院 梅里达考古遗迹 瓜达卢佩的圣 玛利亚皇家修道院 圣地亚哥-德孔波斯特拉"朝圣之路" 多尼纳国家公园 有城墙的昆卡城 巴伦西亚的丝绸交易市场 拉斯马德拉斯 巴塞罗那的加泰罗尼亚音乐厅和圣帕乌医院 圣米兰的尤索和苏索修道院 伊比利亚半岛地中海盆地岩画艺术 阿尔卡拉的埃纳雷斯堡大学和历史区 伊维萨岛景观 拉拉瓜纳的圣克利斯托瓦尔 阿塔皮尔卡考古遗址 加泰罗尼的维尔德布伊罗马式教堂 塔拉科考古遗址 埃尔切的帕默拉尔 卢戈的罗马城墙 阿兰胡埃斯文化景观 文艺复兴时期的巨著合奏的úbeda和baeza Spain is a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy and has been a member of the European Union since 1986. It is a developed country with the eighth largest economy in the world and fifth largest in the EU, based on nominal GDP. Summary Spain is a key site when it comes to studying both the arrival of the first hominids recorded in Europe and the prehistoric stage of this continent. Under the Roman Empire, Hispania flourished and became one of the empire's most important regions. During the early Middle Age it came under Germanic rule. Later, nearly the entire peninsula came under Muslim rulers. Through a long process Christian kingdoms in the north gradually rolled back Muslim rule which was finally extinguished in 1492 as well as expelling or killing the Jews or forcing many to convert. That year Columbus reached the Americas, the beginnings of a global empire. Spain became the strongest kingdom in Europe in the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries but continued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. In the middle decades of the 20th century it came under a dictatorship, under which it went through many years of stagnation and then a spectacular economic revival. Democracy was recovered in 1978 under the form of a constitutional monarchy. In 1986 it joined the European Union and has experienced an economic and cultural renaissance. Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples in the Iberian Peninsula Archeological research at Atapuerca indicates that the Iberian Peninsula was peopled more than a million years ago. Modern humans in the form of Cro-Magnons began arriving in the Iberian Peninsula through the Pyrenees some 35,000 years ago. The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Spain, which were created about 15,000 BCE. Furthermore, archeological evidence in places like Los Millares in Almería and in El Argar in Murcia suggests that developed cultures existed in the eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula during the late Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The two main historical peoples of the peninsula were the Iberians and the Celts, the former inhabiting the Mediterranean side from the northeast to the southwest, the latter inhabiting the Atlantic side, in the north and northwest part of the peninsula. In the inner part of the peninsula, where both groups were in contact, a mixed, distinctive, culture was present, known as Celtiberian. In addition, Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountains. Other ethnic groups existed along the southern coastal areas of present day Andalusia. Among these southern groups there grew the earliest urban culture in the Iberian Peninsula, that of the semi-mythical southern city of Tartessos (perhaps pre-1100 BC) near the location of present-day Cádiz. The flourishing trade in gold and silver between the people of Tartessos and Phoenicians and Greeks is documented in the history of Strabo and in the biblical book of king Solomon. Between about 500 BC and 300 BC, the seafaring Phoenicians and Greeks founded trading colonies all along the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Carthaginians briefly took control of much of the Mediterranean coast in the course of the Punic Wars, until they were eventually defeated and replaced by the Romans. Roman Empire and Germanic invasions During the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Empire captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast (from roughly 210 BC to 205 BC), leading to eventual Roman control of nearly the entire Iberian Peninsula - a control which lasted over 500 years, bound together by law, language, and the Roman road. The base Celt and Iberian population remained in various stages of Romanisation, and local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. The Romans improved existing cities, such as Lisbon (Olissis bona or 'good for Ulysses') and Tarragona (Tarraco), and established Zaragoza (Caesaraugusta), Mérida (Augusta Emerita), Valencia (Valentia), León ("Legio Septima"), Badajoz ("Pax Augusta"), and Palencia (Παλλαντία, "Pallas Ateneia"). The peninsula's economy expanded under Roman tutelage. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbors exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the first century CE and it became popular in the cities in the second century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period. The first Germanic tribes to invade Hispania arrived in the 5th century, as the Roman Empire decayed. The Visigoths, Suebi, Vandals and Alans arrived in Spain by crossing the Pyrenees mountain range. The Romanized Visigoths entered Hispania in 415. After the conversion of their monarchy to Roman Catholicism, the Visigothic Kingdom eventually encompassed a great part of the Iberian Peninsula after conquering the disordered Suebic territories in the northwest and Byzantine territories in the southeast. Muslim Iberia In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711-718) by mainly Berber Muslims (see Moors) from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Islamic Empire. Only a number of areas in the mountains to the north of the Iberian Peninsula managed to cling to their independence, occupying the areas roughly corresponding to modern Asturias, Navarre and Aragon. Interior of the Mezquita in Córdoba, a Muslim mosque until the Reconquest, after which it became a Christian cathedral.Under Islam, Christians and Jews were recognised as "peoples of the book", and were free to practice their religion, but faced a number of mandatory discriminations and penalties as dhimmis. Conversion to Islam proceeded at a steadily increasing pace. Following the mass conversions in the 10th and 11th centuries it is believed that Muslims came to outnumber Christians in the remaining Muslim controlled areas. The Muslim community in the Iberian peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada. Córdoba, the capital of the caliphate, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city of medieval western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played a great part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. The Romanized cultures of the Iberian peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, thus giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners, and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to a remarkable expansion of agriculture. However, by the 11th century, Muslim holdings had fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories and consolidate their positions. The arrival of the North African Muslim ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, but ultimately, after some successes in invading the north, proved unable to resist the increasing military strength of the Christian states. Fall of Muslim rule and unification Equal partners: King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs.The term Reconquista ("Reconquest") is used to describe the centuries-long period of expansion of Spain's Christian kingdoms; the Reconquista is viewed as beginning after the battle of Covadonga in 722. The Christian army victory over the Muslim forces lead to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias. Muslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees, but they were defeated at the Battle of Poitiers in France. Subsequently, they retreated to more secure positions south of the Pyrenees with a frontier marked by the Ebro and Duero rivers in Spain. As early as 739 Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela. A little later Frankish forces established Christian counties south of the Pyrenees; these areas were to grow into kingdoms, in the north-east and the western part of the Pyrenees. These territories included Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia. The breakup of Al-Andalus into the competing Taifa kingdoms helped the expanding Christian kingdoms. The capture of the central city of Toledo in 1085 largely completed the reconquest of the northern half of Spain. After a Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248—leaving only the Muslim enclave of Granada as a tributary state in the south. Marinid invasions from north Africa in the 13th and 14th centuries failed to re-establish Muslim rule. Also in the 13th century, the kingdom of Aragon, still ruled by the Catalan count of Barcelona, expanded its reach across the Mediterranean to Sicily. Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and Salamanca (1218/1254) were established; among the earliest in Europe. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain. In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united (even though both kingdoms kept a high degree of political and economical independence) by the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand. In 1478 began the final stage of the conquest of Canary Islands and in 1492, these united kingdoms captured Granada, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula. The year 1492 also marked the arrival in the New World of Christopher Columbus, during a voyage funded by Isabella. That same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert into the Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition. As Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralized royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España - whose root is the ancient name "Hispania" - began to be used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms. With their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power. Imperial Spain The unification of the kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, León, and Navarre laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire. Spain became Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions. Spain reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs, Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). Included in this period are the Italian Wars, the Dutch revolt, clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish war and war with France. The galleon became synonymous with the riches of the Spanish Empire.The Spanish Empire expanded to include most part of South and Central America, Mexico, southern and western portions of today's United States, the Philippines, Guam and the Mariana Islands in Eastern Asia, the Iberian peninsula (including the Portuguese Empire (from 1580), southern Italy, Sicily, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of modern Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. It was the first empire about which it was said that the sun did not set. This was an age of discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Along with the arrival of precious metals, spices, luxuries, and new agricultural plants, Spanish explorers and others brought back knowledge, playing a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the world. Of note was the cultural efflorescence now known as the Spanish Golden Age and the intellectual movement known as the School of Salamanca. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. Barbary pirates under the aegis of the rapidly growing Ottoman empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas through their slave raids and renewed the threat of an Islamic invasion. This at a time when Spain was often at war with France in Italy and elsewhere. Later the Protestant Reformation schism from the Catholic Church dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean. By the middle decades of a war and plague ridden 17th century Europe, the effects of the strain began to show. The Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in the continent wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the European economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the independence of Portugal - with its empire - and the Netherlands, and eventually began to surrender territories to France after the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years War. During the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, however it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the 19th century. The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), a wide ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, cost Spain its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent. During this war, a new dynasty—the French Bourbons—was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king Philip V of Spain united Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the regional privileges (fueros). The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Towards the end of the century trade finally began growing strongly. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in the American War of Independence improved Spain's international standing. Napoleonic rule and its consequences "The Second of May, 1808: The Charge of the Mamelukes", by Francisco Goya, 1814.In 1793, Spain went to war against the new French Republic, which had overthrown and executed its Bourbon king, Louis XVI. The war polarised the country in an apparent reaction against the gallicised elites. Defeated in the field, Spain made peace with France in 1795 and effectively became a client state of that country; the following year, it declared war against Britain and Portugal. A disastrous economic situation, along with other factors, led to the abdication of the Spanish king in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte. This new foreign monarch was regarded with scorn. On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid began a nationalist uprising against the French army, marking the beginning of what is known to the Spanish as the War of Independence, and to the English as the Peninsular War. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several badly-coordinated Spanish armies and forcing a British Army to retreat to Corunna. However, further military action by Spanish guerrillas and Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese army, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII. The French invasion proved disastrous for Spain's economy, and left a deeply divided country that was prone to political instability for more than a century. The power struggles of the early 19th century led to the loss of all of Spain's colonies in Latin America, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Spanish-American War Amid the instability and economic crisis that afflicted Spain in the 19th century there arose nationalist movements in the Philippines and Cuba. Wars of independence ensued in those colonies and eventually the United States became involved. Despite the commitment and ability shown by some military units, they were so mismanaged by the highest levels of command that the Spanish-American war of 1898 was soon over. "El Desastre" (The Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, helped give impetus to the Generation of 98 who were already conducting much critical analysis concerning the country. It also weakened the stability that had been established during Alfonso XII's reign. 20th century The 20th century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. The heavy losses suffered during the Rif war in Morocco helped to undermine the monarchy. A period of authoritarian rule under General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1931) ended with the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women. "Guernica" by Pablo Picasso, 1937.The bitterly fought Spanish Civil War (1936-39) ensued. Three years later the Nationalist forces, led by General Francisco Franco, emerged victorious with the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republican side was supported by the Soviet Union and Mexico, but it was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-Intervention. The Spanish Civil War has been called the first battle of the Second World War; under Franco, Spain was neutral in the Second World War though sympathetic to the Axis. The only legal party under Franco's regime was the Falange española tradicionalista y de las JONS, formed in 1937; the party emphasised anti-Communism, Catholicism and nationalism. Nonetheless, since Franco's anti-democratic ideology was opposed to the idea of political parties, the new party was renamed officially a National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949. After World War II, Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations until 1955, when due to the Cold War it became strategically important for the U.S. to foment a military presence on the Iberian peninsula, next to the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar, in order to protect southern Europe. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented economic growth in what was called the Spanish miracle, which rapidly resumed the long interrupted transition towards a modern industrial economy with a thriving tourism sector and a high degree of human development. Upon the death of General Franco in November 1975, Prince Juan Carlos assumed the position of king and head of state. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the arrival of democracy, the State devolved autonomy to the regions and created an internal organization based on autonomous communities. In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical nationalism supportive of the terrorist group ETA. On February 23, 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes and tried to impose a military-backed government. However, the great majority of the military forces remained loyal to King Juan Carlos, who used his personal authority and addressed the usurpers via national TV as commander in chief to put down the bloodless coup attempt. In 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, which represented the return to power of a leftist party after 43 years. In 1986, Spain joined the European Community (which was to become the European Union). The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office. The Government of Spain has been involved in a long-running campaign against the terrorist organization ETA ("Basque Homeland and Freedom"), founded in 1959 in opposition to Franco and dedicated to promoting Basque independence through violent means. They consider themselves a guerrilla organization while they are listed as a terrorist organization by both the European Union and the United States on their respective watchlists. The current nationalist-led Basque Autonomous government does not endorse ETA's nationalist violence, which has caused over 800 deaths in the past 40 years. 21st century On January 1, 2002, Spain terminated its historic peseta currency and replaced it with the euro, which has become its national currency shared with 15 other countries from the Eurozone. This culminated the first phase of a period of economic growth, which has kept the Spanish economy growing well over the EU average, but concerns are growing that the extraordinary property boom and high foreign trade deficits of recent years may bring this to an end. On March 11, 2004, a series of bombs exploded in commuter trains in Madrid, Spain. The bombings were claimed by al Qaeda, whereas after a five months trial in 2007 it was concluded that the bombings were perpetrated by a local Islamist militant group inspired by al-Qaeda, but without direct links to that organisation. The bombings killed 191 people and wounded more than 1800, and it has been claimed that the intention of the perpetrators was to influence the outcome of the Spanish general election, held three days later on March 14. Although initial suspicions of responsibility for the bombings focused on the Basque group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating possible Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a source of political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE crossing accusations over the handling of the aftermath. A couple of days later, at the March 14 elections, PSOE, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, obtained a relative majority, enough to form the new cabinet with Rodríguez Zapatero as the new Presidente del Gobierno or prime minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP administration. Politics Spanish Government Spain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales. The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers presided over by the President of Government (comparable to a prime minister), proposed by the monarch and elected by the National Assembly following legislative elections. The legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms. Chief of State King Juan Carlos I, since November 22, 1975 Head of Government President of the Government: José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, elected 14 March 2004. First Vice President and Minister of Presidency: María Teresa Fernández de la Vega. Second Vice President and Minister of Economy and Finance: Pedro Solbes. Cabinet Council of Ministers (Spanish Consejo de Ministros) designated by the president. José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Prime Minister of Spain.The Spanish nation is organizationally composed in the form of called Estado de las Autonomías ("State of Autonomies"); it is one of the most decentralized countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium; for example, all Autonomous Communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources; therefore, health and education systems among others are managed regionally, besides, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia and the Basque Country, a full fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see Mossos d'Esquadra and Ertzaintza). See also: List of Spanish monarchs and Monarchs of Spain family tree Spanish Constitution The Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy. The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. After the death of Francisco Franco in 1975, a general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. As a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation as well as that Spain has today no official religion but all are free to practice and believe as they wish. Foreign relations of Spain After the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West. As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a major participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political cooperation mechanisms. With the normalization of diplomatic relations with North Korea in 2001, Spain completed the process of universalizing its diplomatic relations. Spain has maintained its special identification with Latin America. Its policy emphasizes the concept of an Iberoamerican community, essentially the renewal of the historically liberal concept of hispanoamericanismo (or hispanism as it is often referred to in English), which has sought to link the Iberian peninsula with Latin America through language, commerce, history and culture. Spain has been an effective example of transition from dictatorship to democracy, as shown in the many trips that Spain's King and Prime Ministers have made to the region. Territorial disputes Territory claimed by Spain There is a territorial dispute with the United Kingdom over Gibraltar, a 6 square km Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula which was conquered by Britain from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession, along with the Spanish island of Minorca (which had also been invaded but was reconquered in 1782 and finally ceded back to Spain in 1802 by the Treaty of Amiens). The legal situation was regularized in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown. Spain has called for the return of Gibraltar. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty. UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain, both EU members, to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar. Spanish territories claimed by other countries Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and some isles plazas de soberanía off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza / Olivença. Administrative divisions GaliciaNavarreMadridLa RiojaAragonCataloniaValenciaCastilla La ManchaExtremaduraPortugalCastilla y LeónAsturiasCantabriaBasque CountryMurciaAndalusiaCeutaMelillaFranceBalearic IslandsCanary IslandsMediterranean SeaBay of BiscayAtlantic OceanAndorraAtlantic Ocean Spain is politically organized into 17 Autonomous Communities (comunidades autónomas) and 2 autonomous cities (ciudades autónomas) - Ceuta and Melilla. Administratively Spain also comprises fifty provinces. Seven autonomous communities are composed of only one province: Asturias, Balearic Islands, Cantabria, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, and Navarre. Historically, some provinces are also divided into comarcas (roughly equivalent to a US "county" or an English district). The lowest administrative division of Spain is the municipality (municipio). See also: Comarcas of Spain and List of municipalities of Spain Geography At 194,884 mi² (504,782 km²), Spain is the world's 51st-largest country. It is some 47,000 km² smaller than France and 81,000 km² larger than the U.S. state of California. On the west, Spain borders Portugal, on the south, it borders Gibraltar (a British overseas territory) and Morocco, through its cities in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it borders France and the tiny principality of Andorra. Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the strait of Gibraltar, known as Plazas de soberanía, such as the Chafarine islands, the isle of Alborán, the "rocks" (peñones) of Vélez and Alhucemas, and the tiny Isla Perejil. Along the Pyrenees in Catalonia, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France. Mainland Spain is dominated by high plateaus and mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada. Running from these heights are several major rivers such as the Tagus, the Ebro, the Duero, the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir. Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia. Climate Spanish climatic areasDue to Spain's geographical situation and orographic conditions, the climate is extremely diverse; it can be roughly divided into three areas: A Continental Mediterranean climate in the inland areas of the Peninsula (largest city, Madrid). A Mediterranean climate region extends from the Andalusian plain along the southern and eastern coasts up to the Pyrenees, on the seaward side of the mountain ranges that run near the coast (largest city, Barcelona). An Oceanic climate in Galicia and the coastal strip near the Bay of Biscay (largest city, Bilbao). This area is often called Green Spain. Military of Spain The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Spanish: Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their Commander-in-Chief is the King of Spain, Juan Carlos I. The Spanish Armed Forces are divided into four branches: Army (Ejército de Tierra) Navy (Armada) Air Force (Ejército del Aire) Guardia Civil (Military police) which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force. Economy According to the World Bank, Spain's economy is the eighth largest worldwide and the fifth largest in Europe. As of 2007, absolute GDP was valued at $1.362 trillion according to the CIA Factbook, (see List of countries by GDP (nominal)). The per capita PPP is estimated at $33,700 (2007), ahead of G7 countries like Italy and placing Spain at a similar per capita basis as France or Japan (both with an 2007 estimated at $33,800). The Spanish economy grew 3.8% in 2007 outpacing all G7 members and all the big EU economies for the 3rd consecutive year. The centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 7.6% in October 2006, a rate that compares favorably to many other European countries, and which is a marked improvement over rates that exceeded 20% in the early 1990s. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include high inflation, a large underground economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK. Nevertheless, it is expected that the Spanish economy will continue growing above the EU average based on the strengthening of industry, the growth of the global economy and increasing trade with Latin America and Asia. The Spanish economy is credited for having avoided the virtual zero growth rate of some of its largest partners in the EU. In fact, the country's economy has created more than half of all the new jobs in the European Union over the five years ending 2005. The Spanish economy has thus been regarded lately as one of the most dynamic within the EU, attracting significant amounts of foreign investment. During the last four decades the Spanish tourism industry has grown to become the second biggest in the world, worth approximately 40 billion Euros (approx. 5% of GDP) in 2006 More recently, the Spanish economy has benefited greatly from the global real estate boom, with construction representing 16% of GDP and 12% of employment. According to calculations by the German newspaper Die Welt, Spain is on pace to overtake countries like Germany in per capita income by 2011. However, the downside of the real estate boom has been a corresponding rise in the levels of personal debt; as prospective homeowners struggle to meet asking prices, the average level of household debt has tripled in less than a decade. Among lower income groups, the median ratio of indebtedness to income was 125% in 2005. Demographics Geographical distribution of the Spanish population in 2007.In 2007 Spain officially reached 45.2 million people registered at the Padrón municipal, an official record analogous to the British Register office. Spain's population density, at 89.6/km² (231/sq. mile), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution along the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain doubled during the twentieth century, due to the spectacular demographic boom by the 1960s and early 1970s. The pattern of growth was extremely uneven due to large-scale internal migration from the rural interior to the industrial cities during the 60s and 70s. No fewer than eleven of Spain's fifty provinces saw an absolute decline in population over the century. Then, after the birth rate plunged in the 80s and Spain's population became stalled, a new population increase started based initially in the return of many Spanish who emigrated to other European countries during the 70s and, more recently, it has been boosted by the large figures of foreign immigrants, mostly from Latin America (38.75%), Eastern Europe (16.33%), North Africa (14.99%) and Sub-Saharan Africa (4.08%). In 2005, Spain instituted a 3-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency. Also some important pockets of population coming from other countries in the European Union are found (20.77% of the foreign residents), specially along the Mediterranean costas and Balearic islands, where many choose to live their retirement or even telework. These are mostly English, French, German, and Dutch from fellow EU countries and, from outside the EU, Norwegian. Immigration in Spain According to the Spanish government there were 4.5 million foreign residents in Spain in 2007; independent estimates put the figure at 4.8 million people, or 11% of the total population (Red Cross, World Disasters Report 2006). According to residence permit data for 2005, about 500,000 were Moroccan, another 500,000 were Ecuadorian, more than 200,000 were Romanian, and 260,000 were Colombian. Other important foreign communities are British (8.09%), French (8.03%), Argentine (6.10%), German (5.58%) and Bolivian (2.63%). In 2005, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving clandestinely by sea, has caused noticeable social tension. Based on 2004 figures, within the EU Spain has the second highest immigration rate in percentage terms (after Cyprus), but by a great margin the highest in actual numbers of immigrants. There are a number of reasons to explain the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce. Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of the EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain has been Europe's largest absorber of migrants for the past six years, with its immigrant population increasing fourfold as 2.8 million people have arrived. According to the Financial Times, Spain is the most favoured destination for West Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU. (see Immigration to Spain). Minority groups Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies (especially Equatorial Guinea) and immigrants from several Sub-Saharan and Caribbean countries have been recently settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Chinese, Filipino, Middle Eastern, Pakistani and Indian origins; the population of Spaniards of Latin American descent is sizeable as well and a fast growing segment. Other growing groups are Britons (761,000 in 2006), Germans and other immigrants from western and Eastern Europe. Jewish emigration to Spain is primarily the result of three events: after the 19th century, some Jews established themselves in Spain as a result of migration from what was formerly Spanish Morocco, the flight of Jews escaping from Nazi repression, and immigration from Argentina. Spanish law allows Sephardi Jews to claim Spanish citizenship. The arrival of the Gitanos (Gypsies), a Roma people group, began in the 16th century. Most populous urban regions Madrid 5,943,041 Barcelona 5,327,872 Valencia 1,623,724 Seville 1,317,098 Málaga 1,074,074 Bilbao 946,829 Identities Peoples The Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises historic entities ("nationalities", a carefully chosen word in order to avoid the more politically charged "nations") and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one. Distinct ethnic groups within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, and Galicians. It is this last feature of "shared identity" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal. Languages The languages of Spain (simplified) Spanish (74%), official, spoken in all the territory Catalan (17%), co-official, except in La Franja and Carxe Basque (2%), co-official, in Basque Country and Navarre Galician (7%), co-official, except in Asturias and Castile and Leon Asturian, unofficial, but adopted as co-official in some municipalities of Asturias Extremaduran, unofficial Aragonese, unofficial Aranese, co-official (dialect of Occitan) .Spanish (español or castellano), also known as Castilian, is the only language with official status nationwide. Other languages have been declared co-official, along with Spanish, in (some of) their constituent communities where they are spoken: Aranese (aranés) (a variant of Occitan), in Catalonia; Basque (euskera) in the Basque Country and Navarre; Catalan (català) in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and in the Valencian Community, known in the latter officially as Valencian; Galician (galego) in Galicia. Spain's legacy: a map of the Hispanophone world.There are also some other surviving Romance minority languages such as Astur-Leonese (which includes Asturian, Leonese, Extremaduran and Cantabrian) and Aragonese. Asturian (asturianu) is "protected" in Asturias and Aragonese is vaguely recognized in Aragon. But unlike Aranese, Basque, Catalan/Valencian and Galician, they do not have any official status. This might be due to their very small number of speakers, a less significant written tradition (in comparison to Catalan or Galician) and lower self-awareness of their speakers which traditionally meant lack of strong popular demand for their recognition in the regions in which they are spoken. In the North African Spanish city of Melilla, Tarifit is spoken by an important part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English and German are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers. Religion Spain religiosity religion percent Christianity 76% Irreligion / others 19% Islam 2.3% Judaism 0.1% Others 1.7% Although Chapter 2 of the Constitution states that no religion shall have a state character, Roman Catholicism is the main religion in the country. About 76% of Spaniards identify themselves as Catholics, about 2% identify with another religious faith, and about 19% identify themselves as non-religious. A study conducted in October 2006 by the Spanish Centre of Sociological Investigations shows that of the 76% of Spaniards who identify themselves as Catholics or with another religious faith, 54% hardly ever or never go to church, 15% go to church a few times per year, 10% a few times per month and 19% attend church every Sunday or multiple times per week. About 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month. A view of the Barcelona Cathedral.Evidence of the secular nature of contemporary Spain can be seen in the widespread support for the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Spain — over 66% of Spaniards support gay marriage according to a 2004 study by the Centre of Sociological Investigations. Indeed, in June 2005 a bill was passed by 187 votes to 147 to allow gay marriage, making Spain the third country in the European Union to allow same-sex couples to marry after Belgium and the Netherlands. Protestant denominations are also present, all of them with less than 50,000 members. Evangelism has been better received among Gypsies than among the general population; pastors have integrated flamenco music in their liturgy. Taken together, all self-described "Evangelicals" slightly surpass Jehovah's Witnesses (105,000) in number. While not Protestants, about 35,000 residents of Spain are members of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). The recent waves of immigration have led to an increasing number of Muslims, who have about 1 million members. Muslims had not lived in Spain for centuries; however, colonial expansion in Northern and Western Africa gave some number of residents in the Spanish Morocco and the Western Sahara full citizenship. Presently, Islam is the second largest religion in Spain, accounting for approximately 2.5% of the total population. Along with these waves of immigration, a significant number of Latin American people, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, have helped the Catholic Church to recover. Judaism was practically non-existent until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, most arrivals in the past century and some descendants of Spanish Jews and accounting for less than 1% of the total number of inhabitants. Spain is believed to have been about 8% Jewish on the eve of the Spanish Inquisition. Further information: History of the Jews in Spain Culture Spain is known for its culturally diverse heritage, having been influenced by many nations and peoples throughout its history. Spanish culture has its origins in the Iberian, Celtiberian, Latin, Visigothic, Roman Catholic, and Islamic cultures. The definition of a national Spanish culture has been characterized by tension between the centralized state (dominated in recent centuries by Castile) and numerous regions and minority peoples. In addition, the history of the nation and its Mediterranean and Atlantic environment have played strong roles in shaping its culture. After Italy, Spain is the country with the second highest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the world, with a total of 40. Education in Spain State Education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of 6 to 16. The current education system is called LOGSE (Ley de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo). Spanish Academy The Real Academia Española (Spanish for "Royal Spanish Academy"; RAE) is the institution responsible for regulating the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, but is affiliated with national language academies in 21 Spanish-speaking nations through the Association of Spanish Language Academies. Its emblem is a fiery crucible, and its motto is Limpia, fija y da esplendor ("It cleans, sets, and gives splendor"). Spanish art Spanish art is an important and influential type of art in Europe. Spanish art is the name given to the artistic disciplines and works developed in Spain throughout time, and those by Spanish authors world-wide. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today in cities like Córdoba, Seville, and Granada. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods. Spanish literature The Cantar de Mio Cid is the oldest preserved Spanish literature known as "cantar de gesta".Spanish literature is the name given to the literary works written in Spain throughout time, and those by Spanish authors world-wide. Due to historic, geographic and generational diversity, Spanish literature has known a great number of influences and it is very diverse. Some major movements can be identified within it. Spanish architecture A view of the Baroque architecture of the Royal Palace of Madrid.Spanish architecture refers to architecture carried out during any era in what is now modern-day Spain, and by Spanish architects worldwide. The term includes buildings within the current geographical limits of Spain before this name was given to those territories (whether they were called Hispania, Al-Andalus, or were formed of several Christian kingdoms). Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. For example, Córdoba was established as the cultural Capital of its time under the Umayyad dynasty. Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles, at first mostly isolated from European architectural influences, and later integrated into Romanesque and Gothic streams, they reached an extraordinary peak with numerous samples along the whole territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was characterised by the blending of cultural European and Arabic influences. The arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced figures such as Gaudí and much of the architecture of the twentieth century. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown. Music of Spain Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, an Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular. Cinema of Spain In recent years, Spanish cinema has achieved high marks of recognition as a result of its creative and technical excellence. In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve universal recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem and Alejandro Amenábar. A type of Spanish cuisine known as "Tapa de calamares". Spanish cuisine Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. Sports in Spain Sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, motorcycling and, lately, Formula 1 are also important due to presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports power, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona and promoted a great variety of sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing. Public holidays in Spain Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. International rankings Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index 2007: Rank 33 out of 169 countries. The Economist Intelligence Units: Rank 10 out of 111 countries (ahead of countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, and France) Nation Master's list by economic importance: Rank 9 of 25 countries, only surpassed by G-8 members. Nation Master's list by technological achievement: Rank 18 of 68 countries. Gallery of Images The Sagrada Família by night, Barcelona Burgos Cathedral The Cathedral of Seville The Alhambra, Granada Roman Aqueduct of Segovia The Sanctuary of Santa María Magdalena in Novelda Monasterio de El Escorial Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao Antequera, in Málaga province The Maspalomas Dunes, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands Arán valley, Lleida The Pyrenees |
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