欧洲:
英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| 荷兰 Netherlands 首都:阿姆斯特丹 国家代码: nl |
|
【国名】尼德兰王国，通称荷兰(荷兰语：Koninkrijk der Nederlanden，
英语：The Kingdom of the Netherlands)。 【国名释义】荷兰全称为“尼德兰王国”，“荷兰”在日耳曼语中叫尼德兰，意为“低地之国”， 荷兰只是尼德兰王国的一个最大的省，所以古代中国就称之曰“荷兰”，该称呼一直沿用至今。 【国旗】呈长方形，长与宽之比为3∶2。自上而下由红、白、蓝三个平行相等的横长方形相连而成。蓝色表示国家面临海洋，象征人民的幸福；白色象征自由、平等、民主，还代表人民纯朴的性格特征；红色代表革命胜利。 【国徽】即奥伦治·拿骚王室的王徽。为斗篷式。顶端带王冠的斗篷中有一盾徽，蓝色盾面上有一只头戴三叶状王冠的狮子，一爪握着银色罗马剑，一爪抓着一捆箭，象征团结就是力量。盾徽上面有一顶王冠，两侧各有一只狮子，下边的蓝色饰带上写着威廉大公的一句格言“坚持不懈”。 【重要节日】4月30日：女王日(系已故王太后朱丽安娜生日,即国庆日)； 纪念日：5月4日（1945年5月4日占领荷兰的法西斯德军在瓦格宁根签署投降书，被定为荷兰“纪念日”） 【国歌】《威廉·凡·拿骚》，这也是世界上第一首国歌 【国花】郁金香 【国鸟】琵鹭 【国石】钻石 【同北京时差】-7.00 【国际电话码】 31 【语言】荷兰语 【货币】荷兰盾(NLG) 【人口】1619．7万，90％以上为荷兰族，此外还有弗里斯族。官方语言为荷兰语，弗里斯兰省讲弗里斯语。居民31％信奉天主教，21％信奉基督教。 【首都】阿姆斯特丹(Amsterdam)有人口73. 5万（2003年）；政府所在地：海牙(The Hague) ，人口45.8万（2003年）。 【行政区划】全国划分为12个省，省下设489个市镇(2003年)。各省名称如下：格罗宁根、弗里斯兰、德伦特、欧弗艾塞尔、格尔德兰、乌特勒支、北荷兰、南荷兰、西兰、北布拉邦、林堡、弗雷佛兰。 【国家政要】女王贝娅特丽克丝·威廉明娜·阿姆加德 (Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard) ，1980年4月登基继位。首相扬·彼得·巴尔克嫩德 (Jan Peter Balkenende) ，2003年5月就任，2007年2月再次就任。 【主要城市】阿姆斯特丹 首都，人口73.5万（2001年）。 政府所在地海牙，人口44.2万（2001年）。 重要港市鹿特丹，人口592,597（2000年）。 自然地理 荷兰国土总面积为41528平方公里，位于欧洲西部，东面与德国为邻，南接比利时。西、北濒临北海，地处莱茵河、马斯河和斯凯尔特河三角洲，海岸线长1075公里。全境为低地，四分之一的土地海拔不到1米，四分之一的土地低于海面，沿海有1，800多公里长的海坝和岸堤。十三世纪以来共围垦约7，100多平方公里的土地，相当于全国陆地面积的五分之一。境内河流纵横，主要有莱茵河、马斯河。西北濒海处有艾瑟尔湖。其西部沿海为低地，东部是波状平原，中部和东南部为高原。南部由莱茵河、马斯河、斯海尔德河的三角洲连接而成。“荷兰”在日耳曼语中叫尼德兰，意为“低地之国”，因其国土有一半以上低于或几乎水平于海平面而得名。荷兰的气候属海洋性温带阔叶林气候，冬温夏凉，月平均气温：1月2~3℃；7月18~19℃。由于地低土潮，荷兰人接受了法国高卢人发明的木鞋，并在几百年的历史中赋予其典型的荷兰特色。 年降水量650~700毫米。有天然气、石油和煤等蕴藏。 为了生存和发展，荷兰人竭力保护原本不大的国土，避免在海水涨潮时遭“灭顶之灾”。他们长期与海搏斗，围海造田。早在13世纪就筑堤坝拦海水，再用风动水车抽干围堰内的水。几百年来荷兰修筑的拦海堤坝长达1800公里，增加土地面积60多万公顷。如今荷兰国土的20％是人工填海造出来的。镌刻在荷兰国徽上的“坚持不懈”字样，恰如其分地刻画了荷兰人民的民族性格。 历史 1463年正式成为国家，16世纪前长期处于封建割据状态。16世纪初受西班牙统治。1568年爆发延续80年的反抗西班牙统治的战争。1581年北部七省成立荷兰共和国（正式名称为尼德兰联合共和国）。1648年西班牙正式承认荷兰独立。17世纪曾为海上殖民强国，继西班牙之后成为世界上最大的殖民国家。18世纪后，荷兰殖民体系逐渐瓦解。1795年法军入侵。1806年拿破仑之弟任国王，荷被封为王国。1810年并入法国。1814年脱离法国，翌年成立荷兰王国（1830年比利时脱离荷兰独立）。1848年成为君主立宪国。一战期间保持中立。二战初期宣布中立。1940年5月被德国军队侵占，王室和政府迁至英国，成立流亡政府。1945年恢复独立，战后放弃中立政策，加入北约和欧共体及后来的欧盟。 荷兰的崛起历史 15世纪末的地理大发现，给欧洲带来前所未有的商业繁荣，也为荷兰提供了成就商业帝国的历史性机遇。 1581年7月26日，来自荷兰各起义城市的代表在海牙郑重宣布：废除西班牙国王对荷兰各省的统治权。 1588年，七个省份联合起来，宣布成立荷兰联省共和国。这是一个在人类历史上前所未有的国家。很多历史学家说，它是世界上第一个“赋予商人阶层充分的政治权利的国家”。 1602年，在共和国大议长奥登巴恩维尔特的主导下，荷兰联合东印度公司成立。就像他们创造了一个前所未有的国家一样，如今，他们又创造了一个前所未有的经济组织。 到17世纪中叶，荷兰联省共和国的全球商业霸权已经牢固地建立起来。此时，荷兰东印度公司已经拥有15000个分支机构，贸易额占到全世界总贸易额的一半。悬挂着荷兰三色旗的10000多艘商船游弋在世界的五大洋之上： 在东亚，他们占据了中国的台湾，垄断着日本的对外贸易； 在东南亚，他们把印度尼西亚变成了自己的殖民地，他们建立的第一个殖民据点——巴达维亚城，构成了今天雅加达的雏形； 在非洲，他们从葡萄牙手中夺取了新航线的要塞好望角； 在大洋洲，他们用荷兰一个省的名字命名了一个国家——新西兰； 在南美洲，他们占领了巴西； 在北美大陆的哈得逊河河口，东印度公司建造了新阿姆斯特丹城，今天，这座城市的名字叫做纽约。 1648年的荷兰：已达到了商业繁荣的顶点。 1656年，荷兰使团到达北京。入主中原刚刚八年的大清朝廷，以一种兴奋的态度接待了他们。但荷兰人遇到了那个时候所有到中国的外交使团都会遇到的一个麻烦，就是在觐见皇帝时必须行三拜九叩的大礼。事实上，一直到18世纪末，几乎没有一位欧洲国家的外交官愿意接受这种苛刻的天朝规矩。但是，荷兰人却毫不犹豫地答应了。 “……我们只是不想为了所谓的尊严，而丧失重大的利益。” 荷兰人的重大利益是什么，就是通商和赚钱。 1688年9月，一支庞大的舰队从阿姆斯特丹港拔锚起航，这些船上载着荷兰的最高执政官威廉三世和两万名荷兰士兵。威廉三世此行是受英国议会的邀请，前去保护英国国民的“宗教自由和财产”。 历史的安排竟是这样的巧合。17世纪末期，荷兰发展的速度慢了下来，逐渐失去了左右世界的霸权。无论在时间上还是空间上，威廉三世离开荷兰到英国，都成为了世界中心舞台的一次极有象征意义的转移。 政治 【宪法】1814年3月29日颁布宪法，1848年修改宪法，规定荷兰是世袭君主立宪王国。立法权属国王和议会，行政权属国王和内阁。枢密院为最高国务协商机构，主席为女王本人，其他成员由女王任命。 【议会】 由一院和二院组成。二院拥有立法权；一院有权同意或拒绝批准法案，但不能提出或修改法案。一院共有议员75名，由省议会间接选举产生；二院共有议员150名，按比例代表制通过直接普选产生。两院议员任期均为4年，但改选不在同一年进行。 【司法机构】 全国设62个基层法院（市镇法院），19个中级法院（地区法院），5个上诉法院和1个最高法院。此外还设有军事法庭、行政法庭等若干特别法庭。 基层法院负责审理一般性民事与刑事案件，中级法院负责审理较重大的民事及刑事案件（上述两级法院均为初审法院）。上诉法院专门负责审理上诉、抗诉案件。 【政党】荷兰主要政党有6个 ：①基督教民主联盟 ，简称基民盟，由原天主教人民党 、 基督教历史同盟和反对革命党3个教派政党于1980年联合组成。是战后执政次数最多的政党。②工党，1946年成立，前身是1894年成立的社会民主党。③自由民主人民党，1948年成立。由原自由民主党派中的右翼组成，代表荷兰垄断资产阶级中的保守观点。④六六民主党，1966年由工党、自由党中分裂出来的左翼激进分子组成。⑤政治革新党，1918年成立。为神权主义加尔文教派党，由原反对革命党中最保守的右翼分子组成。⑥绿色左派联盟，1989年5月由政治激进党、荷兰共产党 、 和平社会党和新教人民党等左翼党组成，联合参加大选。此外，还有中心党、新教民主党、绿党、新荷兰人民联盟、社会主义工人党、新教政治联盟等。 经济 荷兰是发达的资本主义国家，西方十大经济强国之一。荷自然资源相对贫乏，但天然气储量丰富，2001年开采天然气约743亿立方米，自给有余，还能出口。荷工业发达，主要工业部门有食品加工、石油化工、冶金、机械制造、电子、钢铁、造船、印刷、钻石加工等，原料和销售市场主要依靠国外。近20年来重视发展空间、微电子、生物工程等高技术产业，传统工业主要是造船、冶金等。鹿特丹是欧洲最大的炼油中心。荷是世界主要造船国家之一。荷兰的农业也发达，是世界第三大农产品出口国。农业生产现代化，乳、肉产品供应国内有余，是世界主要蛋、乳出口国之一。荷兰人利用不适于耕种的土地因地制宜发展畜牧业，现已达人均一头牛、一头猪，跻身于世界畜牧业最发达国家的行列。他们在沙质地上种植马铃薯，并发展薯类加工，世界种薯贸易量的一半以上从这里输出。花卉是荷兰的支柱性产业。全国共有1．1亿平方米的温室用于种植鲜花和蔬菜，因而享有“欧洲花园”的美称。荷兰把美丽送到世界各个角落，花卉出口占国际花卉市场的40％~50％。荷金融服务和保险业、旅游业发达。 航运业和渔业在经济中占重要地位。欧洲经济共同体成员国。粮食（小麦）和饲料依靠进口。海运和内河航运发达，鹿特丹和阿姆斯特丹是重要港口。海岸外小岛、古城、运河风光和花卉种植业吸引国外旅客。每年旅游者达260余万。 荷兰著名的跨国公司有： 荷兰皇家壳牌集团（Royal Dutch /Shell Group of Companies）： 荷兰最大的工业公司。1907年由荷兰皇家石油公司与英国壳牌运输和贸易公司合并而成，实行两总部控股制，其中荷兰资本占60％，英国占40％，两总部分别设在荷兰鹿特丹和英国伦敦。集团公司下设14个分部.，分别经营石油、天然气、化工产品、有色金属、煤炭等，其中石油、石化燃料的生产和销售能力居世界第二位。截至2000年底，资产总额达570.86亿美元。2000年净销售额1491.46亿美元，净收入127.19亿美元。公司总裁范德菲尔（J. van der Veer)。 飞利浦电子公司（Philips Electronic N.V） :成立于1891年，在全球500家大企业中居第58位，在世界电子行业中排名第9。在60多个国家设有营业机构，共有雇员26.51万人。其股票在9个国家的16个交易所上市。主要生产视听产品、照明、电子元件、半导体、医疗系统、小家电、工业电子及商业电子等，其中照明设备、彩色显象管、电动剃须刀、X光分析仪及音响设备在国际市场居领先地位。2000年资产总额384.54亿欧元，销售额378.62亿欧元，利润96亿欧元。总部设在荷兰阿姆斯特丹，总裁克莱斯特雷（Gerard Kleisterlee)。 联合利华公司（Unilever N.V，原译尤尼莱佛公司）： 英、荷合资企业，成立于1930年，是世界著名的日用及食品化工集团，在世界500家大型企业中名列第35位。公司在荷兰鹿特丹和英国伦敦各有一个总部。荷兰部分主要生产食品，英国则主要生产日用化工产品。集团现有员工30.6万人，分布在世界70多个国家和地区。2000年总资产576.40亿欧元，营业额475.82亿欧元，利润33.02亿欧元。公司总裁博格曼斯。其在华公司称联合利华。 阿克苏· 诺贝尔公司（Akzo Nobel N.V）：跨国化工和医药集团，1994年由荷兰阿克苏公司和瑞典诺贝尔公司合并而成。公司主要有药品、涂料和化学3个部门，共有员工8.6万人，在世界60多个国家和地区设有分支机构。主要经营盐、碱、塑料、添加剂、工业及纺织用纤维、各种薄膜、医疗设备、药品及药品生产用原料等。2001年，公司总资产102亿欧元，营业额为141.10亿欧元，净利润6.17亿欧元。总裁范雷德（Cees J.A. van Lede)。 交通运输 荷兰陆、海、空运输均十分发达。境内河流纵横，水路四通八达。素有“北方威尼斯”之称的荷兰首都阿姆斯特丹有大小水道160多条，桥梁1000多座。位于莱茵河与马斯河出海口的鹿特丹港是世界第一大港。阿姆斯特丹机场是荷兰和欧洲主要航空港之一，曾多次获世界最佳机场称号。荷兰人充分利用这一得天独厚的地理条件发展交通运输业，其陆海空各类运输占欧盟交通市场总额的百分之三十。 人民生活 社会保障体系较完整，居民福利水平较高。 2001年人均国民收入22317欧元，全年国民消费总支出为2129.05亿欧元。贫富差距不明显，2000年生活舒适的家庭占53%，收支大体相等的占38%，生活困难的9%。2000年家庭耐用消费品普及率(%)如下: 汽车72, 彩电99, 录像机79, 冰柜71, 洗衣机95,洗衣烘干机53, 摩托车8, 自行车200, 电话100, 家用电脑64。 军事 荷在第二次世界大战前为中立国，战后加入北约，并以北约的集体防卫政策作为其国防政策的基础。女王为全国武装力量最高统帅，实际指挥权掌握在内阁手中。国防委员会是荷最高安全决策机构，首相为委员会主席。现任国防大臣德赫拉夫，国防参谋长范登布雷蒙上将。荷武装部队负有保卫荷属安的列斯群岛安全的义务。1997年1月1日起部队全面职业化，军队通过与自愿者签订合同形式招募人员。1999年现役部队7.5万人，其中陆军24900人，海军13300人，空军11700人，宪兵4900人，文职2万人。荷在荷属安的列斯群岛的库拉索建有一个海军基地，驻军400人。荷有4000人参加联合国维和部队和其他军事行动。 海外领地 荷属安第列斯 （The Netherlands Antilles） 由加勒比海中相距800多公里的南北两组岛屿组成。80％为黑白混血种人，有少数白人。荷兰语和帕彼曼都语为官方语言，也讲西班牙语和英语。82％的居民信奉天主教，10％的居民信奉基督教新教。1499年西班牙殖民者在库拉索登陆。1527年西班牙占领南部三岛，1634年成为荷殖民地。北部两岛于1493年被哥伦布发现，17世纪中叶被荷兰占据，此后多次易主，1816年成为荷兰属地。1954年群岛获得完全的内部事务自治权。2007年1月1日，库拉索岛和圣马丁岛正式脱离，成为单独的荷兰属国，剩下3岛组成“王国列岛”，地位待定。 阿鲁巴（Aruba） 加勒比海南部背风群岛的一部分。主要为印第安人与欧洲白人的混血后裔。官方语言为荷兰语，通用帕彼曼都语，也讲西班牙语和英语。80%以上的居民信奉天主教，少数信奉基督教新教。1499年西班牙占领该岛。1643年易手荷兰。1986年1月1日宣布正式脱离荷属安的列斯，成为荷兰王国的一个单独的政治实体，荷兰继续负责该岛的国防和对外事务 荷兰四宝 风车 风车原为荷兰人首创，适应着水力利用和磨坊工业的需要。如今虽然仍为荷兰的“国家商标”，实际运用上却不多见了。我们当然无法带回荷兰的大风车，但是小型的风车模型纪念品是可以的，权当是你来到荷兰的留念。 郁金香 郁金香为何可以闻名于世？其中非常大的因素就是因为荷兰。郁金香是荷兰的国花，荷兰人也非常爱郁金香，在他们的生活中郁金香已经是必不可少的东西，每逢集市、花展，他似乎总是可以充当主角。如果你觉得鲜花携带不方便，你可以选择购买一下鲜花制作的干花，作为你的摆设一样不失体面。 奶酪 假如有人问起荷兰有什么好吃的，十有八九人们都会认为是奶酪。荷兰人有各种各样的奶酪，多得可以让你无法想象。奶酪也像红酒一样分开等级，最贵的会让你瞠目结舌。你可以接受这种食品的话不妨去买上一些，购买时还可以先品尝一下，微微的酸与甜很好的结合在一起，味道非常醇正。 木屐 风车、木鞋、奶酪、郁金香号称荷兰四宝，而木鞋又位于四宝之首，其地位可见一般。木鞋成为荷兰的特产，和光照期短、地势低洼有关。全年晴好天气不足70天，这使荷兰人的爱阳光一如所爱他们的画家梵·高笔下的“向日葵”，也使他们不得不穿上敦实的木鞋对付潮湿的地面，下地干活、庭院劳作乃至室内打扫都穿不同样式的白杨木鞋。后来，精明的荷兰人把木鞋制作发展成一门半机械操作的工艺，木鞋也就成为特色产品和旅游纪念物。 文化教育 【教育】 实行12年（5~16岁）全日制义务教育制。中小学校分为公立和私立两类。2000年，荷全国共有9195所各级各类学校，学生总数335万人，教育和科研经费184.13亿欧元。目前小学在校生共166万余人，中学在校生130万，成人和职业教育学校在校生约达45万人。荷高等教育分为大学、开放大学和高等职业教育。荷现有13所重点大学，其中9所为综合性大学，一所为理工大学、一所为农业大学，在校生15.3万人。高等职业学校学生25.2万人。著名高等院校有莱顿大学、乌特勒支大学、阿姆斯特丹自由大学、格罗宁根大学、鹿特丹伊拉斯谟大学、代尔夫特理工大学和瓦格宁根农业大学等。 莱顿大学 建于1575年，现有学生17500人，外国留学生约1000人，教职员约5000人。 代尔夫特理工大学 原属于1842年建立的“皇家学院”的一个理工分院，1905年正式取得大学地位，现有学生约13000人，外国留学生约1300名，教职员约5000人。 瓦格宁根农业大学 建于1918年，现有学生4500名，外国留学生约500人，教职员2000余人。 新闻出版 报刊发行始于1618年。现共有日报近90种（其中全国性日报8种），综合性和专业性期刊约4000种。主要报刊有《电讯报》、《每日汇报》、《人民报》、《新鹿特丹商报》、《誓言报》、《忠诚报》、《金融日报》、《埃尔什维尔周刊》、《自由荷兰》。荷兰通讯社是半官方新闻机构。荷兰有5个全国广播电台、10个地区广播电台和150个地方广播电台。电视广播覆盖率100％，其中76％的家庭可接收有线电视。全国有35个广播电视组织，由荷兰广播电视协会根据各组织会员人数分配广播电视的播放时间，其中8大广播电视组织在3套半官方的全国性电视节目中拥有绝大部分播放时间。近年来，荷商业电视台发展较快。 外交 荷兰为欧盟和北约成员国。对外政策以欧洲为重点，同时强调美国在欧洲的存在是欧洲安全与稳定的重要保证。主张在加强北约的同时，西欧国家制订共同外交、安全政策以加强北约的欧洲安全支柱。 与中国关系：中国与荷兰的人员和经济交往可追溯到17世纪初。随着中国改革开放的深化和投资环境的日益改善，中荷经贸关系有了较大发展。双方政府先后签订了包括海运、航空、经济、技术、文化在内的多种双边协定和协议。荷兰也是最早承认中国的西方国家之一。 在抗美援朝战役中，当时的荷兰军队作为帝国主义力量曾经与中国志愿军发生战争。亚洲的印度尼西亚曾经是荷兰的殖民地，至今许多荷兰大鼻子喜欢吃印尼炒饭（Nasi Goreng） 1954年11月19日与中国建立代办级外交关系。1972年5月18日升格为大使级外交关系。1981年5月5日降格为代办级，1984年2月1日恢复大使级外交关系。2004年4月，首相巴尔克嫩德对中国进行工作访问。2004年12月，温家宝总理对荷兰进行正式访问。1994年，北京与荷兰首都阿姆斯特丹结为友好城市。近年来两国友好交往增加，经贸关系也有较大发展，双方政府先后签订了包括海运、航空、经济、技术、文化在内的一系列双边协定和协议。 风车之国 人们常把荷兰称为“风车之国”，荷兰是欧洲西部一个只有一千多万人口的国家。它的真正国名叫“尼德兰”。“尼德”是低的意思，“兰”是土地，合起来称为“低洼之国”。荷兰全国三分之一的面积只高出北海海面l米，近四分之一低于海平面，真是名符其实的“尼德兰”。 荷兰坐落在地球的盛行西风带，一年四季盛吹西风。同时它濒临大西洋，又是典型的海洋性气候国家，海陆风长年不息。这就给缺乏水力、动力资源的荷兰，提供了利用风力的优厚补偿。 荷兰的风车，最早从德国引进。开始时，风车仅用于磨粉之类。到了十六、七世纪，风车对荷兰的经济有着特别重大的意义。有：造纸等作用，被誉为“风车之国”。荷兰向来以风车闻名。而保存风车较多的地方，则是“小孩堤坊”。 小时候，你读过这个故事吧？一个小男孩眼见堤坊上出现裂缝，海水渗入，他担心村子将被海水淹没，便用手指头塞住堤坊，救了全村人… 如今，在这个地方还保留了19部风车，并且还能见到穿着传统服饰的荷兰妇女。 直到8月26日为止，是今年荷兰的“风车之日”。每逢星期六，小孩堤坊的风车将一起转动，有的还开放内部，让游人参观。 当时，荷兰在世界的商业中，占首要地位的各种原料，从各路水道运往风车加工，其中包括：北欧各国和波罗的海沿岸各国的木材，德国的大麻子和亚麻子，印度和东南亚的肉桂和胡椒。在荷兰的大港——鹿特丹和阿姆斯特丹的近郊，有很多风车的磨坊、锯木厂和造纸厂。 随着荷兰人民围海造陆工程的大规模开展，风车在这项艰巨的工程中发挥了巨大的作用。根据当地的湿润多雨、风向多变的气候特点，他们对风车进行了改革。首先是给风车配上活动的顶篷。此外，为了能四面迎风，他们又把风车的顶篷安装在滚轮上。这种风车，被称为荷兰式风车(如左图)。 荷兰风车，最大的有好几层楼高，风翼长达20米。有的风车，由整块大柞木做成。十八世纪末，荷兰全国的风车约有一万二千架，每台拥有6000匹马力。这些风车用来碾谷物、粗盐、烟叶、榨油，压滚毛呢、毛毡、造纸，以及排除沼泽地的积水。正是这些风车不停地吸水、排水，保障了全国三分之二的土地免受沉沦和人为鱼鳖的威胁。 二十世纪以来，由于蒸汽机、内燃机、涡轮机的发展，依靠风力的古老风车曾一度变得暗淡无光，几乎被人遗忘了。但是，因为风车利用的是自然风力，没有污染、耗尽之虞，所以它不仅被荷兰人民一直沿用至今，而且也成为今日新能源的一种，深深地吸引着人们。 目前，荷兰大约有两千多架各式各样的风车。荷兰人很喜爱他们的风车，在民歌和谚语中常常赞美风车。风车的建筑物，总是尽量打扮得漂漂亮亮的。每逢盛大节日，风车上围上花环，悬挂着国旗和硬纸板做的太阳和星星。 由于地势较低，荷兰人与水抗争的历史一直是个传奇。 荷兰境内有三分之一的土地低于海平面，而靠近鹿特丹的Alexander Polder地区，更低于海平面6.5公尺之多。为了土地与大自然抗衡，荷兰人建造堤防，阻挡海水，并利用风车产生动力将洼地的水抽干，填海造地，至今你所看到的荷兰是一望无际的平原，并孕育着无数的生命。历史上，荷兰一度在16、17世纪海上航权时代取得相当的优势，成为当时欧洲北海沿岸势力最强的代表，我们称之为荷兰的「黄金时代」！1602到1799年一百多年间，东印度公司(VOC)从一家贸易公司跃身为对全球第一家的跨国企业，对荷兰的经济发展贡献良多，尤其对阿姆斯特丹的发展，产生了举足轻重的影响。今天，从对阿姆斯特丹建筑的风貌、运河的规划等等，仍旧可以看出当时商业的蓬勃发展。此外，当时许多荷兰北方、围绕南海(Zuider Zee)的渔村，也成为东印度公司重要的港口。 尽管在筑完堤坝后，原本的南海早已更名为艾塞湖(Ijsselmeer)，但如珍珠项链般环绕湖畔的马肯(Marken)、沃伦丹(Volendam)、荷恩(Hoorn)、乌尔克(Urk)与史帕肯堡(Spakenburg)等渔村，以及坎朋(Kampen)、斯塔佛伦(Stavoren)和恩克森等贸易城中，所遗留的传统文化将这个地区也，形成了一个独特且多彩多姿的区域，我们称之为「北海黄金圈」 。 现今荷兰仍然是世界上的最有竞争力的先进国家之一也是世界上重要的出口贸易国。 荷兰木鞋不过是一种工艺品，实际上，木鞋对于荷兰人来说有着重要的实用价值，至少在历史上是这样的。因荷兰土地太潮湿，木鞋最能防潮湿，而且经久不烂,因而成了荷兰人的最爱。 【饮食】青鱼是荷兰闻名的小吃之一，也是荷兰进行殖民掠夺的标志。远在十四世纪，1384年，一个叫博克尔的荷兰人发明了腌渍青鱼办法，于是捕鱼业兴旺起来。荷兰以武力强占了波罗地海沿岸，瑞典南部盛产青鱼的斯霍恩岛，成为荷兰第一个殖民地。所以有人把荷兰叫做“建筑在青鱼骨上的国家”。 荷兰点滴 盛开的郁金香——美丽却又凄婉 说到荷兰足球，总会引发一连串的疑问：如果克鲁伊夫参加78年世界杯赛，荷兰还只是亚军吗？如果90年荷兰队团结一致，还会那么早就打道回府吗？如果古利特参加94年世界杯，荷兰还会输给巴西吗？时光无法倒流，足球场上是更没有那么多的“如果”，我们永远得不到答案。事实上，也不太需要答案，因为人们已经习惯于那支令人敬仰却又充满悲情色彩的球队。论才华，荷兰堪比巴西；论气质，荷兰不逊法国；论刚毅，荷兰不输德国，但谈起成绩，荷兰却难以在列强面前抬头。每次他们都是夺标的大热门，但往往结局没有期待的好，除了1988年的欧锦赛冠军，荷兰真成了无冕之王，甚至几次被拒大赛的决赛圈之外，充当难以舒展激情的落寞看客。激情的郁金香总是夭折的现实使荷兰队身上弥漫了悲情的色彩。 郁金香是荷兰的国花，是美好、庄严、华贵和成功的象征，荷兰足球在世人面前拥有了前三项，但荷兰人一直在大赛成功的门外徘徊。荷兰就是这样一个让你爱恨交加的球队，不知道他们能带来多少惊喜，更不知道他们会带来多少悲伤。 荷兰的国家历史充满了反抗和斗争。在16世纪前长期处于封建割据状态，而后又受到西班牙的殖民统治，于是历史上的荷兰以中立的姿态应对着风云变化。和平和独立的精神追求造就荷兰人不去争夺他人的利益，他们可以填海造田，可以同自然战斗却无意称霸世界。从伦勃朗到梵·高，荷兰诞生了世界级的绘画大师，但就像他们的印象画派，荷兰足球创造了印象之名却没有荣誉之实。 从足球看荷兰：不为争名逐利，只求唯美主义 荷兰队可以革命性的足球屡屡改造世界足球的风格，但却没有办法在足坛称霸，实在和荷兰的民族性有关，因为荷兰人对称霸不感兴趣，荷兰人更感兴趣的是和平与创造，以及在足球中体现海一般的浪漫主义精神。 荷兰历史上一直采取中立政策，由此带来它有意思的命运。16世纪前长期处于封建割据状态。16世纪初受西班牙统治。1581年北部七省成立荷兰共和国。1648年西班牙正式承认荷兰独立。17世纪曾为海上殖民强国。18世纪后，荷兰殖民体系逐渐瓦解。1848年成为君主立宪国。一战期间保持中立。二战初期宣布中立。1940年5月被德国军队侵占，王室和政府迁至英国，成立流亡政府。战后，荷兰人意识到中立并不能带来长久的独立，终于放弃中立立场，加入北约。 荷兰的历史就是一部不断反抗大国统治的历史，和平和独立对荷兰人来说已经不易，所以荷兰人骨子里并没有兴趣去争取不属于自己的利益。另外，荷兰人也是世界上最值得敬佩的民族之一，荷兰本来是一片沼泽，难以为生，但荷兰人的远祖没有选择向中欧移动，通过战争争取新的生存空间，而是选择了和自然搏斗，筚路蓝缕，改善荷兰的地理环境。 “荷兰风车”今天已经成为荷兰的标志，在历史上，风车帮助荷兰人围海造田，从大海口中争取了近三分之一的国土，并且帮助荷兰的社会生产力和科技水平一直处于欧洲社会前列，直到今天仍然如此。荷兰民族，喜欢选择内省，改善自身，来代替掠夺他人，在足球风格上，也是典型的“求道派”，所以荷兰人骨子里对胜负之争并没有太强的意识。或许担任足球历史上的改革者形象，已经够了，世界冠军对他们来说并不是惟一的选择。 好在荷兰人并不软弱，反抗者的特征就是大难不死，越危急的时候，越能迸发出不一般的求生力量。荷兰国徽：即奥伦治。拿骚王室的王徽。为斗篷式。顶端带王冠的斗篷中有一盾徽，蓝色盾面上有一只头戴三叶状王冠的狮子，一爪握着银色罗马剑，一爪抓着一捆箭，象征团结就是力量。盾徽上面有一顶王冠，两侧各有一只狮子，下边的蓝色饰带上写着威廉大公的一句格言“坚持不懈”。 荷兰人就是这样，不到生死攸关的时候，宁愿去享受和平和艺术，但你真的要灭它了，你就会看到一个铁一样的荷兰。所以一千年后，荷兰队可能会成为参加世界杯决赛圈比赛最多的队，但却是获得冠军最少的队。 现实与理想的落差 先看一下荷兰的绘画，荷兰出两种画家，一种是“宏伟场面爱好者”，比如15世纪凡。爱克兄弟画的《根特祭坛画》、16世纪鲁斯本的《智者朝圣画》、《劫夺列其普的女儿》和《亚马孙之战》等画，气势磅礴，色彩富丽，对后来的欧洲绘画产生了重大影响。另一种是不拘一格的革命者，从17世纪的伦勃朗到梵。高，再到抽象派创始人蒙德里安。 如果把荷兰国家队比作一幅画的话，这幅画永远不会缺乏宏伟的场面、闪耀的群星、和不断的战术革命。荷兰国家队，需要的是日本围棋中的“胜负师”精神，有时候不惜一切，刻意追求胜负，也是一种最高的境界。 在这样的一个国家学习足球，想不用心学习也是不行的。 人们提起荷兰足球常常有一种惋惜之情溢于言表，荷兰球员的足球踢得如此完美无瑕，甚至于可以在不大的绿荫场上用脚写出一首首悠扬的诗篇。看他们踢球，球迷的神经一次次的蹦紧松动，随他们的一次次出脚而跳跃。他们使球迷的思维空间得到了极大扩展。然而荷兰足球却一次也没有骄傲的站在世界杯冠军的领奖台上，去享受那振人心肺的欢呼声，荷兰足球仿佛永远处在现实与梦想的交界之间。幸福是那样的触手可及，又仿佛永远的那么遥远。于是人们就非常的以为，荷兰足球的实力和对足球理论的深刻理解，早就应该在世界杯上拜王封相了，然而没有，只是运气太差了。他们演绎的是世界足坛一出悲剧，这出悲剧由于无奈才显的如此动人，如此震撼。 全世界所有热爱荷兰足球的人似乎都是偏执狂，他们以“荷兰”的名义，追求一种足球的唯美。但现实总是残忍的，任何追求完美和纯粹的企图，最终都会被粉碎，所谓纯粹所谓唯美，依然还是可望不可及的海市蜃楼。 人都是需要一个精神家园的，譬如王小波的精神家园就是一个重建的人文世界。当然，关于荷兰足球的“精神家园”与人文无关，那更类似于一种完美的偶像象征，一种图腾。但凡成为“象征意义”或者“图腾”的东西都无一例外死得很难看，比如距离我们最近的那个全世界的“图腾”——戴安娜。在这个生前以及死后相当长时间里都被认为是人类最完美女性的精神世界里，作为“偶像”的她早已经崩溃，“我也是一个普通的女人”，所以戴安娜选择了婚外情，她背离了自己的“神圣”，却活得更加纯粹与快乐。 过分了的自由与独立个性 然而正象世界上没有无援无故的恨一样，荷兰足球形成这部悲剧经典是有自己的原因的，只是由于故事本身的凄美，人们已经震撼的看不见背后的掩藏的蛛丝马迹了。 荷兰球员应该是上帝的宠儿，不然实在无法想象上帝为什么对别的国家如此的吝啬，几乎忘记给他们足球天才，而让荷兰这个国家在同一时期就可以拥有一批。七十年代荷兰不仅有约翰克鲁伊夫，还拥有约翰内斯肯斯，罗布耶伦森布林克。八十年代范巴斯腾，路易德古力特，罗纳德科曼和里杰卡尔德又同时横空出世。然而荷兰人自大，骄横，爱国心淡薄如纸的性格却让上帝的万千宠爱显的没有了意义。那些天才们都视自己为跨越历史时期的当然人选，是天然的领袖和无可争议的英雄。是荷兰队的唯一核心。于是荷兰国家队常常莫名其妙的，疯狂的陷入一种内耗中。所以克鲁伊夫在国家队生死攸关的时刻可以毅然告退，古力特由于个人利益得不到满足时会宣布退出‘94年世界杯赛”，96年欧洲锦标赛上会出现“戴维斯事件”荷兰的舆论和人们却感到很正常的。但是这种事件发生在别的国家会骂名千载，遗臭万年的。 荷兰足球唯一的亮点是1988年夺取了欧洲锦标赛冠军，这次比赛中荷兰人将现代足球的艺术演绎的异常完美，巴斯腾甚至用一个开创历史先河的零度角射门为他们的演出烙上了历史的脚印。然而那时的荷兰四大天王几乎还都是无名小卒，也只是在这次比赛后才声名鹊起的。类似的经历算来还有一次，当年阿甲克斯队是曾经打败过AC米兰的。然而那时只有一个老天王里杰卡尔德，西多夫，克鲁伊维特也只有十八九，戴维斯也只是初出茅庐，他们尚切没有骄横的本钱。 荷兰人与逼人的大海进行的无情斗争，锻炼的他们坚毅的性格和独创精神，所以在足球史上我们会永远记住他们独创的全攻全守这一具有革命意义的战术，和那种对待强敌毫不畏惧的大无畏精神。然而由于他们的自大，骄横，不团结注定了在世界杯的绿荫场上没有冠军的悲剧。 The Netherlands is often called Holland. This is formally incorrect as North and South Holland in the western Netherlands are only two of the country's twelve provinces. As a matter of fact, many Dutch people colloquially use Holland as a synecdoche, being well aware of the widespread use of this name. For more on this and other naming issues see terminology of the Netherlands. The Netherlands is a geographically low-lying and densely populated country. It is popularly known for its traditional windmills, tulips, cheese, clogs (wooden shoes), delftware and gouda pottery, for its bicycles, its dikes and surge barriers, and, on the other hand, traditional values and civil virtues such as its classic social tolerance. But primarily, the Netherlands is a modern, advanced and open society. An old parliamentary democracy, the country is more recently known for its rather liberal policies toward recreational drugs, prostitution, homosexuality, abortion, and euthanasia. The Netherlands is also one of the most densely cabled countries in the world; its internet connection rate of 87.8% is the 2nd highest in the world. The Netherlands has an international outlook; among other affiliations the country is a founding member of the European Union (EU), NATO, the OECD, and has signed the Kyoto protocol. Along with Belgium and Luxembourg, the Netherlands is one of three member nations of the Benelux economic union. The country is host to five international(ised) courts: the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Court and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. All of these courts (except the Special Tribunal for Lebanon), as well as the EU's criminal intelligence agency (Europol), are situated in The Hague, which has led to the city being referred to as "the world's legal capital." A remarkable aspect of the Netherlands is its flatness. Hilly landscapes can be found only in the south-eastern tip of the country on the foothills of the Ardennes, the central part and where the glaciers pushed up several hilly ridges such as the Hondsrug in Drenthe, the stuwwallen (push moraines) near Arnhem and Nijmegen, Salland, Twente and the Utrechtse Heuvelrug. History Main article: History of the Netherlands Under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and king of Spain, the region was part of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some land of France and Germany. 1568 saw the start of the Eighty Years' War between the provinces and Spain. In 1579, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces formed the Union of Utrecht, a treaty in which they promised to support each other in their defense against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. In 1581 the northern provinces adopted the Oath of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II. Philip II the son of Charles V, was not prepared to let them go easily and war continued until 1648 when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised Dutch independence in the Treaty of Münster. Dutch Republic 1581-1795 Main article: Dutch Republic William the Silent, leader of the Netherlands during the Dutch Revolt.Since their independence from Phillip II in 1581 the provinces formed the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. The republic was a confederation of the provinces Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelre. All these provinces were autonomous and had their own government, the "States of the Province". The States-General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The very thinly populated region of Drenthe, mainly consisting of poor peatland, was part of the Republic too, although Drenthe was not considered one of the provinces. Drenthe had its own States but the landdrost of Drenthe was appointed by the States-General. The Republic occupied a number of so-called Generality Lands (Generaliteitslanden in Dutch). These territories were governed directly by the States-General, so they did not have a government of their own and they did not have representatives in the States-General. Most of these territories were occupied during the Eighty Years' War. They were mainly Roman Catholic and they were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Southern Netherlands. The Dutch grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers of the 17th century during the period of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. In the so-called Dutch Golden Age, colonies and trading posts were established all over the globe. (See Dutch colonial empire) Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe it featured the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as such less benign phenomena as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and according to Murray Sayle, the world's first bear raider - Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. The republic went into a state of general decline in the later 18th century, with economic competition from England and long standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the Staatsgezinden (Republicans) and the Prinsgezinden (Royalists or Orangists) as main factors. Under French influence 1795-1815 Main article: Batavian Republic On 19 January 1795, a day after stadtholder William V of Orange fled to England, the Batavian Republic (Bataafse Republiek in Dutch) was proclaimed. The proclamation of the Batavian Republic introduced the concept of the unitary state in the Netherlands. From 1795 to 1806, the Batavian Republic designated the Netherlands as a republic modelled after the French Republic. The Kingdom of Holland 1806 – 1810 (Dutch: Koninkrijk Holland, French: Royaume de Hollande) was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom for his third brother, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, in order to control the Netherlands more effectively. The name of the leading province, Holland, was now taken for the whole country. The kingdom of Holland covered the area of present day Netherlands, with the exception of Limburg, and parts of Zeeland, which were French territory. In 1807 Prussian East Frisia and Jever were added to the kingdom. In 1809 however, after an English invasion, Holland had to give over all territories south of the river Rhine to France. King Louis Napoleon did not meet Napoleon's expectations — he tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's — and the King had to abdicate on 1 July 1810. He was succeeded by his five year old son Napoleon Louis Bonaparte. Napoleon Louis reigned as Louis II for just ten days as Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte ignored his young nephew’s accession to the throne. The Emperor sent in an army to invade the country and dissolved the Kingdom of Holland. The Netherlands then became part of the French Empire. From 1810 to 1813, when Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated in the battle of Leipzig, the Netherlands were part of the French Empire. Kingdom of the Netherlands In 1795 the last stadtholder William V of Orange fled to England. His son returned to the Netherlands in 1813 to become William I of the Netherlands, Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. On 16 March 1815 the Sovereign Prince became King of the Netherlands. Map of the Netherlands in 1843 after independence of Belgium.See also: Kingdom of the Netherlands In 1815 the Congress of Vienna formed the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, by expanding the Netherlands with Belgium in order to create a strong country on the northern border of France. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg. The Congress of Vienna gave Luxembourg to William personally in exchange for his German possessions, Nassau-Dillenburg, Siegen, Hadamar and Diez. Belgium rebelled and gained independence in 1830, while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when King William III of the Netherlands died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess. Therefore the throne of Luxembourg passed over from the House of Orange-Nassau to the House of Nassau-Weilburg, another branch of the House of Nassau. Colonies The largest Dutch settlement abroad was the Cape Colony. It was established by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company at Capetown (Dutch: Kaapstad) in 1652. The Prince of Orange acquiesced to British occupation and control of the Cape Colony in 1788. The Netherlands also possessed several other colonies, but Dutch settlement in these lands was limited. Most notable were the vast Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) and Suriname (the latter was traded with the British for New Amsterdam, now known as New York). These 'colonies' were first administered by the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, both collective private enterprises. Three centuries later these companies got into financial trouble and the territories in which they operated were taken over by the Dutch government (in 1815 and 1791 respectively). Only then did they become official colonies. Industrialisation During the 19th century, the Netherlands was slow to industrialize compared to neighbouring countries, mainly due to the great complexity involved in the modernizing of the infrastructure consisting largely of waterways and the great reliance its industry had on windpower. World War I Many historians do not recognise the Dutch involvement during World War I. However, recently historians started to change their opinion on the role of the Dutch. Although the Netherlands remained neutral during the war, it was heavily involved in the war. Von Schlieffen had originally planned to invade the Netherlands while advancing into France in the original Schlieffen Plan. This was changed by Helmuth von Moltke the Younger in order to maintain Dutch neutrality. Later during the war Dutch neutrality would prove essential to German survival up till the blockade integrated by the USA and Great Britain in 1916 when the import of goods through the Netherlands was no longer possible. However, the Dutch were able to remain neutral during the war using their diplomacy and their ability to trade. World War II Main article: History of the Netherlands (1939-1945) The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I and intended to do so in World War II. However, Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands in 1940 in the Western European campaign of the Second World War. The country was quickly overrun and the army main force surrendered on May 14 after the bombing of Rotterdam, although a Dutch and French allied force held the province of Zeeland for a short time after the Dutch surrender. The Kingdom as such continued the war from the colonial empire; the government in exile resided in London. During the occupation over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up to be transported to Nazi concentration camps in Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia. By the time these camps were liberated, only 876 Dutch Jews survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in German factories, civilians were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food for German soldiers in the Netherlands and for shipment to Germany. Although there are many stories of Dutch people risking their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, like in the diary of Anne Frank, there were also Dutch people who collaborated with Nazi occupiers in hunting down and arresting hiding Jews, and some joined the Waffen-SS to form the 4th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Brigade Netherlands, fighting on the Eastern Front. The government-in-exile lost control of its major colonial stronghold, the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), to Japanese forces in March 1942. "American-British-Dutch-Australian" (ABDA) forces fought hard in some instances, but were overwhelmed. During the occupation, the Japanese interned Dutch civilians and used both them and Indonesian civilians as forced labour, both in the Netherlands East Indies and in neighbouring countries. This included forcing women to work as "comfort women" (sex slaves) for Japanese personnel. Some military personnel escaped to Australia and other Allied countries from where they carried on the fight against Japan. After a first liberation attempt by the Allied 21st Army Group stalled, much of the northern Netherlands was subject to the Dutch famine of 1944, caused by the disrupted transportation system, caused by German destruction of dikes to slow allied advances, and German confiscation of much food and livestock and above that all a very severe winter made the "Hunger Winter" of 1944-1945 one in which malnutrition and starvation were rife among the Dutch population. German forces held out until the surrender of May 5, 1945, in Wageningen at Hotel De Wereld. After the war After the war, the Dutch economy prospered by leaving behind an era of neutrality and gaining closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands became a member of the Benelux (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) grouping. Furthermore, the Netherlands was among the twelve founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and among the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community, which would later evolve, via the EEC (Common Market), into the European Union. Geography Floods In years past, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of human intervention and natural disasters. Most notable in terms of land loss is the 1134 storm, which created the archipelago of Zeeland in the south west. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the 72 square kilometres (28 sq mi) Biesbosch tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The most recent parts of Zeeland were flooded during the North Sea Flood of 1953 when 1,836 people were killed, after which the Delta Plan was executed. Map of the Netherlands. Satellite image of the Netherlands (ca. May 2000).The disasters were partially increased in severity through human influence. People had drained relatively high lying swampland to use it as farmland. This drainage caused the fertile peat to compress and the ground level to drop, locking the land users in a vicious circle whereby they would lower the water level to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to compress even more. The problem remains unsolvable to this day. Also, up until the 19th century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further adding to the problem. To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called terps. Later, these terps were connected by dykes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called "waterschappen" (English "water bodies") or "hoogheemraadschappen" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods. (These agencies exist to this day, performing the same function.) As the ground level dropped, the dykes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century, windmills had come into use in order to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders. In 1932, the Afsluitdijk (English "Closure Dyke") was completed, blocking the former Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling 2,500 km2 (965 mi2) were reclaimed from the sea. Delta works After the 1953 disaster, the Delta project, a vast construction effort designed to end the threat from the sea once and for all, was launched in 1958 and largely completed in 2002. The official goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in the province of Zeeland to once per 10,000 years. (For the rest of the country, the protection-level is once per 4,000 years.) This was achieved by raising 3,000 kilometres (1,864 miles) of outer sea-dykes and 10,000 kilometres (6,200 miles) of inner, canal, and river dikes to "delta" height, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dyke reinforcements. The Delta project is one of the largest construction efforts in human history and is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Additionally, the Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climatic change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but also erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow. Rivers The country is divided into two main parts by three large rivers, the Rhine (Rijn) and its main distributary Waal, as well as the Meuse (Maas). These rivers function as a natural barrier between earlier fiefdoms, and hence created traditionally a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable north and south of these "Large Rivers" (de Grote Rivieren). In addition to this, there was, until quite recently, a clear religious dominance of Catholics in the south and of Protestants in the north. The south-western part of the Netherlands is actually a massive river delta of these rivers and two tributaries of the Scheldt (Westerschelde and Oosterschelde). Only one significant branch of the Rhine flows northeastwards, the IJssel river, discharging into the IJsselmeer, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). This river also happens to form a linguistic divide. People to the east of this river speak Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland that has its own language). Climate The predominant wind direction in the Netherlands is south-west, which causes a moderate maritime climate, with cool summers and mild winters. Mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1971 and 2000: Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Avg. highest temp. (°C) 5.2 6.1 9.6 12.9 17.6 19.8 22.1 22.3 18.7 14.2 9.1 6.4 13.7 Avg. lowest temp. (°C) 0.0 -0.1 2.0 3.5 7.5 10.2 12.5 12.0 9.6 6.5 3.2 1.3 5.7 Avg. temp. (°C) 2.8 3.0 5.8 8.3 12.7 15.2 17.4 17.2 14.2 10.3 6.2 4.0 9.8 Panoramic view of windmills at Kinderdijk.Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Avg. precipitation (mm) 67 48 65 45 62 72 70 58 72 77 81 77 793 Avg. hours sunshine 52 79 114 158 204 187 196 192 133 106 60 44 1524 Nature See also: List of national parks of the Netherlands and List of extinct animals of the Netherlands. The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves. Most are owned by Staatsbosbeheer and Natuurmonumenten and include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes and other habitats. In 1871 the last old original natural woods (Beekbergerwoud) were cut down and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots Pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). Government and administration Government Main article: Politics of the Netherlands Thorbecke reformed the Dutch government to a parliamentary monarchy.The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815 and a parliamentary democracy since 1848; before that it had been a republic from 1581 to 1806 and a kingdom between 1806 and 1810 (it was part of France between 1810 and 1813). The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2007, The Economist ranked The Netherlands as the third most democratic country in the world. The head of state is the monarch, at present Queen Beatrix. Constitutionally the monarch still has considerable powers, but in practice it has become a ceremonial function. The monarch can exert most influence during the formation of a new cabinet, where he/she serves as neutral arbiter between the political parties. In practice the executive power is formed by de ministerraad Dutch cabinet. Because of the multi-party system no party has ever held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, therefore coalition cabinets have to be formed. The cabinet consists usually of around thirteen to sixteen ministers of which between one and three ministers without portfolio, and a varying number of state secretaries. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who is often, but not always, the leader of the largest party in the coalition. In practice the Prime Minister has been the leader of the largest coalition party since 1973. He is a primus inter pares, meaning he has no explicit powers that go beyond those of the other ministers. The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States-General which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the Second Chamber, the Lower House, are elected in direct elections, which are held every four years or after the fall of the cabinet (by example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no-confidence, the cabinet offers her resignation to the monarch). The provincial assemblies are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the First Chamber, the upper house, which has less legislative powers, as it can merely reject laws, not propose or amend them. Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily. While historically the Dutch foreign policy was characterised by neutrality, since the Second World War the Netherlands became a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies on international trade. The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism and Judaism were tolerated. In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance is linked to the Dutch policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion which are among the most liberal in the world. The Binnenhof is the centre of Dutch politics.Since suffrage became universal in 1919 the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest family were the Christian democrats currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), second were the social democrats, of which the Labour Party (PvdA) is currently the largest party and third were the liberals of which the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative. These cooperated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian democrats had always been partner: so either a centre left coalition of the Christian democrats and social democrats or a centre right coalition of Christian democrats and liberals. In the 1970s the party system became more volatile: the Christian democratic parties lost seats, while new parties, like the radical democrat and progressive liberal D66, became successful. In the 1994 election the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66 and PvdA. In 2002 elections this cabinet lost its majority, due to the rise of LPF, a new political party around the flamboyant populist Pim Fortuyn, who was shot to death a week before the elections took place. The elections also saw increased support for the CDA. A short lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD and LPF, led by the leader of the Christian democrats, Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections in which the LPF lost almost all its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, the VVD and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious program of reforming the welfare state, the health care system and immigration policies. In June 2006 the cabinet fell, as D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against minister of immigration and integration Rita Verdonk in the aftermath of the upheaval about the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali instigated by the Dutch immigration minister Verdonk. A care taker cabinet was formed by CDA and VVD, and the general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections the Christian Democratic Appeal remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet started two days after the elections. Initial investigations toward a CDA-SP-PvdA coalition failed, after which a coalition of CDA, PvdA and ChristianUnion was formed. Dutch Tweede Kamer seats as of 2006 PvdD (2) D66 (3) GL (7) SP (25) PvdA (33) CU (6) CDA (41) VVD (22) SGP (2) PVV (9) Summary of the 22 November 2006 Netherlands Second Chamber election results: Administrative divisions Main articles: Provinces of the Netherlands and Municipalities in the Netherlands The Netherlands is divided into twelve administrative regions, called provinces, each under a Governor, who is called Commissaris van de Koningin (Commissioner of the Queen), except for the province Limburg where the commissioner is called Gouverneur (Governor) which underlines the more "non-Dutch" mentality. All provinces are divided into municipalities (gemeenten), 458 in total (1 January 2006). The country is also subdivided in water districts, governed by a water board (waterschap or hoogheemraadschap), each having authority in matters concerning water management. As of 1 January 2005 there are 27. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. In fact, the Dutch water boards are one of the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Map of the Netherlands, linking to the province pages; the red dots mark the capitals of the provinces and the black dots other notable cities or towns.Flag Province Capital Largest city Area (km²) Population Drenthe Assen Assen 2,641 486,197 Flevoland Lelystad Almere 1,417 374,424 Friesland (Fryslân) Leeuwarden Leeuwarden 3,341 642,209 Gelderland Arnhem Nijmegen 4,971 1,979,059 Groningen Groningen Groningen 2,333 573,614 Limburg Maastricht Maastricht 2,150 1,127,805 North (Noord) Brabant Den Bosch Eindhoven 4,916 2,419,042 North (Noord) Holland Haarlem Amsterdam 2,671 2,613,070 Overijssel Zwolle Enschede 3,325 1,116,374 Utrecht Utrecht Utrecht 1,385 1,190,604 Zealand (Zeeland) Middelburg Middelburg 1,787 380,497 South (Zuid) Holland The Hague (Den Haag) Rotterdam 2,814 3,455,097 Demographics and urbanisation Demographics Main article: Demographics of the Netherlands Population density in the Netherlands, 2006The Netherlands is the 25th most densely populated country in the world, with 395 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,023 sq mi)—or 484 people per square kilometre (1,254/sq mi) if only the land area is counted, since 18.4% is water. Fertility rate The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.72 children per woman, well below the 2.1 rate required for population replacement. Life expectancy Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 82 years for newborn girls and 77 for boys (2007). Body length The people of the Netherlands are amongst the tallest in the world, with an average height of about 1.85 m (6 ft 0.8 in) for adult males and 1.68 m (5 ft 6 in) for adult females. People in the south are on average about 2 cm shorter than those in the north. Ethnic origins The ethnic origins of the citizens of the Netherlands are diverse. A majority of the population, however, still remains indigenous Dutch, although from a historic point of view, the latter notion is also to be relativised strongly. They were: 80.9% Dutch 2.4% Indonesian (Indo-Dutch, South Moluccan) 2.4% German 2.2% Turkish 2.0% Surinamese 1.9% Moroccan 0.8% Antillean and Aruban 6.0% other However, this does not include the whole Kingdom of the Netherlands (such as the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, which have a non-Dutch majority community), and only includes the population in the Netherlands itself. Urbanisation Main article: Geography of the Netherlands The Netherlands is a very densely populated country, although the cities are modest in size compared to international standards. It is not the size of the biggest cities, but the very high number of middle sized cities and towns, that accounts for the high degree of urbanisation. The capital and largest city is Amsterdam, although the government is located in The Hague. While the word capital is usually defined as the city of the government seat, no Dutchman would ever call The Hague the capital of The Netherlands. Schematic map of the Randstad. The Randstad Main article: Randstad The Randstad (Edge City) is a conurbation in the western part of the Netherlands. It consists of the four largest Dutch cities (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht), plus their surrounding areas. With its 7.5 million inhabitants (almost half of the population of the Netherlands; when other conurbations connected to this area are also taken into consideration, it would have a population a little over 10 million, almost two-thirds of the entire Dutch population) it is one of the largest conurbations in Europe. There is discussion to what extent the Randstad may form a single more integrated metropolis in the future. At this moment, urban structures between these cities are not yet developed to such a level that the Randstad could be considered a kind of distributed super-agglomeration. Conurbation is not restricted to the Randstad alone, although the centre of gravity lies there. Quite typically, in the Netherlands there are many medium sized cities, but no truly large ones. Its largest city, Amsterdam with about 750,000 inhabitants in its own municipality, belongs to one of the smaller European capitals. The 10 largest cities Urbanisation in the Netherlands.List of the largest cities, by population, within the borders of one municipality with their provinces in 2006: Sources are CBS based Amsterdam (North Holland) 744,740 Rotterdam (South Holland) 581,615 The Hague ('s-Gravenhage / Den Haag) (South Holland) 474,245 Utrecht (Utrecht) 294,742 Eindhoven (North Brabant) 209,601 Tilburg (North Brabant) 200,975 Almere (Flevoland) 183,738 Groningen (Groningen) 180,824 Breda (North Brabant) 170,451 Nijmegen (Gelderland) 160,732 However, this picture has to be completed. Municipality sizes alone do not reflect the degree of urbanisation in the Netherlands comprehensively. Many of the larger Dutch cities are the cores of a significantly larger urban agglomeration. The largest ones are listed below: The 15 largest agglomerations Agglomerations consisting of only one municipality are not included. Sources are CBS based see and Rotterdam (Rotterdam, Barendrecht, Ridderkerk, Capelle aan den IJssel, Krimpen aan den IJssel, Spijkenisse, Schiedam, Vlaardingen, Maasland, Maassluis, Rozenburg) Amsterdam (Amsterdam, Amstelveen, Uithoorn, Diemen, Landsmeer, Oostzaan, Wormerland, Zaanstad) The Keizersgracht in Amsterdam, which is the largest city and capital of the Netherlands.The Hague ('s-Gravenhage, Rijswijk, Wateringen, Voorburg, Leidschendam, Wassenaar, Westland, Zoetermeer, Delft) Utrecht (Utrecht, Nieuwegein, IJsselstein, Maarssen) Eindhoven (Eindhoven, Veldhoven, Geldrop, Son en Breugel, Waalre) Tilburg (Tilburg, Goirle) Groningen (Groningen, Haren) Haarlem (Haarlem, Heemstede, Bloemendaal) Arnhem (Arnhem, Rozendaal) Leiden (Leiden, Katwijk, Voorschoten, Leiderdorp, Oegstgeest, Rijnsburg, Valkenburg, Warmond) Dordrecht (Dordrecht, 's-Gravendeel, Hardinxveld-Giessendam, Papendrecht, Sliedrecht, Zwijndrecht) Heerlen (Heerlen, Kerkrade, Landgraaf, Brunssum) 's-Hertogenbosch ('s-Hertogenbosch, Vught) Sittard-Geleen (Sittard-Geleen, Beek, Stein) Amersfoort (Amersfoort, Leusden, Hoogland, Hooglanderveen) Language, religion, and culture Language Main articles: Dutch Language and Languages of the Netherlands The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by a majority of the inhabitants, the exception being some groups of immigrants. Another official language is West Frisian, which is spoken in the northern province of Friesland, called Fryslân in that language. West Frisian is co-official only in the province of Friesland, although with a few restrictions. Several dialects of Low Saxon (Nedersaksisch in Dutch) are spoken in much of the north and east, like the Twentse language in the Twente region, and are recognised by the Netherlands as regional languages according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, as well as the Meuse-Rhenish Franconian varieties in the southeastern province of Limburg, here called Limburgish language. Dom Tower of Utrecht. Life in the Netherlands Culture[show] Cuisine Culture Customs Holidays Music Religion Sport Economy[show] Communication Economy Taxation Transport Society[show] Demographics Education Customs Languages Media Politics[show] Human Rights Law Law enforcement Languages Politics Policies[show] Abortion Drug policy Euthanasia Pillarisation Prostitution Same-sex marriage edit box There is a tradition of learning foreign languages in the Netherlands: about 70% of the total population have good knowledge of English, 55– 59% of German and 19% of French. Some Dutch secondary schools also teach Latin and Ancient Greek. Religion Main article: Religion in the Netherlands The Netherlands is one of the more secular countries in the Western Europe, with only 39% being religiously affiliated (31% for those aged under 35), although 62% are believers (but 40% of those not in the traditional sense). Fewer than 20% visit church regularly . According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 34% of Dutch citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", whereas 37% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 27% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". In 1950, before the secularisation of Europe, and the large settlement of non-Europeans in the Netherlands, most Dutch citizens identified themselves as Christians. In 1950, out of a total population of almost 13 million, a total of 7,261,000 belonged to Protestant denominations, 3,703,000 belonged to the Roman Catholic Church, and 1,641,000 had no acknowledged religion. However, Christian schools are still funded by the government, but the same applies for schools founded on other religions, nowadays Islam in particular. While all schools must meet strict quality criteria, from 1917 the freedom of schools is a basic principle in the Netherlands. Three political parties in the Dutch parliament (CDA, ChristianUnion and SGP) base their policy on the Christian belief system. Culture Main article: Culture of the Netherlands Erasmus (1466–1536).The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. The 17th century, when the Dutch republic was prosperous, was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruysdael and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondriaan. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphics artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Han van Meegeren was an infamous Dutch art forger. The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus of Rotterdam and Spinoza. All of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan and invented the pendulum clock. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope. In the Dutch Golden Age, literature flourished as well, with Joost van den Vondel and P.C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the bad treatment of the natives in Dutch colonies. Important 20th century authors include Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard (van het) Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's Diary of a Young Girl was published after she died in The Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages. Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese and Delftware pottery are among the items associated with the Netherlands. Military Main article: Military of the Netherlands Conscription in the Netherlands was suspended in 1996. All military specialities, except the Submarine service and Marine Corps(Korps Mariniers), are open to women. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs almost over 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilian and over 50,000 military personnel. The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix Koninklijke (Royal): Koninklijke Landmacht (KL), the Royal Netherlands Army Koninklijke Marine (KM), the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps Koninklijke Luchtmacht (KLu), the Royal Netherlands Air Force Koninklijke Marechaussee (KMar), the Royal Military Police, tasks include military police and border control Economy Main articles: Economy of the Netherlands and List of Dutch companies Economy Aalsmeer Flower Auction. The largest commercial building in the world, and a centre of international flower trade.The Netherlands has a prosperous and open economy in which the government has reduced its role since the 1980s. Industrial activity is predominantly in food-processing (for example Unilever and Heineken International), chemicals (for example DSM), petroleum refining (for example Royal Dutch Shell), and electrical machinery (for example Philips). In the north of the Netherlands, near Slochteren, one of the largest natural gas fields in the world is situated. So far (2006) exploitation of this field resulted in a total revenue of €159 billion since the mid 1970s. N.V. Nederlandse Gasunie still is the largest public-private partnership P3 world-wide following the global energy-transition of 1963 from coal to gas, coupling oil and gas prices. With just over half of the reserves used up and an expected continued rise in oil prices, the revenues over the next few decades are expected to be at least that much. The Netherlands has the 16th largest economy in the world, and ranks 10th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1998 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably in 2001-05 due to the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. Inflation is 1.3% and is expected to stay low at around 1.5% in the coming years. Unemployment is at 4.0% of the labour force. By Eurostat standards however, unemployment in the Netherlands is at only 2.9% - the lowest rate of all European Union member states. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking only 10th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being. Agriculture and horticulture Frisian Holstein cows originated in the Netherlands, where intensive dairy farming is an important part of agriculture.A highly mechanised agricultural sector employs no more than 4% of the labour force but provides large surpluses for the food-processing industry and for exports. The Dutch rank third worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind the United States and France, with exports earning $55 billion annually. A significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports are derived from fresh-cut plants, flowers, and bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total. The Netherlands also exports a quarter of all world tomatoes, and one-third of the world's exports of peppers and cucumbers. The Netherlands' location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with cooperative private enterprises such as the VOC), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Currency As a founding member of the Euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "Gulden" (Guilder), on January 1, 1999, along with the other adopters of the single European currency. Actual Euro coins and banknotes followed on January 1, 2002. One Euro is equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. |
|