歐洲:
英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| 西班牙 Spain 首都:馬德裏 國家代碼: es |
 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙國名：西班牙(Spain，Espana) 重要節日：國慶節：10月12日；憲法日：12月6日。 首都：馬德裏 (Madrid)，人口310萬（2004年）。 面積：505,925平方公裏 人口：4411萬（2005年）。主要是卡斯蒂利亞人（即西班牙人），少數民族有加泰羅尼亞人（681萬）、加裏西亞人（275萬）和巴斯剋人（212萬）。 宗教：96％的居民信奉天主教。 語言：卡斯蒂利亞語（即西班牙語）是官方語言和全國通用語言。少數民族語言在本地區亦為官方語言。 國傢體製：君主立憲製 國花：石榴花 國石：緑寶石 貨幣：歐元(舊貨幣：比塞塔) 時差：比北京時間晚7小時，夏令時期間6小時； 西班牙國旗：呈長方形，長與寬之比為3∶2。旗面由三個平行的橫長方形組成，上下均為紅色，各占旗面的1／4；中間為黃色。黃色部分偏左側繪有西班牙國徽。紅、黃兩色是西班牙人民喜愛的傳統顔色，並分別代表組成西班牙的四個古老王國。 有一種說法是紅色代表碧血，黃色代表黃沙，碧血黃沙象徵的是西班牙人民酷愛的鬥牛運動，從中體現的是英勇頑強、不畏強暴的精神。 西班牙國徽：中心圖案為盾徽。盾面上有六組圖案：左上角是紅地上黃色城堡，右上角為白地上頭戴王冠的紅獅，城堡和獅子是古老西班牙的標志，分別象徵卡斯蒂利亞和萊昂；左下角為黃、紅相間的竪條，象徵東北部的阿拉貢；右下角為紅地上金色鏈網，象徵位於北部的納瓦拉；底部是白地上緑葉紅石榴，象徵南部的格拉納達；盾面中心的藍色橢圓形中有三朵百合花，象徵國傢富強、人民幸福、民族團结。盾徽上端有一頂大王冠，這是國傢權力的象徵。盾徽兩旁各有一根海格力斯柱子。亦稱大力神銀柱，左、右柱頂端分別是王冠和帝國冠冕，纏繞着立柱的飾帶上寫着“海外還有大陸”。 國歌：《皇傢進行麯》 西班牙國歌最早源於十八世紀卡洛斯三世時期的格拉納達軍隊進行麯，皇傢名稱為《西班牙榮譽進行麯》，民間則稱為《步兵進行麯》。王室曾多次組織音樂傢譜寫新歌，但無一能夠超過這個麯子，於是這首有麯無詞的國歌便延續下來，直至2007年年底，由全國性發起徵集歌詞的活動，確定了西班牙國歌歌詞，歌詞為“西班牙萬歲！／我們一起唱／用不同的聲音／同一顆心；” “西班牙萬歲！／從緑色的山𠔌／到浩瀚的海洋／是兄弟的贊歌；” “我們熱愛自己的祖國／要去擁抱她／在她湛藍的天空下／各民族親如一傢；” “光榮的子孫／偉大的歷史／歌唱正義與繁榮／歌唱民主與和平。” 4段歌詞體現了“團结、自由、民主、和平”。 1931年，第二共和國曾把《列戈頌歌》定為國歌，但是民主政府失敗後又恢復了原有國歌的地位。 重要人物：鬍安·卡洛斯一世：國王，西班牙國傢元首。1938年1月5日生於羅馬，西班牙波旁王朝末代國王阿方索十三世之孫。幼時隨父旅居意大利、瑞士和葡萄牙等國。1955年起，先後在西海、陸、空三軍軍事學院和大學學習，畢業後到政府各部門實習行政管理，1969年7月經西班牙議會批準為王位繼承人，1975年11月登基。愛好滑雪、狩獵、航海、航空。1962年與希臘公主索菲婭結婚，有二女一子。 何塞·路易斯·羅德裏格斯·薩帕特羅：首相。1960年8月4日生於卡斯蒂利亞-萊昂自治區。法學學士。1979年加入工社黨。1986年成為西最年輕的衆議員，此後連續4次當選。2000年7月被選為工社黨總書記。2004年4月出任首相。 行政區劃 全國劃分為17個自治區，50個省，8000多個市鎮。17個自治區為：安達盧西亞、阿拉貢、阿斯圖利亞斯、巴利阿裏、巴斯剋、加那利、坎塔布利亞、卡斯蒂利亞－萊昂、卡斯蒂利亞－拉曼恰、加泰羅尼亞、埃斯特雷馬杜拉、加利西亞、馬德裏、穆爾西亞、納瓦拉、拉裏奧哈和巴倫西亞。 行 政 區 / 行 政 中 心 安達盧西亞 Andalucia/ 塞維利亞 Sevilla 阿拉貢 Aragón/ 薩拉戈薩 Zaragoza 阿斯圖裏亞斯 Asturias/ 奧維多 Oviedo 巴利阿裏 Baleares/ 馬略卡 Mallorca 巴斯剋 Vasco/ 維多利亞 Vitoria-Gasteiz 加那利 Canarias/ 坎塔布裏亞 Cantabria/ 桑坦德 Santander 卡斯蒂利亞－萊昂 Castilla y León/ 巴亞多利德 Valladolid 卡斯蒂利亞－拉曼恰 Castilla La Mancha/ 托萊多 Toledo 加泰羅尼亞 Catalu?a/ 巴塞羅那 Barcelona 埃斯特雷馬杜拉 Extremadura/ 梅裏達 Mérida 加利西亞 Galicia/ 聖地亞哥－德孔波斯特拉 Santiago de Compostela 馬德裏 Madrid/ 馬德裏 Madrid 穆爾西亞 Murcia/ 穆爾西亞 Murcia 納瓦拉 Navarra/ 潘普洛納 Pamplona 拉裏奧哈 La Rioja/ 洛格羅尼奧 Logro?o 巴倫西亞 Valencia/ 巴倫西亞 Valencia 四大旅遊區：加那利群島--熱帶風光、太陽海岸--地中海沙灘、巴利阿裏群島--地中海浴池、馬德裏--文化古城； 人口 西班牙的主要民族是占總人口70％以上的卡斯蒂利亞人。加泰羅尼亞人、加利西亞人和巴斯剋人是西班牙20個少數民族中最重要的三個。 加泰羅尼亞人主要居住在西班牙東北部，巴塞羅那即是加泰羅尼亞重鎮。少數加泰羅尼亞人住在阿拉貢地區，在德國、意大利、安道爾以及其它國傢還有約60萬人；加利西亞人的聚居地在西北部的加利西亞地區，他們的起源同葡萄牙人有親緣關係，文化、語言上也很接近，在國外加利西亞人主要集中在阿根廷，總共有97.5萬；巴斯剋人分佈在比利牛斯山的西側，沿着坎塔布連山麓和比斯開灣沿岸居住，在國外約有30萬人，很多在法國。社會學家們至今未能找到巴斯剋族的起源。在這三個地區，民族語言同西班牙語（卡斯蒂利亞語）一樣都是官方語言。 西班牙最大的三個城市是馬德裏、巴塞羅那和瓦倫西亞，他們的人口都在200萬人以上。在約占全國面積三分之二的內地，人口衹有全國的三分之一，剩下的都集中在瀕臨地中海和大西洋的工業繁榮地區。沿海一帶的比斯開省每平方公裏有263人，巴塞羅那省更達284人。在一些工業區，如阿斯圖裏亞斯、巴斯剋、加泰羅尼亞等，甚至每平方公裏超過500人。而在特魯埃爾、索裏亞和拉曼恰某些人煙稀少的地區每平方公裏衹有9人。在內地，唯一人口密度比較高的衹有首都所在地的馬德裏省，每平方公裏也超過五百人。 西班牙人口嚴重趨嚮老齡化。西班牙被成為歐洲最適合居住的國傢之一，隨着生活水平的提高，人口平均壽命在1980年就達到76歲，在歐洲僅次於荷蘭。儘管是傳統天主教國傢，但是由於受到現代婚姻家庭觀念的衝擊，青年人趨嚮於晚結婚、不結婚、不要孩子。婚齡男女結婚率衹有千分之五左右，也就是說同居比例巨大。八十年代初期結婚人數一度每年減少百分之二十五。目前，平均每個婦女生育2.1個孩子，家庭規模縮小到每戶三人左右，在歐洲屬於較低水平。不過西班牙的離婚率也較低，衹有千分之零點五。西班牙的兒童死亡率也是歐洲比較低的，在百分之一以下。大量海外移民也造成了西班牙人口的低增長率，這是她與其他西方國傢人口低增長原因的不同之處。 目前在國外居住的西班牙人總計約有336萬人，其中美洲有220.7萬人，歐洲為107.3萬。不斷的遷移是西班牙人口統計的特點，這與她曾經的殖民地統治有關。新大陸發現之後，大量的西班牙人涌嚮中美洲和南美洲、甚至北美洲的一部分地區尋找黃金和冒險。到1913年，西班牙美洲移民共有22 萬。戰後，西班牙移民方向發生了方向性的逆轉。1960年以前，最多有百分之八十五的移民的目標是大西洋對岸的美洲，後來驟降到百分之十；同時，大量移民把新的夢想轉嚮了歐洲，他們最樂於去的地方是法國、德國和瑞士。戰後，西班牙遷往國外的人口共有150萬。 首都 西班牙首都馬德裏的標志是一隻站立着夠蘋果吃的熊。它地處海拔670米的山間盆地上，是歐洲地勢最高的首都之一。這裏風光秀麗，陽光燦爛，空氣清新，每年的晴天數居歐洲各大首都之首。 在古代，馬德裏不過是曼薩納雷斯河畔的一個小村落，羅馬人、西哥特人和阿拉伯人先後在這裏統治。馬德裏的名字來自於公元十世紀阿拉伯人在這裏修建的要塞馬吉裏特。1083年，西班牙人把外來統治者趕出了伊比利亞半島。1562年，費利佩二世將首都從托萊多遷往位於半島心髒地帶的戰略要地馬德裏。當時這座城市衹有3萬居民，但是今天馬德裏已擁有人口近四百萬，成為西班牙政治、經濟、文化、交通和金融中心。 現在的馬德裏是一座現代化的城市。西班牙工業總産值的10％來自這座首都的機器製造、化學工業、建築、皮革及木材加工、食品等工業部門。自從 1851年馬德裏第一條鐵路通車以來，馬德裏已同國內20多個城市以及世界各大城市通有飛機航綫，西班牙的公路網以馬德裏為中心嚮全國各地延伸。地鐵交通是馬德裏市內的主要交通方式，地鐵總長約100公裏，每天100萬人次上下進出。 無數名勝古跡遍布馬德裏全城。1000多個凱旋門，3000多個廣場，50座博物館，這座1992年被評為“歐洲文化名城”的古城洋溢着濃烈的歷史氛圍。三個主要廣場——太陽門廣場、中心廣場和西班牙廣場之間的三角地帶就是馬德裏的市中心。太陽門廣場被稱為西班牙的中心，在那裏有一個標志，西班牙人以此為基點計算通往全國各地的汽車、火車、飛機的里程。西班牙廣場上有西班牙著名的塞萬提斯紀念碑，紀念碑的一面是西班牙開國女王伊莎貝爾像以及象徵平靜的地中海和洶涌的大西洋的兩個水池，另一面是享譽世界的堂吉河德和桑丘主僕銅像。哥倫布紀念碑樹立在哥倫布廣場，遙望遠方的哥倫布雕像和他腳下三桅船形狀的噴泉也是馬德裏標志性建築之一。大地女神廣場上的雕塑“獅子戰車”的形象也經常被用來標志馬德裏市，這個廣場是著名球會皇傢馬德裏球迷歡慶的地點。 隨着近一二十年來旅遊事業的發展，馬德裏除了新建了許多機關、商業大樓等以外，同時還新建了許多主要供外國旅遊者休息的華麗飯店和旅館。在新的建築中，“歐洲門”無論在建築上還是在美學上都令人嘆服。兩座對稱的平行四邊形塔樓分別坐落在高速路的兩側，嚮對方劇烈傾斜。這是為在馬德裏召開的歐盟會議興建的建築，顯示出一種勇敢無畏的豪氣。 政治 【政治】 2004年3月11日，馬德裏發生恐怖爆炸事件，對西政局造成深遠影響。儘管政府更迭，但西社會安定，經濟穩中有升。新任首相薩帕特羅大力推行“對話和協商”，采取一係列帶有工社黨傳統左翼色彩的政策。實施以穩定宏觀經濟、維持財政平衡為重點的經濟政策。推行民主革新，關註弱勢群體利益。在反對家庭暴力、解决非法移民、提高最低工資和養老金以及增加奬學金等方面頒布或修改了相關法律或條例。加大反恐力度，積極開展國際反恐合作。 【憲法】 現行憲法於1978年12月6日全國公民投票通過，12月29日生效。憲法規定西班牙是社會與民主的法製國傢，實行議會君主製，王位由鬍安·卡洛斯一世的直係後代世襲。國王為國傢元首和武裝部隊最高統帥，代表國傢。政府負責治理國傢並嚮議會報告工作。憲法承認並保證各民族地區的自治權。 【議會】 由參議院和衆議院組成，行使立法權，審批財政預算，監督政府工作。立法權以衆議院為主，參議院為地區代表院。議員由普選産生，任期4年。本屆議會於2004年4月組成。衆議員350名，參議員259名（其中51名由各自治區議會委任）。兩院議席分配情況如下： 衆議院 參議院 工人社會黨 164 95 人民黨 148 126 統一與聯合 10 6 共和左翼 8 - 加泰羅尼亞進步聯盟- 16 聯合左翼 5 - 巴斯剋民族主義黨 7 7 加那利聯盟 3 4 其他黨派 5 4 衆議長曼努埃爾·馬林·岡薩雷斯（Manuel Marín González，男），2004年4月就任。參議長弗朗西斯科·哈維爾·羅霍·加西亞（Francisco Javier Rojo García，男），2004年4月就任。兩人均屬工社黨。 【政府】 現政府於2004年4月18日就職，現有17名內閣成員。主要有：首相何塞·路易斯·羅德裏格斯·薩帕特羅（José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero）、第一副首相兼首相府大臣、政府發言人瑪麗亞·特雷莎·費爾南德斯·德拉維加·桑斯（女）（María Teresa Fernández de la Vega Sanz）、第二副首相兼經濟、財政大臣佩德羅·索爾韋斯·米拉（Pedro Solbes Mira）、外交與合作大臣米格爾·安赫爾·莫拉蒂諾斯·庫亞烏百（Miguel Ángel Moratinos Cuyaubé）等。 【司法機構】 司法領導機構是司法總委員會，由２０名成員組成，最高法院院長兼任主席。司法機構分司法法院和行政法院兩大係統。最高法院院長弗朗西斯科·何塞·埃爾南多（Francisco José Hernando），國傢法院院長卡洛斯·迪瓦爾(Carlos Divar)。 最高檢察機構是國傢總檢察院，下轄各級檢察院及派駐各司法部門的檢察官。國傢總檢察長坎迪多·孔德-蓬皮多(Candido Conde-Pumpido)。 【政黨】 西實行多黨製。主要政黨有： （1）西班牙工人社會黨(Partido Socialista Obrero Español)：執政黨。成立於1879年，現有黨員約41萬。該黨在1982～1996年間，四次蟬聯執政。主席曼努埃爾·查韋斯（Manuel Chaves），總書記何塞·路易斯·羅德裏格斯·薩帕特羅（José Luis Rodriguez Zapatero）。2004年4月，工社黨在大選中獲勝，上臺執政。 （2）人民黨(Partido Popular)：原名人民同盟，1977年創立，1989年易名為人民黨。執行“中間改良主義”路綫。現有黨員約60萬。該黨成立後不久便在國傢的政治舞臺上嶄露頭角，力量不斷擴大。1996年5月首次上臺執政。2000年4月蟬聯執政。主席馬裏亞諾·拉霍伊（Mariano Rajoy），總書記安赫爾·赫蘇斯·阿塞韋斯(Angel Jesús Acebes)。2004年在大選中失利，成為最大在野黨。 （3）西班牙共産黨(Partido Comunista de España)：成立於1920年，黨員約4萬，總書記弗朗西斯科·弗魯托斯（Francisco Frutos）。西共和其他左翼黨派組成以它為主的聯合左翼（Izquierda Unida），黨員約5萬。加斯帕爾·利亞馬薩雷斯（Gaspar Llamazares）任總協調人。 （4）加泰羅尼亞民主聯盟(Convergencia Democrática de Cataluña)：與另外一個民族主義政黨—加泰羅尼亞民主團结黨(Union Democrática de Cataluña)在加泰羅尼亞自治區聯合執政。1975年成立，黨員約1萬。主席霍爾迪·普約爾(Jordi Pujol)，總書記 阿圖爾·馬斯(Artur Mas)。 （5） 巴斯剋民族主義黨(Partido Nacionalista Vasco)：1895年成立，巴斯剋自治區執政黨，黨員約4萬。主席霍蘇·霍恩·伊馬斯(Josu Jon Imaz)。 【軍事】 武裝力量由正規軍和準軍事力量（國傢安全部隊）組成，國王為最高統帥。國防委員會是國防最高决策機構，國王任主席，政府首相主持工作。成員有副首相、國防、外交、內政大臣、國防參謀長、三軍參謀長。國防部負責製定防務政策並領導國防工業。三軍參謀長聯席會議是首相和國防大臣的軍事顧問機構。國防參謀長費利剋斯·桑斯·羅爾丹（Félix Sanz Roldán）上將。2001年3月西部長理事會通過法令，决定於2001年12月31日取消義務兵役製，實現軍隊職業化。 2005年國防預算69.91億歐元，占國內生産總值的0.8％。西正規軍總兵力為12.1萬人，其中陸軍7.71萬人，海軍1.94萬人，空軍2.1萬人，三軍後備役共32.85萬人。此外，國傢警察5.3萬人，國民警衛隊7.1萬人。自2004年起，三軍撤銷了原有建製，並根據職能和任務分工，成立了6個作戰司令部、10個部隊支援機關，以減少指揮層次、加強作戰效率。 外交 【對外關係】薩帕特羅政府上臺後，大幅調整外交政策。主張在處理國際事務中采取務實有效的多邊主義政策，強調聯合國的主導作用，倡導不同文明之間開展對話，建立世界文明聯盟。把奉行“歐洲主義”作為重點，力圖置身於歐盟建設的中心。大力鞏固和加強與拉美國傢的友好合作關係，並積極推動歐盟發展同拉美的合作。努力恢復和發展同北非地區國傢的關係，推動地中海地區的安全與合作，主張歐盟和北約在東擴同時兼顧南下。關註中東地區的和平與穩定，積極推動“路綫圖”計劃的實施，力求在解决巴以衝突方面有所作為。重視加強在亞太地區的政治和經濟存在，重點發展與中國、日本、韓國及東南亞國傢的關係。西與近200個國傢和地區有外交、領事和商務關係。2003-2004年，任聯合國安理會非常任理事國和安理會反恐委員會主席。 【同歐盟的關係】 西奉行歐洲主義，視歐洲為其對外政策三大傳統支柱之首，融入歐盟並在歐盟內發揮更大作用是西對外政策的根本。認為強大和團结的歐洲是世界進步的保障，歐盟應擁有真正的安全防務政策，在預防和解决國際和地區衝突中發揮積極有效和可信的作用，根據聯合國憲章擔負起維護世界和平與安全的責任。2005年2月，西就《歐盟憲法條約》舉行全民公决，成為歐盟第一個經公投通過歐盟憲法的國傢。西與歐盟成員國保持密切關係，強化與法國、德國的“親密傳統友好關係”。同德國、法國、意大利和葡萄牙建立了政府首腦定期會晤機製。歐盟成員國是西的主要經貿夥伴，目前，西進口的64％和出口的71％以上與歐盟成員國進行，外國對西投資的50％以上來自歐盟國傢。 【同拉丁美洲國傢的關係】 西與拉美國傢有特殊傳統關係，把發展與拉美國傢的關係作為其戰略重點。強調維護雙方優先關係，擴大政治對話與合作機製，幫助拉美國傢加強和鞏固民主政體，強化文明社會，支持拉美經濟一體化、政治協商機製和可持續發展。2005年10月，西舉辦了第15屆伊比利亞美洲國傢首腦會議。繼續加強與拉美國傢在政治和經濟領域的交流與合作，擴大貿易規模，促進雙邊合作與發展。西主張通過建立歐盟－拉美戰略夥伴關係，推動歐盟與拉美進一步接近。 西班牙與中國的雙邊關係 該部分內容轉自中華人民共和國外交部網站 一、雙邊政治關係回顧 1、中國與西班牙於1973年3月9日建交。 2、建交後，雙邊關係發展平穩，雙方在政治、經貿、科技和文化等領域的交往與合作不斷擴大。兩國政治關係日益密切，雙方領導人保持着經常性的往來。2005年11月，國傢主席鬍錦濤訪西期間，兩國宣佈建立全面戰略夥伴關係。 近年代以來，訪西的中國領導人主要有：國傢主席江澤民（1996年）、國務院副總理吳邦國（2001年6月）、國傢副主席鬍錦濤（2001年11月）、外交部長唐傢璇（2002年11月）、全國人大副委員長王兆國（2003年11月）、全國政協主席賈慶林（2004年9月）和國務院副總理曾培炎（2004年11月）、國傢主席鬍錦濤（2005年11月）、中共中央政治局常委、中央紀委書記吳官正（2007年4月）。 來訪的西領導人主要有：參議長巴雷羅（1998年11月）、第二副首相兼經濟大臣拉托（1998年11月、2001年11月和2002年10月）、首相阿斯納爾（2000年6月）、王儲費利佩（2000年11月和2006年7月）、王後索菲婭（2003年3月）、外交大臣帕拉西奧（2003年7月和12月）、衆議長魯迪（2003年11月）、參議長羅霍（2005年4月）、首相薩帕特羅（2005年7月）、外交與合作大臣莫拉蒂諾斯（2006年3月）、第二副首相兼經濟財政大臣索爾韋斯（2006年4月）、第一副首相兼首相府大臣德拉維加（2007年4月）。 二、雙邊經貿關係和經濟技術合作 建交後，中西經貿關係發展迅速，貿易額不斷增長。據中國海關總署統計，2006年，雙邊貿易額為144.92億美元，同比增長37.7％。2007年1至2月，雙邊貿易額為28.08億美元，同比增長69.6%。 中國對西主要出口商品是：紡織品、服裝鞋類、機電産品、傢用電器、旅行用品及箱包、陶瓷和藥品等。我從西主要進口商品是：機械設備、鋼材、塑料、化工、醫藥製品等。 1985年至今，西政府嚮我提供了9筆貸款，纍计承諾金額達39億歐元，實際使用29.3億歐元，主要用於我鐵路、城市軌道交通、交通控製、風電、太陽能、水處理、垃圾處理、環保、城市消防、醫療、教學培訓、通訊、農業等領域的項目。兩國間較大的合作項目有：冿瀋鐵路電氣化工程、海南航空購買模擬機項目、天津輕軌、天津地鐵、西安天然氣工程等。 截至2006年底，西在華投資項目為1249個，實際投入10.29億美元，是歐盟第六大對華投資國，主要分佈在北京、天津、上海、廣東一帶，行業涉及金融、能源、電信和運輸等。我在西設立約20傢合資或獨資企業，主要集中在貿易、漁業等領域。中西共簽技術引進合同603項，金額為30.77億美元。雙方的主要合作領域是：電力、化工，機械、城建和環保等。 三、文化、科技、教育與軍事交往與合作 中西兩國簽有《科技合作基礎協定》、《文化、教育和科學合作協定》和《科技人才交流協議》。中西科技混委會已舉行了6次會議，文化、教育混委會舉行了7次會議。塞萬提斯學院北京分院於2006年7月正式成立。兩國互派留學生。 上世紀80年代初，兩軍開始進行軍事交往，後曾一度中斷。近年來，兩軍友好交往頻繁。2002年，西海軍參謀長托倫特訪華。2003年，中央軍委委員、總政治部主任徐纔厚上將訪西。2005年3月，中央軍委委員、空軍司令員喬清晨上將訪西。2006年5月，西空軍參謀長德拉維加上將訪華。 四、雙邊重要協定及文件 中西駐法大使分別代表兩國政府在巴黎簽署建交聯合公報（1973年3月9日） 中西簽署貿易協定和民用航空運輸協定（1978年6月19日） 雙方簽訂文化、教育、科學合作協定（1981年4月7日） 兩國簽署發展經濟和工業合作協定（1984年11月15日） 雙方簽署科技合作基礎協定（1985年9月5日） 兩國簽署關於避免雙重徵稅和防止偷漏稅的協定（1990年11月22日） 雙方簽署關於相互鼓勵和保護投資協定（1992年2月6日） 兩國簽訂關於民事、商事司法協助的條約（1992年5月2日） 雙方簽訂兩國政府打擊有組織犯罪的合作協定（2000年6月25日） 兩國簽訂關於刑事司法協助的條約（2005年7月21日） 兩國簽訂引渡條約（2005年11月14日） 兩國簽訂關於移管被判刑人的條約（2005年11月14日） 兩國關於互設文化中心的協議（2005年11月14日） 經濟 【經濟】 西是中等發達的資本主義工業國。80年代初，西開始實行緊縮、調整、改革政策，采取了一係列經濟自由化措施。以1986年加入歐共體為契機，經濟發展出現高潮。90年代初，由於出現經濟過熱現象，經濟增長速度放慢並陷入衰退。90年代中期以來，在西政府采取的宏觀調控政策的作用下,經濟開始回升並持續穩步增長。西於1998年5月成為首批加入歐元的國傢之一。目前，西經濟繼續保持穩定增長態勢。 2006年主要經濟數字如下： 國內生産總值：9762億歐元。 人均國內生産總值：21834歐元 經濟增長率：3.9％。 貨幣名稱：歐元 通貨膨脹率：2.7％ 失業率：8.7％ 【資源】主要礦産儲藏量：煤88億噸，鐵19億噸，黃鐵礦5億噸，銅400萬噸，鋅190萬噸，汞70萬噸。森林總面積1437萬公頃。 【工業】2005年工業産值2662.75億歐元，占國內生産總值的28.5％。主要工業部門有造船、鋼鐵、汽車、水泥、采礦、建築、紡織、化工、皮革、電力等行業。其中汽車生産量居世界第七，列韓國之後。2004年西汽車生産量297.8萬量，汽車從業人員7.1萬人，直、間接就業人員占全國就業人口的11％，有18傢汽車生産廠，汽車出口占西對外出口的1/4。近年主要工業産品産量如下（單位：萬噸）： 2001年2002年2003年 鋼鐵 1651 - - 汽車（萬輛） 284.7 285.4 252.0 水泥 4051 4238.3 4422.5 （資料來源：2005年西班牙統計局報告） 【農漁業】2005年農業産值327億歐元，占國內生産總值的3.5％。農業占地3331萬公頃，其中已用地2517萬公頃，可耕地1665萬公頃。豬、羊、牛存欄數分別為2120萬頭、2000萬頭、600萬頭。近年西主要農産品産量如下（單位：萬噸）： 2001年2002年2003年 小麥501.9 679.5 629.0 大麥624.5 832.8 869.8 玉米493.6 448.7 433.9 稻米837 811 -- 酸性水果531.7 570.1 -- 葡萄酒（億升）35.05 35.76 47.29 橄欖525.8 456.9 441.5 橄欖油102.1 88.3 83.7 （資料來源：2005年西國傢統計局報告） 【服務業】 西國民經濟的一個重要支柱，包括文教、衛生、商業、旅遊、科研、社會保險、運輸業、金融業等，其中尤以旅遊和金融業較為發達。2005年西服務業産值6353.24億歐元，占國內生産總值的68％。 【旅遊業】 西經濟的重要支柱和外匯的主要來源之一。2005年接待外國遊客5560萬人，較前年增長6％，淨收入460億歐元，較前一年增長1％。全國共有各種旅館17402傢，床位約151萬張，入住率53.58％。全國共有7751傢旅行社。2004年就業人口122.6萬人，占就業人口總數7.2%。著名旅遊勝地有馬德裏、巴塞羅那、塞維利亞、太陽海岸、美麗海岸等。 【交通運輸】 以陸路交通運輸為主。2003年，主要交通運輸情況如下： 鐵路：總長15661公裏；客運旅客6.54億人次,貨運3230萬噸。 公路：總長665637公裏，其中國道24857公裏，地方政府管理道路70270公裏，其他類道路69457公裏。客運旅客28.65億人次,貨運18億噸。 水運：各類船舶118033艘；客運量和貨運量分別為2350萬人次和3.82億噸。主要港口27個，其中最主要的有巴塞羅那、畢爾巴鄂、塔拉戈納、阿爾赫西拉等。 空運：全國有機場47個。主要機場有馬德裏巴拉哈斯機場、帕爾馬·德馬略卡機場和巴塞羅那機場。2003年，客運量和貨運量分別為1.52億人次和5.8億噸。 （資料來源：2005年西班牙統計局報告） 【財政金融】 近幾年西財政收支情況如下（單位：億歐元）： 2001年2002年2003年 收入2591.16 2767.48 2560.31 支出2593.45 2765.07 2680.96 赤字2.29 2.41 -120.65 （資料來源：2005年西銀行統計報告） 西財政收入主要靠直接稅和間接稅，私有化所得近年來也占據相當比重。2003年，財政赤字相當於國內生産總值的1.6％。截至2005年底，西外債11373.22億歐元，西外匯儲備為146億歐元。 西班牙主要銀行：桑坦德中部西班牙美洲銀行(Banco Santander Central Hispanoamericano)，畢爾巴鄂比斯開對外銀行集團(Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria)和人民銀行(Banco Popular)。 【對外貿易】2005年，西對外貿易增長8.86％，其中進口增長11％，出口增長4.5％。近年外貿情況如下（單位：億歐元）： 2003年2004年2005年 進口額1840.9 2071.2 2337.1 出口額1378.1 1464.5 1552.4 逆 差-462.8 -606.7 -784.7 （資料來源：2006年西班牙銀行統計） 主要進口石油、工業原料、機械設備和消費品。主要出口汽車、鋼材、化工産品、皮革製品、紡織品、葡萄酒和橄欖油等。主要貿易夥伴是歐盟、亞洲、拉美和美國。2004年西對歐盟的進、出口額分別占當年進出口總額的64.6％和73.9％，對亞洲進、出口額分別占14.6％和5.5％，對美進、出口額分別占3.6％和4％。 【直接投資】2003年，西在境外直接投資為243.41億歐元，比上年減少了41.61%。主要投資部門有交通、電信、能源、金融、保險、房地産等，主要投資地區為拉丁美洲。2005年，西實際引資為166.18億歐元。 【人民生活】 近年來，西政府福利開支不斷增加。職工均可享受社會保險，費用由國傢負擔30.8％，企業和個人承擔69.2％。西男性平均壽命為77.2歲，女性為83.7歲。2004年西共有綜合醫院774所，19萬名醫生，平均每所醫院有2034張病床，每萬人有37張病床。每百人有62輛汽車。人均月工資2616.5美元。 （資料來源：2005年西國傢統計局報告） 文化和民生 宗教： 西班牙自從羅馬人統治時期開始就確立了天主教國傢的地位。公元八世紀“再徵服”戰爭將阿拉伯人趕出半島之後，天主教完全控製了整個西班牙。中世紀西班牙 “宗教裁判所”橫行整個歐洲，濫施酷刑，捕殺異端，上至王公大臣，下至平民百姓無不談虎色變。歐洲宗教改革時期西班牙成為西歐各國的眼中釘。十八世紀以後，教會和世俗力量之間的矛盾不斷激化，反教權運動日益高漲，教會勢力逐漸衰敗。但是，目前仍有百分之九十四的西班牙人信奉天主教，其餘也有新教徒、猶太教徒和伊斯蘭教徒。 西班牙全境分十一個教區，其中托萊多教區是最大也是最重要的一個。托萊多主教從哥特時期以來就是西班牙的紅衣大主教。 天主教的影響更多地表現在西班牙人的日常生活中。像其他天主教徒一樣，西班牙人一生中最重要的時刻都是在教堂中度過的：出生後的洗禮，第一次領聖餐，婚禮和死後的葬禮。西班牙節日衆多，有一個原因就是每一個城市、每一個村子、每一種職業都有一個聖徒作為守護神。每到聖徒生日的時候，這個城市或者行業公會就要舉行大彌撒和宗教遊行。另外，每一個教徒也都有自己的守護神，不僅要過自己的生日，也要過聖徒的生日，稱作 “Día del Santo”。西班牙人的名字大多取自聖徒，最常見的男女名字就是聖父聖母“何塞”和“瑪麗亞”，而且不論男女，都經常把這兩個名字連用。比如西班牙前任首相就叫“何塞·馬利亞·阿斯納爾”。 教育： 西班牙的教育一度受到天主教會的控製。現在西班牙的教育體製主要分為學前教育、普及教育、學士教育、高等教育以及職業培訓。 2到3歲德的兒童可以自願上幼兒園小班，4到5歲上大班。國傢的幼兒園是免費的，義務普及教育（6～16歲）也是如此，並且交通和食堂也是免費的。普及教育的對象是6到14歲的兒童。初小三年，高小兩年，初中三年。 小學主要課程有語文、數學、社會和自然體驗、藝術表達、音樂和體育。 初中增加了人文與自然科學、外語和宗教等課程。學生完成初中學業後可以選擇升入綜合中學（高中，也稱大學預科），也可以自謀職業。 綜合中學主要有三大類的課程：一是文學，包括人文科學和古典語言；二是科學，重點是數學；三是有關農業、工業和其他方面的技術課程。學生在校期間自己選擇分科學習，完成任何一個學科的課程，經考試合格，即可獲得學士學位。在車間學校和行業之傢兩種形式的職業學校裏，職業培訓分專業理論和企業實踐，職業培訓也是免費的。在那裏除了基礎課以外，還可以學到工業繪圖、管理學以及各種專業課程。 西班牙的薩拉曼卡大學和格拉納達大學都是歐洲最古老的大學之一。在西班牙憲法中規定，大學社團有學習自由、教學自由和大學自治。自製大學可自定規章，選舉學校領導機構，製定預算和人員編製，自主進行學位評定。 西班牙有三十所公裏大學和四所由教會主辦的私立大學，馬德裏自治大學是西班牙最大的高等學府，其它著名大學還有馬德裏大學、薩拉曼卡大學、巴塞羅那中央大學等。 小學為6年，中學為4年，大學4~5年。2003年，教育費用占國內生産總值的4.35%，其中大部為公共部門的投資。 2004～2005學年學生總數8441616人，其中各級學校和學生情況： 學校（所） 學生（人） 學齡前教育3596 1419307 小學12272 2494598 特殊學校-- 29283 中學6276 1876322 預科-- 632154 專科-- 516504 大學 72 1473448 從事非高等教育的教師共562510人，其中公立學校教師411399人、私立學校151111人，高等教育共有師資86774人。 （資料來源：西班牙教育、科學部2004～05年統計報告） 西班牙社交禮儀 儀態禮儀 當地婦女有"扇語"，如當婦女打開扇子，把臉的下部遮起來，意思是：我是愛你的，你喜歡我嗎？若一會兒打開一會兒合上，則表示：我很想念你。因此初到西班牙的婦女，如果不瞭解扇語，最好不要使用扇子。 相見禮儀 西班牙人通常在正式社交場合與客人相見時，行握手禮。與熟人相見時，男朋友之間常緊緊地擁抱。西班牙人的姓名常有三四節，前一二節為本人姓名，倒數第二節為父姓，最後一節為母姓。通常口頭稱呼稱父姓。 商務禮儀 西班牙人很重視信譽，總是盡可能地履行簽訂的合同，即便後來發現合同中有對他們不利的地方，他們也不願公開承認自己的過失。如在這種情況下，對方能夠善意地幫助他們，則會贏得西班牙人的尊重與友誼。西班牙人衹有在參加鬥牛比賽活動時纔嚴守時間，但客人應當守時，即便對方晚到，也不要加以責怪。 旅遊禮儀 西班牙人性格開朗，熱情，但容易激動，有時發生爭吵是很正常的，他們對此已習以為常。西班牙人吃東西時，通常會禮貌地邀請周圍的人與他分享，但這僅是一種禮儀上的表示，不要貿然接受，否則會被他們視為缺乏教養。 新聞出版：全國共有報刊155種，全國性雜志170種，銷售量共420萬。主要報紙平均日發行量：《國傢報》，發行量46萬份；《世界報》，31萬份；《阿貝塞報》，28萬份；《先鋒報》，20萬份；《加泰羅尼亞報》，17萬份；《道理報》15萬份。 主要通訊社：埃菲社，官方通訊社，1939年1月創辦。另外還有私營的歐洲通訊社、羅戈斯通訊社。 廣播電視總局統管電臺、電視臺。全國共有200多傢電臺，主要有西班牙國傢廣播電臺和私營的西班牙廣播公司、洲際電臺、西班牙人民廣播電臺。 電視臺：西班牙電視臺為國營、全國性電視臺，有兩個頻道。此外還有安達盧西亞、加泰羅尼亞、加裏西亞、巴斯剋和馬德裏等地方電視臺。1989年政府批準建立了多頻道、天綫－3和電視53傢私營電視臺。1997年兩傢數碼電視臺開始運營。 飲食：種類因地而異，但是大多菜都要加橄欖油 。 自然地理 氣候：中部梅塞塔高原屬大陸性氣候，北部和西北部沿海屬海洋性溫帶氣候，南部和東南部屬地中海型亞熱帶氣候。西北部較濕潤，內陸和東南部較乾燥。月平均氣溫從北到南：1月9.4-10.3℃；7月19.1-28.1℃。年降水量一般350-500毫米，山地高達1，500毫米。 礦藏：汞儲量占世界首位，並有煤、鐵、鋁土、鉬、黃鐵礦、石油等。森林面積廣阔，有歐洲栓皮櫟、橡、慄、杉等。盛産沙丁魚和竜蝦等。 位置：位於歐洲西南部伊比利亞半島。北瀕比斯開灣，西鄰葡萄牙，南隔直布羅陀海峽與非洲的摩洛哥相望，東北與法國、安道爾接壤，東和東南臨地中海。海岸綫長約7800公裏。境內多山，是歐洲高山國傢之一。境內高原和山地相間，全國平均海拔660米，全國35％的地區海拔1000米以上，平原僅占11％，是歐洲地勢最高國傢之一。主要山脈北有坎塔布連、比利牛斯，南有莫雷納山脈和安達盧西亞山脈。南部的木拉散峰海拔3478米，為全國最高峰。 西班牙地處歐洲西南部，與葡萄牙共同分享伊比利亞半島。西班牙位於北緯36度到44度、西經9度18分和東經3度19分之間，南北跨840公裏，東西 1000公裏。國土面積為504750平方公裏，西班牙人說他們的國傢形狀像一塊熟牛皮。西班牙在歐洲僅次於俄羅斯、德國和法國居第四位，相當於歐洲總面積的二十分之一。半島之外，西班牙的領土包括還地中海的巴利阿裏群島和大西洋的大小加那利群島。 西班牙北部沿海是比斯開灣，東北同法國和安道爾接壤，高聳的比利牛斯山把這幾個國傢分隔兩邊；東面和東南面嚮地中海，嚮南越過衹有14公裏寬的直布羅陀海峽便能達到非洲的摩洛哥；長方形的葡萄牙是西班牙西邊的鄰居。直布羅陀海峽是地中海出大西洋的要道，戰略地位極為重要，西班牙與英國長期以來一直在爭奪此地的主權。 不包括巴利阿裏群島和加那利群島，三面環海的西班牙的海岸綫長約3904公裏，但是海岸比較平直，真正的天然良港都集中在北部，如費羅爾、蓬特維德拉和維哥等。卡塔赫納是唯一地處地中海的天然港灣。東南部的海岸綫不是以港口，而是以風景旖旎的海灘勝地聞名。西班牙著名的海灣有加的斯灣和瓦倫西亞灣。 西班牙不僅有美麗的海岸，還有巍峨的高山。在歐洲，她是除了瑞士之外最高的國傢。西班牙全境大部分是古老的高原。著名的中央高原聳立西班牙正中，約占全國面積的60%，海拔600-700米。中央高原三面被高山阻絶：北部是坎塔布連山脈，南部伫立着莫雷納山，東部的伊比利亞山脈隔開中部高原與阿拉貢平原。高原西邊那一面緩緩延伸，地勢漸趨平坦，最後消失在大西洋沿岸。如果你駕車遊覽西班牙全境，不時映入眼簾的是一座座白雪皚皚的山峰，一片片起伏不平的丘陵。 西班牙全境大致可以分為五個地理區： 北部山區：這裏有歐洲著名的比利牛斯山脈，整個山脈綿延千裏，景色如畫。一年四季，無論山上山下，還是平原陸地，到處是一片翠緑。尤其是阿斯圖裏亞斯地區，山脈連綿，鬆濤茫茫，林海鬱鬱。 緊靠比利牛斯山脈的坎塔布連山脈，海拔達2000米以上，北臨茫茫無邊的比斯開灣，陸地上林木茂盛，景色十分迷人。許多寬廣的河𠔌置於其間，湖水清澈如鏡。更值得一提的是，那裏還有數不勝數的飛瀑，從高處傾瀉而下，整日水霧彌漫，蔚為壯觀。這裏既是重要的軟木産區，又是牛羊遍地的牧區和工業區。 中央高原：位於高原中部的科迪勒拉山脈，將梅塞塔高原分為北部舊卡斯蒂利亞高原和南部新卡斯蒂利亞高原。在這塊廣袤無垠、山嶺起伏的土地上，有着大片著名的橄欖樹林和動物保護區。中央高原的西北部和北部大西洋沿岸，大部分地區是崇山峻嶺。一條條山間公路首尾相接，汽車有時在山間行駛大半天，好像還在原來的位置。 阿拉貢平原：阿拉貢平原位於比利牛斯山脈東南面的埃布羅河流域，是個大致呈三角形的波狀平原。在古地質時期，這裏曾是一片浩瀚的內陸湖泊，後來湖水流入地中海，慢慢變成了幹涸的陸地。阿拉貢平原常年氣候宜人，雨水充沛，土質肥沃，被稱為富饒的“豐水寶地”，既是西班牙的天然糧倉，又是重要的葡萄、柑桔等水果産地。 地中海沿岸山地：沿岸山地從東南部安達盧西亞到東北部加泰羅尼亞，長達1500公裏。走在細軟的沙灘上，海天一色，遊人如潮。南端安達盧西亞山脈中的穆拉薩山峻峭高聳，海拔3478米，是伊比利亞半島的最高點，號稱西班牙“民族的脊梁”。這座山終年雲煙裊裊，清風悠揚，是個避暑消夏的好去處。 安達盧西亞平原：位於莫萊納山脈和安達盧西亞山脈之間。這裏一馬平川，坦坦蕩蕩；瓜達爾基維爾河由西往東橫貫整個平原，灌溉着千萬畝良田。由於高聳的安達盧西亞山脈擋住了來自海洋的濕潤空氣，所以這裏氣候乾燥，盛夏驕陽似火。 西班牙鬥牛(corrida de toro) 鬥牛是西班牙的國粹，風靡全國，享譽世界，儘管從動物保護的觀點上看目前人們對此存在爭議，但是作為西班牙特有的古老傳統還是保留到現在，並受到很多人的歡迎。鬥牛季節是3月至10月，鬥牛季節裏，每逢周四和周日各舉行兩場。如逢節日和國傢慶典，則每天都可觀賞。 歷史 簡史 公元前9世紀凱爾特人從中歐遷入。公元前8世紀起，伊比利亞半島先後遭外族入侵，長期受羅馬人、西哥特人和摩爾人的統治。西班牙人為反對外族侵略進行了長期鬥爭，1492年取得“光復運動”的勝利，1516年卡斯蒂利亞女王鬍安那和王夫菲利普一世的兒子查理（西班牙文名:卡洛斯）以特拉斯塔馬拉傢族的外孫資格繼承卡斯蒂利亞、萊昂、阿拉貢、瓦格納等國的王位，是為卡洛斯一世。建立了歐洲最早的統一中央王權的共主聯邦的國傢。 十六世紀是海上強國，以後漸衰。1837年伊莎貝拉二世在通過君主立憲的法案之後將其正式合併為一個國傢,决定用西班牙一詞“España”(腓尼基語，意為“野兔”)命名,自此結束了歷經300多年的共主聯邦模式。 1931年王朝被推翻，成立共和國，1936年成立由人民陣綫領導的聯合政府。1936年佛朗哥發動內戰，於1939年奪取政權，1947年宣佈為君主國。 1492年10月，哥倫布發現西印度群島。此後，西班牙逐漸成為海上強國，在歐、美、非、亞均有殖民地。1588年“無敵艦隊”被英國擊潰，開始衰落。1873年，爆發資産階級革命，建立第一共和國。1874年12月王朝復闢。在1898年的美西戰爭中，失去在美洲和亞太的最後幾塊殖民地——古巴、波多黎各、關島和菲律賓。在第一次世界大戰中保持中立。1931年4月王朝被推翻，第二共和國建立。1936年2月成立有社會黨和共産黨參加的聯合政府。同年7月佛朗哥發動叛亂，經三年內戰，於1939年4月奪取政權，實行獨裁統治達36年之久。1943年2月與德國締結軍事同盟，參加侵蘇戰爭。1947年7月佛朗哥宣佈西班牙為君主國，自任終身國傢元首。1966年7月立末代國王阿方索十三世之孫鬍安·卡洛斯為承繼人。 1975年11月佛朗哥病死，鬍安·卡洛斯一世登基，恢復君主製。1976年7月，國王任命原國民運動秘書長阿·蘇亞雷斯為首相，開始嚮西方議會民主政治過渡。 史前歷史 在西班牙發現最早的人類考古學遺跡大約可以追溯到公元前三萬到五萬年，穴居人類的史前岩畫為我們提供了伊比利亞半島史前文明的生活場景。在西班牙發現的最重要的遺跡包括“黑窟”洞穴和“鬆林”洞穴，當然還有著名的阿爾塔米拉岩洞。 凱爾特西班牙 最新的理論研究認為伊比利亞人是從北非來到半島的，他們主要定居在地中海沿岸以及更往南的地區，在那裏伊比利亞人創造了許多不同的文化，對於考古學來說都具有重大的意義。古希臘的歷史中對其中最重要的一支有過記載，希臘人稱他們為“圖爾多人”。他們是伊比利亞人的一個部落，在瓜達爾基維爾河流域建立了文化燦爛的王國。 公元前1200年，來自中北歐的凱爾特人從北部進入半島。金發凱爾特人和深色皮膚的伊比利亞人通婚，並且擴展到整個半島。伊比利亞半島歷史上唯一未被任何外來勢力侵入的地區恐怕就是巴斯剋人居住的北部山區。歷史和社會學家至今沒有弄清巴斯剋人的起源，她和任何鄰近民族之間找不到親緣關係，卻有人在巴斯剋語和日語之間找到了共同點，現在唯一知道的就是巴斯剋是一個十分古老的民族。 腓尼基，希臘和迦太基人 公元前1100年，強大的航海民族腓尼基人在半島上建立了殖民地，其中最重要的一個就是加迪爾，也就是今天的加的斯。同時，希臘人則在南方和地中海沿岸確立了自己的統治。 布匿戰爭期間，迦太基人趁機占領了西班牙的大部分土地，他們留下的著名城市包括卡塔赫納，這個詞正是“新迦太基”的意思。 羅馬人和哥特人 羅馬人在布匿戰爭中打敗了迦太基人之後，也把殖民地擴展到了西班牙，並且很快占領整個半島，著名的努曼西亞英雄故事就誕生在伊比利亞人抵抗羅馬人入侵的過程中。從此，半島便作為威震海內的羅馬帝國的“西班牙省”而存在。西班牙省在帝國內地位十分重要，兩位羅馬皇帝特拉加諾和阿德裏安以及斯多噶學派偉大的哲學家塞內卡都是在這裏出生的。西班牙完全吸收了羅馬文化，包括希臘拉丁人和猶太基督教政治、法律、家庭、宗教和習俗，羅馬的語言也在半島上開始使用。梅裏達是今天保存古羅馬遺跡最完整的西班牙城市，在塞哥維亞，還可以看到古羅馬的水渠從半空中穿越城市。半島上第一次出現了統一的文明。 公元409年，強悍的哥特蠻族侵入日漸衰頽的羅馬帝國，並於公元419年在伊比利亞半島建立了自己的王國，定都托萊多。但是哥特人沒有對西班牙文明的發展做出多大的貢獻。 穆斯林西班牙和光復戰爭 西哥特人的統治持續到了公元711年。當時五萬穆斯林戰士橫跨直布羅陀海峽，用手中的彎刀戰勝了曾令羅馬人聞風喪膽的哥特武士，贏得了瓜達萊特戰役大捷。四年之後，阿拉伯人席捲整個半島，把她變成了一個埃米爾國，也是龐大的阿拉伯帝國的一部分，叫做“安達盧斯國”。我國古代稱之為“緑衣大食”。儘管半島北部地區的抵抗運動從未停止過，公元八世紀到十一世紀穆斯林帝國的勢力仍舊令人驚嘆地不斷鞏固。西班牙在這個時期吸收了燦爛的阿拉伯文化，但是逐漸脫離了大馬士革的中央統治。 阿卜杜拉三世最終把西班牙變成了一個獨立的哈裏發王朝。在他的統治下，西班牙迎來了文化上的空前繁榮。城市建設和商品經濟的得到了長足的進步，甚至推動了整個歐洲的發展。阿拉伯人帶來了醫學、數學和天文學方面最先進的知識，並且在西班牙的音樂、美術、文學、建築等方面留下了深刻的印記。阿爾罕布拉宮便是阿拉伯藝術登峰造極之作。同時，阿拉伯語也在西班牙語裏留下了許多詞彙。當時最重要的城市有瓦倫西亞、薩拉戈薩、塞維利亞和科爾多瓦。擁有五十萬居民和一座巨型圖書館的科爾多瓦是十世紀西歐最大的城市和文化中心。 然而，到了十一世紀，王族間（39個王子）的不斷內訌使穆斯林帝國分裂敗落，光復運動愈演愈烈。北方的國王們一個接一個地取得勝利。到了十四世紀，在西班牙的穆斯林衹剩下了格拉納達最後一個據點，他們又堅持了近一百年，直到“天主教國王”將她也並入了卡斯蒂利亞王國的版圖。 遺産 2008年，西班牙的世界遺産已達37處，在所有國傢中名列第一。 科爾多瓦歷史中心 格拉納達的阿蘭布拉宮和赫內拉利花園 布爾戈斯大教堂 埃斯庫裏亞爾修道院 巴塞羅那的圭爾公園 圭爾宮和米拉大樓 阿爾塔米拉洞窟 塞哥維亞古鎮及高架引水渠 阿斯圖裏亞斯王國時期教區 聖地亞哥-德孔波斯特拉城古鎮 阿維拉古鎮及城外教堂 特魯埃爾的穆德哈爾式建築 歷史名城托萊多 加拉霍奈國傢公園 卡塞雷斯古鎮 塞維利亞大教堂 阿爾卡薩爾和西印度群島檔案館 古城薩拉曼卡 波布萊特修道院 梅裏達考古遺跡 瓜達盧佩的聖 瑪利亞皇傢修道院 聖地亞哥-德孔波斯特拉"朝聖之路" 多尼納國傢公園 有城墻的昆卡城 巴倫西亞的絲綢交易市場 拉斯馬德拉斯 巴塞羅那的加泰羅尼亞音樂廳和聖帕烏醫院 聖米蘭的尤索和蘇索修道院 伊比利亞半島地中海盆地岩畫藝術 阿爾卡拉的埃納雷斯堡大學和歷史區 伊維薩島景觀 拉拉瓜納的聖剋利斯托瓦爾 阿塔皮爾卡考古遺址 加泰羅尼的維爾德布伊羅馬式教堂 塔拉科考古遺址 埃爾切的帕默拉爾 盧戈的羅馬城墻 阿蘭鬍埃斯文化景觀 文藝復興時期的巨著合奏的úbeda和baeza Spain is a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy and has been a member of the European Union since 1986. It is a developed country with the eighth largest economy in the world and fifth largest in the EU, based on nominal GDP. Summary Spain is a key site when it comes to studying both the arrival of the first hominids recorded in Europe and the prehistoric stage of this continent. Under the Roman Empire, Hispania flourished and became one of the empire's most important regions. During the early Middle Age it came under Germanic rule. Later, nearly the entire peninsula came under Muslim rulers. Through a long process Christian kingdoms in the north gradually rolled back Muslim rule which was finally extinguished in 1492 as well as expelling or killing the Jews or forcing many to convert. That year Columbus reached the Americas, the beginnings of a global empire. Spain became the strongest kingdom in Europe in the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries but continued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. In the middle decades of the 20th century it came under a dictatorship, under which it went through many years of stagnation and then a spectacular economic revival. Democracy was recovered in 1978 under the form of a constitutional monarchy. In 1986 it joined the European Union and has experienced an economic and cultural renaissance. Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples in the Iberian Peninsula Archeological research at Atapuerca indicates that the Iberian Peninsula was peopled more than a million years ago. Modern humans in the form of Cro-Magnons began arriving in the Iberian Peninsula through the Pyrenees some 35,000 years ago. The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Spain, which were created about 15,000 BCE. Furthermore, archeological evidence in places like Los Millares in Almería and in El Argar in Murcia suggests that developed cultures existed in the eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula during the late Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The two main historical peoples of the peninsula were the Iberians and the Celts, the former inhabiting the Mediterranean side from the northeast to the southwest, the latter inhabiting the Atlantic side, in the north and northwest part of the peninsula. In the inner part of the peninsula, where both groups were in contact, a mixed, distinctive, culture was present, known as Celtiberian. In addition, Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountains. Other ethnic groups existed along the southern coastal areas of present day Andalusia. Among these southern groups there grew the earliest urban culture in the Iberian Peninsula, that of the semi-mythical southern city of Tartessos (perhaps pre-1100 BC) near the location of present-day Cádiz. The flourishing trade in gold and silver between the people of Tartessos and Phoenicians and Greeks is documented in the history of Strabo and in the biblical book of king Solomon. Between about 500 BC and 300 BC, the seafaring Phoenicians and Greeks founded trading colonies all along the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Carthaginians briefly took control of much of the Mediterranean coast in the course of the Punic Wars, until they were eventually defeated and replaced by the Romans. Roman Empire and Germanic invasions During the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Empire captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast (from roughly 210 BC to 205 BC), leading to eventual Roman control of nearly the entire Iberian Peninsula - a control which lasted over 500 years, bound together by law, language, and the Roman road. The base Celt and Iberian population remained in various stages of Romanisation, and local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. The Romans improved existing cities, such as Lisbon (Olissis bona or 'good for Ulysses') and Tarragona (Tarraco), and established Zaragoza (Caesaraugusta), Mérida (Augusta Emerita), Valencia (Valentia), León ("Legio Septima"), Badajoz ("Pax Augusta"), and Palencia (Παλλαντία, "Pallas Ateneia"). The peninsula's economy expanded under Roman tutelage. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbors exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the first century CE and it became popular in the cities in the second century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period. The first Germanic tribes to invade Hispania arrived in the 5th century, as the Roman Empire decayed. The Visigoths, Suebi, Vandals and Alans arrived in Spain by crossing the Pyrenees mountain range. The Romanized Visigoths entered Hispania in 415. After the conversion of their monarchy to Roman Catholicism, the Visigothic Kingdom eventually encompassed a great part of the Iberian Peninsula after conquering the disordered Suebic territories in the northwest and Byzantine territories in the southeast. Muslim Iberia In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711-718) by mainly Berber Muslims (see Moors) from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Islamic Empire. Only a number of areas in the mountains to the north of the Iberian Peninsula managed to cling to their independence, occupying the areas roughly corresponding to modern Asturias, Navarre and Aragon. Interior of the Mezquita in Córdoba, a Muslim mosque until the Reconquest, after which it became a Christian cathedral.Under Islam, Christians and Jews were recognised as "peoples of the book", and were free to practice their religion, but faced a number of mandatory discriminations and penalties as dhimmis. Conversion to Islam proceeded at a steadily increasing pace. Following the mass conversions in the 10th and 11th centuries it is believed that Muslims came to outnumber Christians in the remaining Muslim controlled areas. The Muslim community in the Iberian peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada. Córdoba, the capital of the caliphate, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city of medieval western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played a great part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. The Romanized cultures of the Iberian peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, thus giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners, and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to a remarkable expansion of agriculture. However, by the 11th century, Muslim holdings had fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories and consolidate their positions. The arrival of the North African Muslim ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, but ultimately, after some successes in invading the north, proved unable to resist the increasing military strength of the Christian states. Fall of Muslim rule and unification Equal partners: King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs.The term Reconquista ("Reconquest") is used to describe the centuries-long period of expansion of Spain's Christian kingdoms; the Reconquista is viewed as beginning after the battle of Covadonga in 722. The Christian army victory over the Muslim forces lead to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias. Muslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees, but they were defeated at the Battle of Poitiers in France. Subsequently, they retreated to more secure positions south of the Pyrenees with a frontier marked by the Ebro and Duero rivers in Spain. As early as 739 Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela. A little later Frankish forces established Christian counties south of the Pyrenees; these areas were to grow into kingdoms, in the north-east and the western part of the Pyrenees. These territories included Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia. The breakup of Al-Andalus into the competing Taifa kingdoms helped the expanding Christian kingdoms. The capture of the central city of Toledo in 1085 largely completed the reconquest of the northern half of Spain. After a Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248—leaving only the Muslim enclave of Granada as a tributary state in the south. Marinid invasions from north Africa in the 13th and 14th centuries failed to re-establish Muslim rule. Also in the 13th century, the kingdom of Aragon, still ruled by the Catalan count of Barcelona, expanded its reach across the Mediterranean to Sicily. Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and Salamanca (1218/1254) were established; among the earliest in Europe. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain. In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united (even though both kingdoms kept a high degree of political and economical independence) by the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand. In 1478 began the final stage of the conquest of Canary Islands and in 1492, these united kingdoms captured Granada, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula. The year 1492 also marked the arrival in the New World of Christopher Columbus, during a voyage funded by Isabella. That same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert into the Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition. As Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralized royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España - whose root is the ancient name "Hispania" - began to be used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms. With their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power. Imperial Spain The unification of the kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, León, and Navarre laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire. Spain became Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions. Spain reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs, Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). Included in this period are the Italian Wars, the Dutch revolt, clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish war and war with France. The galleon became synonymous with the riches of the Spanish Empire.The Spanish Empire expanded to include most part of South and Central America, Mexico, southern and western portions of today's United States, the Philippines, Guam and the Mariana Islands in Eastern Asia, the Iberian peninsula (including the Portuguese Empire (from 1580), southern Italy, Sicily, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of modern Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. It was the first empire about which it was said that the sun did not set. This was an age of discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Along with the arrival of precious metals, spices, luxuries, and new agricultural plants, Spanish explorers and others brought back knowledge, playing a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the world. Of note was the cultural efflorescence now known as the Spanish Golden Age and the intellectual movement known as the School of Salamanca. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. Barbary pirates under the aegis of the rapidly growing Ottoman empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas through their slave raids and renewed the threat of an Islamic invasion. This at a time when Spain was often at war with France in Italy and elsewhere. Later the Protestant Reformation schism from the Catholic Church dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean. By the middle decades of a war and plague ridden 17th century Europe, the effects of the strain began to show. The Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in the continent wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the European economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the independence of Portugal - with its empire - and the Netherlands, and eventually began to surrender territories to France after the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years War. During the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, however it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the 19th century. The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), a wide ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, cost Spain its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent. During this war, a new dynasty—the French Bourbons—was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king Philip V of Spain united Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the regional privileges (fueros). The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Towards the end of the century trade finally began growing strongly. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in the American War of Independence improved Spain's international standing. Napoleonic rule and its consequences "The Second of May, 1808: The Charge of the Mamelukes", by Francisco Goya, 1814.In 1793, Spain went to war against the new French Republic, which had overthrown and executed its Bourbon king, Louis XVI. The war polarised the country in an apparent reaction against the gallicised elites. Defeated in the field, Spain made peace with France in 1795 and effectively became a client state of that country; the following year, it declared war against Britain and Portugal. A disastrous economic situation, along with other factors, led to the abdication of the Spanish king in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte. This new foreign monarch was regarded with scorn. On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid began a nationalist uprising against the French army, marking the beginning of what is known to the Spanish as the War of Independence, and to the English as the Peninsular War. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several badly-coordinated Spanish armies and forcing a British Army to retreat to Corunna. However, further military action by Spanish guerrillas and Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese army, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII. The French invasion proved disastrous for Spain's economy, and left a deeply divided country that was prone to political instability for more than a century. The power struggles of the early 19th century led to the loss of all of Spain's colonies in Latin America, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Spanish-American War Amid the instability and economic crisis that afflicted Spain in the 19th century there arose nationalist movements in the Philippines and Cuba. Wars of independence ensued in those colonies and eventually the United States became involved. Despite the commitment and ability shown by some military units, they were so mismanaged by the highest levels of command that the Spanish-American war of 1898 was soon over. "El Desastre" (The Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, helped give impetus to the Generation of 98 who were already conducting much critical analysis concerning the country. It also weakened the stability that had been established during Alfonso XII's reign. 20th century The 20th century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. The heavy losses suffered during the Rif war in Morocco helped to undermine the monarchy. A period of authoritarian rule under General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1931) ended with the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women. "Guernica" by Pablo Picasso, 1937.The bitterly fought Spanish Civil War (1936-39) ensued. Three years later the Nationalist forces, led by General Francisco Franco, emerged victorious with the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republican side was supported by the Soviet Union and Mexico, but it was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-Intervention. The Spanish Civil War has been called the first battle of the Second World War; under Franco, Spain was neutral in the Second World War though sympathetic to the Axis. The only legal party under Franco's regime was the Falange española tradicionalista y de las JONS, formed in 1937; the party emphasised anti-Communism, Catholicism and nationalism. Nonetheless, since Franco's anti-democratic ideology was opposed to the idea of political parties, the new party was renamed officially a National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949. After World War II, Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations until 1955, when due to the Cold War it became strategically important for the U.S. to foment a military presence on the Iberian peninsula, next to the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar, in order to protect southern Europe. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented economic growth in what was called the Spanish miracle, which rapidly resumed the long interrupted transition towards a modern industrial economy with a thriving tourism sector and a high degree of human development. Upon the death of General Franco in November 1975, Prince Juan Carlos assumed the position of king and head of state. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the arrival of democracy, the State devolved autonomy to the regions and created an internal organization based on autonomous communities. In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical nationalism supportive of the terrorist group ETA. On February 23, 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes and tried to impose a military-backed government. However, the great majority of the military forces remained loyal to King Juan Carlos, who used his personal authority and addressed the usurpers via national TV as commander in chief to put down the bloodless coup attempt. In 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, which represented the return to power of a leftist party after 43 years. In 1986, Spain joined the European Community (which was to become the European Union). The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office. The Government of Spain has been involved in a long-running campaign against the terrorist organization ETA ("Basque Homeland and Freedom"), founded in 1959 in opposition to Franco and dedicated to promoting Basque independence through violent means. They consider themselves a guerrilla organization while they are listed as a terrorist organization by both the European Union and the United States on their respective watchlists. The current nationalist-led Basque Autonomous government does not endorse ETA's nationalist violence, which has caused over 800 deaths in the past 40 years. 21st century On January 1, 2002, Spain terminated its historic peseta currency and replaced it with the euro, which has become its national currency shared with 15 other countries from the Eurozone. This culminated the first phase of a period of economic growth, which has kept the Spanish economy growing well over the EU average, but concerns are growing that the extraordinary property boom and high foreign trade deficits of recent years may bring this to an end. On March 11, 2004, a series of bombs exploded in commuter trains in Madrid, Spain. The bombings were claimed by al Qaeda, whereas after a five months trial in 2007 it was concluded that the bombings were perpetrated by a local Islamist militant group inspired by al-Qaeda, but without direct links to that organisation. The bombings killed 191 people and wounded more than 1800, and it has been claimed that the intention of the perpetrators was to influence the outcome of the Spanish general election, held three days later on March 14. Although initial suspicions of responsibility for the bombings focused on the Basque group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating possible Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a source of political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE crossing accusations over the handling of the aftermath. A couple of days later, at the March 14 elections, PSOE, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, obtained a relative majority, enough to form the new cabinet with Rodríguez Zapatero as the new Presidente del Gobierno or prime minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP administration. Politics Spanish Government Spain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales. The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers presided over by the President of Government (comparable to a prime minister), proposed by the monarch and elected by the National Assembly following legislative elections. The legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms. Chief of State King Juan Carlos I, since November 22, 1975 Head of Government President of the Government: José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, elected 14 March 2004. First Vice President and Minister of Presidency: María Teresa Fernández de la Vega. Second Vice President and Minister of Economy and Finance: Pedro Solbes. Cabinet Council of Ministers (Spanish Consejo de Ministros) designated by the president. José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Prime Minister of Spain.The Spanish nation is organizationally composed in the form of called Estado de las Autonomías ("State of Autonomies"); it is one of the most decentralized countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium; for example, all Autonomous Communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources; therefore, health and education systems among others are managed regionally, besides, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia and the Basque Country, a full fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see Mossos d'Esquadra and Ertzaintza). See also: List of Spanish monarchs and Monarchs of Spain family tree Spanish Constitution The Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy. The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. After the death of Francisco Franco in 1975, a general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. As a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation as well as that Spain has today no official religion but all are free to practice and believe as they wish. Foreign relations of Spain After the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West. As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a major participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political cooperation mechanisms. With the normalization of diplomatic relations with North Korea in 2001, Spain completed the process of universalizing its diplomatic relations. Spain has maintained its special identification with Latin America. Its policy emphasizes the concept of an Iberoamerican community, essentially the renewal of the historically liberal concept of hispanoamericanismo (or hispanism as it is often referred to in English), which has sought to link the Iberian peninsula with Latin America through language, commerce, history and culture. Spain has been an effective example of transition from dictatorship to democracy, as shown in the many trips that Spain's King and Prime Ministers have made to the region. Territorial disputes Territory claimed by Spain There is a territorial dispute with the United Kingdom over Gibraltar, a 6 square km Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula which was conquered by Britain from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession, along with the Spanish island of Minorca (which had also been invaded but was reconquered in 1782 and finally ceded back to Spain in 1802 by the Treaty of Amiens). The legal situation was regularized in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown. Spain has called for the return of Gibraltar. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty. UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain, both EU members, to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar. Spanish territories claimed by other countries Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and some isles plazas de soberanía off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza / Olivença. Administrative divisions GaliciaNavarreMadridLa RiojaAragonCataloniaValenciaCastilla La ManchaExtremaduraPortugalCastilla y LeónAsturiasCantabriaBasque CountryMurciaAndalusiaCeutaMelillaFranceBalearic IslandsCanary IslandsMediterranean SeaBay of BiscayAtlantic OceanAndorraAtlantic Ocean Spain is politically organized into 17 Autonomous Communities (comunidades autónomas) and 2 autonomous cities (ciudades autónomas) - Ceuta and Melilla. Administratively Spain also comprises fifty provinces. Seven autonomous communities are composed of only one province: Asturias, Balearic Islands, Cantabria, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, and Navarre. Historically, some provinces are also divided into comarcas (roughly equivalent to a US "county" or an English district). The lowest administrative division of Spain is the municipality (municipio). See also: Comarcas of Spain and List of municipalities of Spain Geography At 194,884 mi² (504,782 km²), Spain is the world's 51st-largest country. It is some 47,000 km² smaller than France and 81,000 km² larger than the U.S. state of California. On the west, Spain borders Portugal, on the south, it borders Gibraltar (a British overseas territory) and Morocco, through its cities in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it borders France and the tiny principality of Andorra. Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the strait of Gibraltar, known as Plazas de soberanía, such as the Chafarine islands, the isle of Alborán, the "rocks" (peñones) of Vélez and Alhucemas, and the tiny Isla Perejil. Along the Pyrenees in Catalonia, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France. Mainland Spain is dominated by high plateaus and mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada. Running from these heights are several major rivers such as the Tagus, the Ebro, the Duero, the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir. Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia. Climate Spanish climatic areasDue to Spain's geographical situation and orographic conditions, the climate is extremely diverse; it can be roughly divided into three areas: A Continental Mediterranean climate in the inland areas of the Peninsula (largest city, Madrid). A Mediterranean climate region extends from the Andalusian plain along the southern and eastern coasts up to the Pyrenees, on the seaward side of the mountain ranges that run near the coast (largest city, Barcelona). An Oceanic climate in Galicia and the coastal strip near the Bay of Biscay (largest city, Bilbao). This area is often called Green Spain. Military of Spain The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Spanish: Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their Commander-in-Chief is the King of Spain, Juan Carlos I. The Spanish Armed Forces are divided into four branches: Army (Ejército de Tierra) Navy (Armada) Air Force (Ejército del Aire) Guardia Civil (Military police) which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force. Economy According to the World Bank, Spain's economy is the eighth largest worldwide and the fifth largest in Europe. As of 2007, absolute GDP was valued at $1.362 trillion according to the CIA Factbook, (see List of countries by GDP (nominal)). The per capita PPP is estimated at $33,700 (2007), ahead of G7 countries like Italy and placing Spain at a similar per capita basis as France or Japan (both with an 2007 estimated at $33,800). The Spanish economy grew 3.8% in 2007 outpacing all G7 members and all the big EU economies for the 3rd consecutive year. The centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 7.6% in October 2006, a rate that compares favorably to many other European countries, and which is a marked improvement over rates that exceeded 20% in the early 1990s. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include high inflation, a large underground economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK. Nevertheless, it is expected that the Spanish economy will continue growing above the EU average based on the strengthening of industry, the growth of the global economy and increasing trade with Latin America and Asia. The Spanish economy is credited for having avoided the virtual zero growth rate of some of its largest partners in the EU. In fact, the country's economy has created more than half of all the new jobs in the European Union over the five years ending 2005. The Spanish economy has thus been regarded lately as one of the most dynamic within the EU, attracting significant amounts of foreign investment. During the last four decades the Spanish tourism industry has grown to become the second biggest in the world, worth approximately 40 billion Euros (approx. 5% of GDP) in 2006 More recently, the Spanish economy has benefited greatly from the global real estate boom, with construction representing 16% of GDP and 12% of employment. According to calculations by the German newspaper Die Welt, Spain is on pace to overtake countries like Germany in per capita income by 2011. However, the downside of the real estate boom has been a corresponding rise in the levels of personal debt; as prospective homeowners struggle to meet asking prices, the average level of household debt has tripled in less than a decade. Among lower income groups, the median ratio of indebtedness to income was 125% in 2005. Demographics Geographical distribution of the Spanish population in 2007.In 2007 Spain officially reached 45.2 million people registered at the Padrón municipal, an official record analogous to the British Register office. Spain's population density, at 89.6/km² (231/sq. mile), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution along the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain doubled during the twentieth century, due to the spectacular demographic boom by the 1960s and early 1970s. The pattern of growth was extremely uneven due to large-scale internal migration from the rural interior to the industrial cities during the 60s and 70s. No fewer than eleven of Spain's fifty provinces saw an absolute decline in population over the century. Then, after the birth rate plunged in the 80s and Spain's population became stalled, a new population increase started based initially in the return of many Spanish who emigrated to other European countries during the 70s and, more recently, it has been boosted by the large figures of foreign immigrants, mostly from Latin America (38.75%), Eastern Europe (16.33%), North Africa (14.99%) and Sub-Saharan Africa (4.08%). In 2005, Spain instituted a 3-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency. Also some important pockets of population coming from other countries in the European Union are found (20.77% of the foreign residents), specially along the Mediterranean costas and Balearic islands, where many choose to live their retirement or even telework. These are mostly English, French, German, and Dutch from fellow EU countries and, from outside the EU, Norwegian. Immigration in Spain According to the Spanish government there were 4.5 million foreign residents in Spain in 2007; independent estimates put the figure at 4.8 million people, or 11% of the total population (Red Cross, World Disasters Report 2006). According to residence permit data for 2005, about 500,000 were Moroccan, another 500,000 were Ecuadorian, more than 200,000 were Romanian, and 260,000 were Colombian. Other important foreign communities are British (8.09%), French (8.03%), Argentine (6.10%), German (5.58%) and Bolivian (2.63%). In 2005, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving clandestinely by sea, has caused noticeable social tension. Based on 2004 figures, within the EU Spain has the second highest immigration rate in percentage terms (after Cyprus), but by a great margin the highest in actual numbers of immigrants. There are a number of reasons to explain the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce. Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of the EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain has been Europe's largest absorber of migrants for the past six years, with its immigrant population increasing fourfold as 2.8 million people have arrived. According to the Financial Times, Spain is the most favoured destination for West Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU. (see Immigration to Spain). Minority groups Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies (especially Equatorial Guinea) and immigrants from several Sub-Saharan and Caribbean countries have been recently settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Chinese, Filipino, Middle Eastern, Pakistani and Indian origins; the population of Spaniards of Latin American descent is sizeable as well and a fast growing segment. Other growing groups are Britons (761,000 in 2006), Germans and other immigrants from western and Eastern Europe. Jewish emigration to Spain is primarily the result of three events: after the 19th century, some Jews established themselves in Spain as a result of migration from what was formerly Spanish Morocco, the flight of Jews escaping from Nazi repression, and immigration from Argentina. Spanish law allows Sephardi Jews to claim Spanish citizenship. The arrival of the Gitanos (Gypsies), a Roma people group, began in the 16th century. Most populous urban regions Madrid 5,943,041 Barcelona 5,327,872 Valencia 1,623,724 Seville 1,317,098 Málaga 1,074,074 Bilbao 946,829 Identities Peoples The Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises historic entities ("nationalities", a carefully chosen word in order to avoid the more politically charged "nations") and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one. Distinct ethnic groups within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, and Galicians. It is this last feature of "shared identity" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal. Languages The languages of Spain (simplified) Spanish (74%), official, spoken in all the territory Catalan (17%), co-official, except in La Franja and Carxe Basque (2%), co-official, in Basque Country and Navarre Galician (7%), co-official, except in Asturias and Castile and Leon Asturian, unofficial, but adopted as co-official in some municipalities of Asturias Extremaduran, unofficial Aragonese, unofficial Aranese, co-official (dialect of Occitan) .Spanish (español or castellano), also known as Castilian, is the only language with official status nationwide. Other languages have been declared co-official, along with Spanish, in (some of) their constituent communities where they are spoken: Aranese (aranés) (a variant of Occitan), in Catalonia; Basque (euskera) in the Basque Country and Navarre; Catalan (català) in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and in the Valencian Community, known in the latter officially as Valencian; Galician (galego) in Galicia. Spain's legacy: a map of the Hispanophone world.There are also some other surviving Romance minority languages such as Astur-Leonese (which includes Asturian, Leonese, Extremaduran and Cantabrian) and Aragonese. Asturian (asturianu) is "protected" in Asturias and Aragonese is vaguely recognized in Aragon. But unlike Aranese, Basque, Catalan/Valencian and Galician, they do not have any official status. This might be due to their very small number of speakers, a less significant written tradition (in comparison to Catalan or Galician) and lower self-awareness of their speakers which traditionally meant lack of strong popular demand for their recognition in the regions in which they are spoken. In the North African Spanish city of Melilla, Tarifit is spoken by an important part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English and German are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers. Religion Spain religiosity religion percent Christianity 76% Irreligion / others 19% Islam 2.3% Judaism 0.1% Others 1.7% Although Chapter 2 of the Constitution states that no religion shall have a state character, Roman Catholicism is the main religion in the country. About 76% of Spaniards identify themselves as Catholics, about 2% identify with another religious faith, and about 19% identify themselves as non-religious. A study conducted in October 2006 by the Spanish Centre of Sociological Investigations shows that of the 76% of Spaniards who identify themselves as Catholics or with another religious faith, 54% hardly ever or never go to church, 15% go to church a few times per year, 10% a few times per month and 19% attend church every Sunday or multiple times per week. About 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month. A view of the Barcelona Cathedral.Evidence of the secular nature of contemporary Spain can be seen in the widespread support for the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Spain — over 66% of Spaniards support gay marriage according to a 2004 study by the Centre of Sociological Investigations. Indeed, in June 2005 a bill was passed by 187 votes to 147 to allow gay marriage, making Spain the third country in the European Union to allow same-sex couples to marry after Belgium and the Netherlands. Protestant denominations are also present, all of them with less than 50,000 members. Evangelism has been better received among Gypsies than among the general population; pastors have integrated flamenco music in their liturgy. Taken together, all self-described "Evangelicals" slightly surpass Jehovah's Witnesses (105,000) in number. While not Protestants, about 35,000 residents of Spain are members of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). The recent waves of immigration have led to an increasing number of Muslims, who have about 1 million members. Muslims had not lived in Spain for centuries; however, colonial expansion in Northern and Western Africa gave some number of residents in the Spanish Morocco and the Western Sahara full citizenship. Presently, Islam is the second largest religion in Spain, accounting for approximately 2.5% of the total population. Along with these waves of immigration, a significant number of Latin American people, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, have helped the Catholic Church to recover. Judaism was practically non-existent until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, most arrivals in the past century and some descendants of Spanish Jews and accounting for less than 1% of the total number of inhabitants. Spain is believed to have been about 8% Jewish on the eve of the Spanish Inquisition. Further information: History of the Jews in Spain Culture Spain is known for its culturally diverse heritage, having been influenced by many nations and peoples throughout its history. Spanish culture has its origins in the Iberian, Celtiberian, Latin, Visigothic, Roman Catholic, and Islamic cultures. The definition of a national Spanish culture has been characterized by tension between the centralized state (dominated in recent centuries by Castile) and numerous regions and minority peoples. In addition, the history of the nation and its Mediterranean and Atlantic environment have played strong roles in shaping its culture. After Italy, Spain is the country with the second highest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the world, with a total of 40. Education in Spain State Education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of 6 to 16. The current education system is called LOGSE (Ley de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo). Spanish Academy The Real Academia Española (Spanish for "Royal Spanish Academy"; RAE) is the institution responsible for regulating the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, but is affiliated with national language academies in 21 Spanish-speaking nations through the Association of Spanish Language Academies. Its emblem is a fiery crucible, and its motto is Limpia, fija y da esplendor ("It cleans, sets, and gives splendor"). Spanish art Spanish art is an important and influential type of art in Europe. Spanish art is the name given to the artistic disciplines and works developed in Spain throughout time, and those by Spanish authors world-wide. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today in cities like Córdoba, Seville, and Granada. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods. Spanish literature The Cantar de Mio Cid is the oldest preserved Spanish literature known as "cantar de gesta".Spanish literature is the name given to the literary works written in Spain throughout time, and those by Spanish authors world-wide. Due to historic, geographic and generational diversity, Spanish literature has known a great number of influences and it is very diverse. Some major movements can be identified within it. Spanish architecture A view of the Baroque architecture of the Royal Palace of Madrid.Spanish architecture refers to architecture carried out during any era in what is now modern-day Spain, and by Spanish architects worldwide. The term includes buildings within the current geographical limits of Spain before this name was given to those territories (whether they were called Hispania, Al-Andalus, or were formed of several Christian kingdoms). Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. For example, Córdoba was established as the cultural Capital of its time under the Umayyad dynasty. Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles, at first mostly isolated from European architectural influences, and later integrated into Romanesque and Gothic streams, they reached an extraordinary peak with numerous samples along the whole territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was characterised by the blending of cultural European and Arabic influences. The arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced figures such as Gaudí and much of the architecture of the twentieth century. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown. Music of Spain Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, an Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular. Cinema of Spain In recent years, Spanish cinema has achieved high marks of recognition as a result of its creative and technical excellence. In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve universal recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem and Alejandro Amenábar. A type of Spanish cuisine known as "Tapa de calamares". Spanish cuisine Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. Sports in Spain Sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, motorcycling and, lately, Formula 1 are also important due to presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports power, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona and promoted a great variety of sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing. Public holidays in Spain Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. International rankings Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index 2007: Rank 33 out of 169 countries. The Economist Intelligence Units: Rank 10 out of 111 countries (ahead of countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, and France) Nation Master's list by economic importance: Rank 9 of 25 countries, only surpassed by G-8 members. Nation Master's list by technological achievement: Rank 18 of 68 countries. Gallery of Images The Sagrada Família by night, Barcelona Burgos Cathedral The Cathedral of Seville The Alhambra, Granada Roman Aqueduct of Segovia The Sanctuary of Santa María Magdalena in Novelda Monasterio de El Escorial Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao Antequera, in Málaga province The Maspalomas Dunes, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands Arán valley, Lleida The Pyrenees |
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