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英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| bō lán Poland shǒudōu:huá shā guógūdàimǎ: pl |
 波兰 波兰TheRepublicofPoland bō lán gòng hé guó shǒu dū： huá shā miàn jī： 312,683.00 píng fāng gōng lǐ tóng běi jīng shí chā： -7.00 guó jì diàn huà mǎ： 48 rén kǒu： 3864.3 wàn rén (1996 nián ) yǔ yán： bō lán yǔ huò bì： Zloty cí luó tí mín zú： bō lán rén zhàn 97.6%， dé yì zhì rén zhàn 1.3%， wū kè lán rén 0.6%， bái 'é luó sī rén zhàn 0.5%。 zōng jiào： tiān zhù jiào zhàn 95%， dōng zhèng jiào、 jī dū jiào xīn jiào hé qí tā jiào pài zhàn 5%。 guó huā： kāng nǎi xīn（ shí zhú kē） lì shǐ zǎo zài 6 ～ 10 shì jì zhōng yè， xī sī lā fū de yuán shǐ gōng shè jiù kāi shǐ zhú bù jiě tǐ， fēng jiàn tǔ dì suǒ yòu zhì chǎn shēng。 10 shì jì zhōng yè， yǐ gé niè cí nuò wéi zhōng xīn de bō lán bù luò zhú jiàn tǒng yī liǎo qí tā bù luò。 pí yà sī tè（ Piastów） jiā zú de méi shí kē yī shì（ MieszkoI， yuē 960～ 992 zài wèi） jiàn lì liǎo zǎo qī fēng jiàn guó jiā。 gōng yuán 996 nián， bō lán jiē shòu jī dū jiào。 1025 nián， bó lāi sī wǎ fū yī shì（ BoleslausI， 992～ 1025 zài wèi） jiā miǎn wéi bō lán guó wáng， bō lán chéng wéi yī gè qiáng dà 'ér tǒng yī de guó jiā。 fēng jiàn guó jiā de jiàn lì hé tǒng yī shí qī（ 10 － 15 shì jì zhōng yè） 12 shì jì zhōng yè， bó lāi sī wǎ fū sān shì（ BoleslausI， 1102～ 1138 zài wèi） sǐ hòu， yóu yú wáng gōng、 guì zú hé jiào huì fēng jiàn dà tǔ dì suǒ yòu zhì de fā zhǎn hé chéng shì de xīng qǐ， quán guó fēn liè wéi jǐ gè gōng guó， bō lán jìn rù fēng jiàn gē jù shí qī， dá 200 nián zhī jiǔ。 wǎ dí sī wǎ fū yī shì（ LadislausI， 1314～ 1333 zài wèi） tǒng yī dà bō lán、 xiǎo bō lán、 kù yǎ wéi， yú 1320 nián zài kè lā kē fū jiā miǎn wéi bō lán guó wáng。 kǎ jí mǐ rì sān shì（ KazimierzIIIWielki， 1333～ 1370 zài wèi） yòu tǒng yī liǎo mǎ zuǒ fū shè。 dàn shì， xī bō mò ruì hé dōng bō mò ruì hái fēn bié wéi bó lán dēng bǎo hé tiáo dùn qí shì tuán zhàn lǐng。 xī lǐ xī yà zé bèi bō xī mǐ yà wáng shì zhàn lǐng。 wéi dǐ kàng tiáo dùn qí shì tuán de qīn lüè， bō lán wáng guó hé lì táo wǎn dà gōng guó shí xíng liǎo wáng cháo lián hé（ 1385）， lì táo wǎn dà gōng wǎ dí sī wǎ fū 'èr shì yà gài luò（ Jagiellon） wéi bō lán guó wáng。 1410 nián， bō lán－ lì táo wǎn lián jūn zài gé lún wǎ 'ěr dé zhàn yì zhōng， gěi liǎo tiáo dùn qí shì tuán yǐ huǐ miè xìng dǎ jī。 1466 nián， shōu fù liǎo dōng bō mò ruì。 dì yī gòng hé guó shí qī（ 15 shì jì zhōng yè－ 1795） yǐ gé dàn sī kè wéi zhōng xīn de dōng bō mò ruì de shōu fù， cì jī liǎo bō lán liáng shí de chū kǒu， guì zú zhuāng yuán fēn fēn jiàn lì láo yì zhì zhuāng yuán， cóng shì shāng pǐn liáng shí de shēng chǎn。 chéng zhèn chū xiàn shǒu gōng gōng chǎng。 1505 nián， yì huì tōng guò xiàn fǎ， guī dìng wèi jīng yì huì tóng yì， guó wáng wú quán bān bù fǎ lǜ。 cóng 'ér xuē ruò liǎo wáng quán， zhāo zhì wài lái shì lì gān yù， miàn duì mò sī kē duō duō bī rén de kuò zhāng shì tóu， bō lán wáng guó hé lì táo wǎn dà gōng guó yì huì zài lú bù lín tōng guò liǎo chéng lì tǒng yī de bō lán gòng hé guó de jué yì， shǒu dū cóng kè lā kē fū qiān dào huá shā。 bō lán gòng hé guó chéng wéi yī gè duō mín zú de nóng nú zhì guó jiā， miàn jī dá 31 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， 17 shì jì hòu bàn qī， bō lán de nóng nú zhì jìn rù liǎo wēi jī jiē duàn， 1648 nián hè méi lì ní cí jī（ БогданМихайловичХмельницкий）， lǐng dǎo de gē sà kè zài wū kè lán jǔ xíng mín zú qǐ yì。 tǒng zhì jiē jí nèi bù yě fēn bēng lí xī， 1652 nián dà guì zú pò shǐ yì huì tōng guò zì yóu fǒu jué quán， 1654 nián shā 'é duì bō lán xuān zhàn， jiān bìng liǎo dì niè bó hé yǐ dōng de wū kè lán。 běi fāng zhàn zhēng chū qī、 bō lán bèi pò zhuī suí 'é guó cān zhàn。 1655 nián bō lán－ ruì diǎn zhàn zhēng bào fā， bō lán diū shī bù fēn lǐng tǔ。 1733～ 1735 nián 'é、 ào yǔ fǎ、 xī、 sǎ dīng wéi zhēng duó bō lán jìn xíng liǎo zhàn zhēng， yán zhòng pò huài liǎo bō lán zhù quán hé guó jiā jīng jì。 bō lán dì yī gòng hé guó de zhèng zhì zhì dù fēi cháng tè bié， zài dāng shí yě shì xiāng dāng xiān jìn de， chēng wéi “ guì zú mín zhù zhì ”。 zhè zhǒng zhì dù yòu liǎng gēn zhī zhù， yī gè jiào zì yóu xuǎn wáng zhì， guó wáng yóu guì zú xuǎn jǔ， fán bù shì guì zú jiù méi yòu mín zhù quán lì； yī gè jiào zì yóu fǒu jué quán， zhǐ yào yòu yī gè yì yuán fǎn duì， zhè xiàng yì 'àn jiù bù néng tōng guò。 ér zhēn zhèng de mín zhù shì jī yú shǎo shù fú cóng duō shù de jī chǔ zhī shàng de， suǒ yǐ zhè zhǒng guì zú mín zhù zào chéng liǎo bō lán jí duān de mín zhù hé wú zhèng fǔ zhuàng tài。 zhè yě dǎo zhì liǎo zài yòu zhēng yì de yì tí shàng wǎng wǎng yì 'ér bù jué， cóng 'ér dǎo zhì guó jiā yì zhì dé bù dào tǐ xiàn， zhè yě shì bō lán zuì hòu shuāi wáng de yī gè zhòng yào yīn sù。 18 shì jì hòu bàn qī， bō lán shēng chǎn guān xì zhōng chū xiàn liǎo zī běn zhù yì méng yá， zài xī 'ōu qǐ méng yùn dòng yǐng xiǎng xià， zhōng xiǎo guì zú hé xīn xīng zī chǎn jiē jí fā qǐ 'ài guó gé xīn yùn dòng， dàn shòu dào 'é guó nǚ huáng yè kǎ jié lín nà 'èr shì（ ЕкатеринаIIАлексеевна） wǔ zhuāng gān shè。 1772 nián， é guó、 pǔ lǔ shì hé 'ào dì lì duì bō lán jìn xíng liǎo dì yī cì guā fēn。 bō lán rén mín zài fǎ guó gé mìng de yǐng xiǎng xià， bǎ gé xīn yùn dòng tuī xiàng gāo cháo。 1791 nián 5 yuè 3 rì， bō lán sì nián yì huì tōng guò liǎo《 wǔ sān xiàn fǎ》（ Konstytucja3Maja）， qǔ xiāo zì yóu fǒu jué quán， zhè yě shì 'ōu zhōu zuì zǎo de xiàn fǎ。 yè kǎ jié lín nà 'èr shì zài cì duì bō lán jìn xíng wǔ zhuāng gān shè。 1793 nián， é pǔ liǎng guó duì bō lán jìn xíng liǎo dì 'èr cì guā fēn。 1794 nián， bō lán rén mín zài mín zú yīng xióng kē xī qiū shí kē lǐng dǎo xià jǔ xíng qǐ yì， hòu bèi 'é guó zhèn yā xià qù。 1795 nián， é、 pǔ、 ào sān guó duì bō lán jìn xíng liǎo dì sān cì guā fēn。 bō lán de sān cì bèi guā fēn 1772 nián 5 yuè， shā huáng 'é guó、 pǔ lǔ shì、 ào dì lì sān guó zài bǐ dé bǎo huì tán， yú 8 yuè 5 rì qiān shǔ dì yī cì guā fēn bō lán de tiáo yuē。 jù cǐ， bō lán sàng shī liǎo yuē 35% de lǐng tǔ hé 33% de rén kǒu， bō lán chéng wéi 'é、 pǔ、 ào de bǎo hù guó。 1793 nián 1 yuè 23 rì， é、 pǔ zài bǐ dé bǎo qiān dìng dì 'èr cì guā fēn bō lán de xié dìng， jīng dì 'èr cì guā fēn， bō lán chéng wéi jǐn shèng lǐng tǔ 20 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， rén kǒu 400 wàn de xiǎo guó， chéng wéi shā 'é de kuǐ léi guó， bō lán guó wáng wèi jīng shā huáng xǔ kě， bù dé yǔ wài guó xuān zhàn yǔ gòu hé。 1795 nián 1 yuè 3 rì， é、 ào qiān dìng dì sān cì guā fēn bō lán de xié dìng， 10 yuè 24 rì， pǔ lǔ tǔ yě zài xié dìng shàng qiān shǔ。 gēn jù gāi xié dìng， bō lán lǐng tǔ bèi quán bù guā fēn。“ é guó tūn bìng liǎo lì táo wǎn、 kù 'ěr lán、 xī bái 'é luó sī hé wò lún xī bù， bǎ biān jiè tuī jìn dào niè màn hé héng bù gé hé yī xiàn， gòng 12 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， rén kǒu 120 wàn； ào dì lì zhàn lǐng liǎo bāo kuò kè lā kē fū、 lú bù lín zài nèi de quán bù xiǎo bō lán hé yī bù fēn mǎ zuǒ fū shè dì qū， gòng 4.75 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， rén kǒu 150 wàn； pǔ lǔ shì duó dé qí yú de xī bù dì qū、 huá shā、 qí yú bù fēn de mǎ zuǒ fū shè dì qū， gòng 5.5 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， rén kǒu 100 wàn。” zhì cǐ， cún zài liǎo 800 duō nián de bō lán guó jiā miè wáng liǎo。 gài kuò zài sān cì guā fēn bō lán de guò chéng zhōng， shā 'é duó zhàn de lǐng tǔ yuē zhàn yuán bō lán lǐng tǔ de 62%， gòng yuē 46 wàn duō píng fāng gōng lǐ； pǔ lǔ shì duó zhàn yuē 20%， gòng yuē 14.11 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ； ào dì lì duó zhàn yuē 18%， gòng yuē 12.18 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ。 jīng shǐ liǎo zhè sān cì guā fēn zhī hòu， bō lán wáng guó， bō lán jiù cóng 'ōu zhōu dì tú shàng xiāo shī cháng dá 123 duō nián。 wài zú tǒng zhì shí qī（ 1795～ 1918） 1809 nián ná pò lún yī shì（ NapoléonBonaparte） zài bō lán zhōng bù jiàn lì huá shā gōng guó（ KsięstwoWarszawskie）， ná pò lún shī bài hòu， huá shā gōng guó bèi zhī jiě， qí xī bù tǔ dì chéng wéi bō cí nán gōng guó（ WielkieKsięstwoPoznańskie）， shòu pǔ lǔ shì guǎn xiá； zài kè lā kē fū chéng lì liǎo zhōng lì de kè lā kē fū gòng hé guó（ yě jiào kè lā kē fū zì yóu shì， RzeczpospolitaKrakowska， huò zhě WolneMiastoKraków）； zài qí zhù yào dì qū chéng lì liǎo bō lán wáng guó（ KrólestwoKongresowe）， yóu 'é guó shā huáng jiān lǐng guó wáng。 1830 nián 11 yuè 29 rì， yī pī guì zú qīng nián zài huá shā jǔ xíng qǐ yì， jiēguǒ shī bài。 1846 nián kè lā kē fū qǐ yì yě zāo shī bài， kè lā kē fū bèi bìng rù 'ào dì lì。 1848 nián bō lán rén mín yòu yī cì xiān qǐ gé mìng， pò shǐ pǔ 'ào dāng jú fèi chú nóng nú zhì dù。 1863 nián 1 yuè de qǐ yì biàn jí bō lán wáng guó、 lì táo wǎn hé bái 'é luó sī xī bù。 1864 nián 3 yuè 2 rì， shā huáng zhèng fǔ bù dé bù bān bù jiě fàng nóng nú de fǎ lìng。 1864 nián hòu， bō lán wáng guó de zī běn zhù yì yòu liǎo hěn dà fā zhǎn， 19 shì jì qī bā shí nián dài， wán chéng chǎn yè gé mìng。 cóng 80 nián dài qǐ， xiān hòu chéng lì liǎo bō lán guó jiā mín zhù dǎng、 bō lán wú chǎn jiē jí dǎng、 bō lán shè huì dǎng hé bō lán wáng guó shè huì mín zhù dǎng（ hòu gǎi míng wéi bō lán wáng guó hé lì táo wǎn shè huì mín zhù dǎng）。 dì yī cì shì jiè dà zhàn qī jiān， guó jiā mín zhù dǎng tóu kào 'é guó， shè huì dǎng yòu pài tóu kào 'ào、 dé， zhǐ yòu shè huì mín zhù dǎng hé shè huì dǎng zuǒ pài jiān jué fǎn duì zhàn zhēng。 dì 'èr gòng hé guó shí qī（ 1918－ 1939） dì yī cì shì jiè dà zhàn jìn xíng dào 1917 nián， é guó bào fā liǎo shí yuè gé mìng， 1918 nián 8 yuè 29 rì， sū 'é zhèng fǔ bān bù fǎ lìng， xuān bù fèi chú shā 'é yǔ pǔ、 ào qiān dìng de guān yú guā fēn bō lán de yī qiē tiáo yuē， chéng rèn bō lán rén mín xiǎng yòu“ dú lì hé tǒng yī de bù kě fǒu rèn de quán lì”。 yǔ cǐ tóng shí， 1916 nián 11 yuè， dé guó zhèng fǔ xǔ nuò jiàn lì“ dú lì de bō lán guó jiā”， 12 yuè dǐ， dé、 ào chéng lì liǎo“ bō lán lín shí guó wù huì yì”， bìng zài bō lán qīng nián zhōng zhēng bīng， shè huì dǎng rén bì sū sī jī（ JózefKlemensPiłsudski， 1867 héng 1935） bèi rèn mìng wéi lín shí guó wù huì yì de jūn zhèng bù cháng。 1918 nián 10、 11 yuè， ào xiōng dì guó hé dé guó qū yú bēng jiě， cóng 'ér wéi bō lán de fù guó xíng chéng liǎo yòu lì de guó jì tiáo jiàn。 10 yuè 28 rì， ào zhàn qū de bō lán 'ài guó zhě zài kè lā kē fū chéng lì liǎo“ bō lán qīng suàn wěi yuán huì”。 11 yuè 7 rì， shè huì mín zhù dǎng rén zài lú bù lín chéng lì liǎo bō lán gòng hé guó lín shí rén mín zhèng fǔ。 10 yuè 23 rì， huá shā zǔ chéng liǎo bō lán zhèng fǔ， 11 yuè 11 rì， gāi zhèng fǔ yóu bì sū cí jī lǐng dǎo。 lú bù lín zhèng fǔ hé kè lā kē fū de qīng suàn wěi yuán huì yě xuān bù jiē shòu bì sū cí jī lǐng dǎo。 11 yuè 18 rì， bì sū cí jī zài huá shā zǔ chéng lián hé zhèng fǔ， tā chéng wéi bō lán gòng hé guó de guó jiā yuán shǒu。 zhè yàng， zì 1795 nián bō lán bèi guā fēn miè wáng yǐ lái， lì jīng 123 nián， zhì 1918 nián 11 yuè huī fù dú lì， chóngjiàn zǔ guó。 1919 nián 12 yuè 8 rì， xié yuē guó zuì gāo wěi yuán huì zài bā lí hé huì shàng tōng guò jué yì， tóng yì chóngjiàn bō lán guó jiā， chéng rèn bō lán gòng hé guó， bìng jiàn yì zài 'é bō zhī jiān huàyī lín shí fēn jiè xiàn， jí yán zhe gé luó dé nuò、 bù liè sī tè、 hè lǔ bié shū fū、 pǔ rè mǐ dài 'ěr、 zhí dào kā 'ěr bā qiān shān yī xiàn。 rán 'ér， bō lán zhèng fǔ lì tú huī fù 1772 nián de 'é bō biān jiè xiàn， wèicǐ， xīn chéng lì de bō lán gòng hé guó jiù fā dòng liǎo duì yě shì xīn dàn shēng de shè huì zhù yì guó jiā sū wéi 'āi 'é guó de zhàn zhēng， shǐ chēng sū bō zhàn zhēng。 1920 nián 4 yuè， bō jūn jìn zhàn wū kè lán hé bái 'é luó sī guǎng dà dì qū， sū 'é hóng jūn jìn xíng fǎn jī， dàn zuì hòu bèi bō jūn jī bài， bō lán jūn duì suī rán qǔ dé liǎo zuì hòu jūn shì shàng de shèng lì， dàn shì zì jǐ yě lì bù shèng rèn de zhàn zhēng nòng dé mín qióng cái jìn， zuì hòu shuāng fāng tóng yì gòu hé。 7 yuè 12 rì， yīng guó wài jiāo dà chén kòu sōng（ GeorgeNathanielCurzon， 1859 héng 1925） dài biǎo xié yuē guó zhì diàn sū 'é jiàn yì tíng huǒ， tíng huǒ xiàn dà tǐ shì bā lí hé huì jué yì zhōng guī dìng de fēn jiè xiàn， gù chēng“ kòu sōng xiàn”。 7 yuè 22 rì， bō lán yào qiú tíng zhàn。 1921 nián 3 yuè 18 rì， bō lán yǔ sū 'é zài lǐ jiā zhèng shì qiān dìng《 bō lán yǔ 'é luó sī hé wū kè lán hé píng tiáo yuē》， jí《 lǐ jiā tiáo yuē》。 qí zhù yào nèi róng shì： dì yuē shuāng fāng chéng rèn wū kè lán hé bái 'é luó sī de dú lì， huàdìng liǎo bō lán dōng bù biān jiè（ jiāng wū kè lán hé bái 'é luó sī de xī bù dì qū huàguī bō lán）， zhè shí bō 'é biān jiè xiàn yuē zài kòu sōng xiàn yǐ dōng 150 yīng lǐ chù。 gēn jù gāi tiáo yuē， bō lán huò dé xī wū kè lán hé xī bái 'é luó sī yǐ jí lì táo wǎn de yī bù fēn， sū 'é zài zhè chǎng zhàn zhēng zhōng sǔn shī liǎo dà piàn lǐng tǔ， zhè yě wéi 'èr zhàn shí sū lián hé dé guó fēn gē bō lán mái xià liǎo fú bǐ。 yóu《 lǐ jiā tiáo yuē》 què dìng de bō 'é（ sū） biān jiè yī zhí bǎo chí dào 1939 nián 9 yuè 17 rì。 lìng wài， gēn jù 1919 nián bā lí hé huì jué yì， bō lán huò dé liǎo dōng bō mò ruì hé bō cí nán dì qū， dàn zé（ hòu bō lán gǎi wéi gé dàn sī kè） bèi bì wèiguó jì zì yóu shì， xī lǐ xī yà de dà bù fēn réng guī dé guó， bō lán lǐng tǔ miàn jī gòng 38.8 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ。 1921 nián 3 yuè， yì huì tōng guò xiàn fǎ， bō lán chéng wéi yì huì zhì gòng hé guó， shǐ chēng bō lán dì 'èr gòng hé guó。 1926 nián 5 yuè， bì sū sī jī fā dòng jūn shì zhèng biàn bìng shàng tái， zì rèn zǒng lǐ， zài bō lán jìng nèi shí xíng dú cái tǒng zhì， dài bǔ yì huì zhōng fǎn duì tā de rén， xuān chuán fǎ xī sī zhù yì。 lìng wài， tā jī jí hé nà cuì dé guó de yuán shǒu xī tè lè（ AdolfHitler） hé zuò， qiān dìng liǎo《 bō dé hù bù qīn fàn tiáo yuē》。 1938 nián， bō lán gòng chǎn dǎng bèi jiě sàn， dǎng de zhù yào lǐng dǎo rén yě bèi hài。 dì 'èr cì shì jiè dà zhàn shí qī（ 1939－ 1944） cóng 1938 nián 10 yuè qǐ， xī tè lè xiàng bō lán tí chū bō lán zǒu láng de wèn tí， bìng xiàng bō lán fā chū zhàn zhēng wēi xié。 1939 nián 8 yuè 23 rì， sū dé qiān dìng liǎo hù bù qīn fàn tiáo yuē hé huàfēn shì lì fàn wéi de mì mì yì dìng shū（ sū lián yī zhí fǒu rèn gāi mì mì yì dìng shū de cún zài）。 1939 nián 9 yuè 1 rì， dé guó yǐ shǎn diàn zhàn tū xí bō lán， xùn sù qīn zhàn bō lán dà bù fēn lǐng tǔ， bō lán jūn mín yīng yǒng kàng zhàn。 9 yuè 17 rì， bō lán zhèng fǔ táo wáng guó wài， xiān zài bā lí zǔ chéng liǎo yǐ xī kē 'ěr sī jī（ WładysławEugeniuszSikorski） jiāng jūn wéi shǒu de liú wáng zhèng fǔ。 fǎ guó zhàn bài hòu， 1940 nián， liú wáng zhèng fǔ qiān wǎng yīng guó。 yǔ cǐ tóng shí， 9 yuè 17 rì， sū lián lǐng dǎo rén sī dà lín（ ИосифВиссарионовичСталин） wèile jiàn lì dōng fāng fáng xiàn， mìng lìng 60 wàn sū lián hóng jūn yuè guò sū bō biān jiè， jìn rù bō lán dōng bù， zhàn lǐng liǎo xī wū kè lán hé xī bái 'é luó sī。 9 yuè 18 rì， sū jūn yǔ dé jūn zài bù liè sī tè héng lì tuō fū sī kè huì shī， dé、 sū liǎng jūn yǐ pí sà hé héng nà lěi fū hé héng wéi sī wǎ hé héng sāng hé yī xiàn wéi jiè fēn gē liǎo bō lán。 9 yuè 28 rì， dé jūn gōng xiàn huá shā， bō lán zài cì lún wáng。 bō lán rén mín kāi shǐ liǎo fǎn fǎ xī sī mín zú jiě fàng zhàn zhēng。 1941 nián dé guó jìn gōng sū lián， bìng quán bù zhàn lǐng liǎo bō lán lǐng tǔ， ér hòu sū lián yǔ bō lán liú wáng zhèng fǔ jiàn lì wài jiāo guān xì。 1942 nián， liú wáng zhèng fǔ zài guó nèi jiàn lì liǎo guó mín jūn， tóng nián， sū lián zhī chí de bō lán gòng chǎn dǎng rén jiàn lì liǎo bō lán gōng rén dǎng hé rén mín jūn， zài dì xià tóng nà cuì zhàn lǐng jūn zhǎn kāi liǎo jiān kǔ zhuó jué de dǒu zhēng。 wèicǐ， xǔ duō rén fù chū liǎo zhēn guì de shēng mìng。 1943 nián， yóu yú fā shēng liǎo kǎ tíng sēn lín shì jiàn， liú wáng zhèng fǔ hé zài cì hé sū lián duàn jiāo。 suí zhe zhàn zhēng xíng shì de fā zhǎn， sū jūn de fǎn gōng jiāng zhàn xiàn zhú jiàn tuī jìn dào bō lán jìng nèi。 1944 nián yuán dàn， zài gōng rén dǎng de chàng yì xià， chéng lì liǎo quán guó rén mín dài biǎo huì yì， yóu bèi lǔ tè（ BolesławBierut） rèn zhù xí。 1944 nián 7 yuè 22 rì， quán guó rén mín dài biǎo huì yì zài hǎi wū mǔ zǔ chéng liǎo bō lán mín zú jiě fàng wěi yuán huì， bān bù liǎo jù yòu lì shǐ yì yì de《 qī yuè xuān yán》， xuān gào bō lán xīn guó jiā dàn shēng。 1944 nián 8 yuè， sū lián hóng jūn tuī jìn dào liǎo huá shā de jìn jiāo， zài yīng guó de liú wáng zhèng fǔ wèile zài xīn shēng de bō lán guó jiā quán lì jī gòu zhōng huò dé gèng dà de lì yì， jiù mìng lìng zài huá shā de dì xià guó mín jūn fā qǐ qǐ yì， zhè jiù shì zhù míng de huá shā qǐ yì。 yóu yú sī dà lín rèn wéi， zhè zhǒng bù fù zé rèn de zuò fǎ bù yìng dé dào tóng qíng， cóng 'ér sū jūn bìng méi yòu jǐyǔ huá shā chéng nèi qǐ yì jūn tài duō de zhī chí， zài nà cuì dé jūn de xuè xīng zhèn yā xià， qǐ yì shī bài， fēng kuáng de xī tè lè xià lìng jiāng huá shā yí wéi píng dì， xǔ duō zhēn guì de wén wù gǔ jì zāo dào huǐ huài， dà bù fēn huá shā rén yě bèi sòng rù sǐ wáng jí zhōng yíng。 shì hòu zhèng míng， sū lián yìng wéi huá shā qǐ yì de shī bài fù yòu yī dìng dào yì shàng de zé rèn。 1945 nián 1 yuè 17 rì， sū bō jūn duì jiě fàng liǎo yǐ chéng wéi fèi xū de huá shā。 4 yuè， bō sū liǎng guó qiān dìng liǎo yǒu hǎo hù zhù yǔ jīng jì hé zuò tiáo yuē。 6 yuè， bō lán mín zú jiě fàng wěi yuán huì gǎi zǔ wéi lín shí mín zú tǒng yī zhèng fǔ。 gēn jù yǎ 'ěr tǎ hé bō cí tǎn huì yì de jué dìng， què dìng liǎo bō lán dōng、 xī bù biān jiè， dōng bù yǐ kòu sōng xiàn wéi bō sū biān jiè， xī bù bō dé biān jiè zé xiàng xī tuī yí zhì 'ào dé－ ní sī hé， bìng bǎ shí qiē qīng hé shī wéi nuò wēi sī huá rù biān jiè de bō lán yī cè。 zhè yàng， bō lán de bǎn tú zhěng tǐ xī yí liǎo 200 duō gōng lǐ， miàn jī yě bǐ zhàn qián suō xiǎo liǎo yuē 7.6 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， dà yuē shì sǔn shī liǎo 20% de lǐng tǔ。 zài 'èr zhàn zhōng， bō lán rén mín wéi fǎn fǎ xī sī zhàn zhēng zuò chū liǎo jù dà de xī shēng， dà yuē yòu 600 wàn bō lán jūn rén hé píng mín zài zhè chǎng zhàn zhēng zhōng sàng shēng。 zài bō lán jìng nèi fā xiàn liǎo xǔ duō nà cuì tú shā yóu tài rén hé qí tā píng mín de jí zhōng yíng， qí zhōng zuì zhù míng de shì 'ào sī wéi xīn（ Auschwitz） jí zhōng yíng。 zài suǒ yòu cān zhàn guó zhōng， ruò 'àn rén kǒu bǐ lì lái jì suàn de huà， bō lán shì sǐ shāng zuì cǎn zhòng de guó jiā。 rén mín gòng hé guó shí qī（ 1944～ 1989） 1947 nián， bō lán jǔ xíng yì huì xuǎn jǔ， sū lián zhī chí de bèi lǔ tè dāng xuǎn wéi zǒng tǒng， shè huì dǎng rén xī lún kǎi wéi cí（ JózefCyrankiewicz） rèn zhèng fǔ zǒng lǐ， bō lán zǒu shàng liǎo shè huì zhù yì de fā zhǎn dào lù， xī fāng de liú wáng zhèng fǔ jī běn bèi pái chì zài quán lì zhōng xīn zhī wài。 1948 nián 12 yuè， bō lán gōng rén dǎng hé bō lán shè huì dǎng hé bìng， chéng lì liǎo bō lán tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng（ PolskaZjednoczonaPartiaRobotnicza， PZPR）。 bèi lǔ tè rèn zǒng shū jì。 rén mín zhèng fǔ bǎ dà zhōng gōng yè、 jiāo tōng yùn shū、 yínháng shōu guī guó yòu， shí xíng liǎo tǔ dì gǎi gé， dòng yuán rén mín wán chéng huī fù guó mín jīng jì de sān nián jìhuà（ 1947～ 1949）， guó jiā jīng jì zhuàng kuàng hé rén mín shēng huó yòu liǎo gǎi shàn， 1949 nián 10 yuè 7 rì， bō lán tóng xīn shēng de zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jiàn lì liǎo wài jiāo guān xì。 cóng 1950 nián qǐ， bō lán kāi shǐ zhí xíng fā zhǎn guó mín jīng jì de liù nián jìhuà（ 1950～ 1955）。 1952 nián， bō lán gǎi guó hào wéi bō lán rén mín gòng hé guó（ PolskaRzeczpospolitaLudowa， PRL）， bìng tōng guò bō lán rén mín gòng hé guó xiàn fǎ， sà wǎ cí jī（ AleksanderZawadzki） dāng xuǎn guó wù wěi yuán huì zhù xí， bèi lǔ tè bèi rèn mìng wéi bù cháng huì yì zhù xí。 1956 nián 3 yuè， bèi lǔ tè bìng shì yú mò sī kē， ào hā bù（ EdwardOchab） jì rèn dì yī shū jì。 dàn bō lán de shè huì jié gòu、 zhèng zhì hé wén huà chuán tǒng、 zōng jiào xìn yǎng yǐ jí zī běn zhù yì jīng jì de fā zhǎn， dōushuō míng zài bō lán jiàn lì shè huì zhù yì jù yòu xiān tiān bù zú de quē xiàn。 dàn yǐ bèi lǔ tè wéi shǒu de bō lán zhèng fǔ de jiào tiáo zhù yì zhě hái shì quán pán jiē shòu liǎo sū lián mó shì de shè huì zhù yì。 yǐ jù sū lián mó shì， bō lán zhì dìng liǎo bǎ fā zhǎn zhòng gōng yè fàng zài shǒu wèi， àn“ zhòng héng qīng héng nóng” de shùn xù jìn xíng gōng yè huà de jīng jì fā zhǎn zhàn lüè， jiēguǒ shǐ guó mín jīng jì bǐ lì yán zhòng shī diào， zhòng gōng yè piàn miàn fā zhǎn， nóng yè cháng qī luò hòu， wù jià fēi zhǎng， huò bì biǎn zhí， rén mín shēng huó shuǐ píng xià jiàng。 sū lián mó shì de yán zhòng quē xiàn jiā shàng bō lán rén nèi xīn shēn chù de fǎn 'é pàn nì xīn lǐ， zōng jiào、 zì yóu zhù yì de chuán tǒng hé bō dǎng zhí zhèng de shī wù、 guān liáo fǔ bài xiàn xiàng shèng xíng děng děng zōng hé yīn sù， shǐ dé shè huì zhù yì zài bō lán de zhí xíng xiǎn dé yì cháng jiān nán， dǎo zhì bō lán chéng wéi 'èr zhàn hòu dōng fāng shè huì zhù yì zhèn yíng zhōng zuì bù 'ān dìng de guó jiā。 1956 nián， sū lián zuì gāo lǐng dǎo rén hè lǔ xiǎo fū（ НикитаСергеевичХрущев） de“ fēi sī dà lín huà”， gěi zhěng gè shè huì zhù yì dōng fāng zhèn yíng dū dài lái liǎo jù dà de chōng jī， bō lán jiù zài dāng shí fā shēng liǎo zhù míng de bō cí nán shì jiàn。 dāng nián 6 yuè， bō lán xī bù gōng yè chéng shì bō cí nán de sī dà lín jī chē chǎng de gōng rén， zài yào qiú zēng jiā gōng zī、 jiǎn shǎo shuì shōu de jīng jì yào qiú bèi dāng jú jù jué hòu， yú shì zài 1956 nián 6 yuè 28 rì， bō cí nán shì bào fā liǎo shí wàn rén de shì wēi huó dòng。 hòu lái yǎn biàn chéng jǐng chá hé gōng rén de qiāng zhàn。 tǎn kè hé bǎo 'ān bù duì yě cān jiā liǎo duì gōng rén de zhèn yā。 jù tǒng jì， jǐn yī tiān de chōng tū sāo luàn， jiù yòu 54 rén sǐ wáng， 2000 duō rén shòu shāng， lìng yòu 300 duō rén bèi bǔ。 wèile píng xī yè yǐ fēi cháng yán jùn de jú shì， dāng jú cǎi qǔ liǎo tuǒ xié liǎo lì chǎng。 6 yuè 30 rì， dāng jú cǎi qǔ yī xiē huǎn hé máo dùn de cuò shī： yuán jī xiè gōng yè bù bù cháng bèi jiàng zhí； xiàng sī dà lín jī chē chē liàng chǎng zhēng shōu de shuì kuǎn jiāng fēn qī hái gěi gāi chǎng gōng rén； wéi shì jiàn zhōng de shòu nán zhě jǔ xíng 'ān zàng yí shì děng， sāo dòng suì píng xī xià qù。 1956 nián 8 yuè 4 rì， bō lán tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng jué dìng chè xiāo 1949 nián 11 yuè duì yuán bō gòng lǐng dǎo gē mù 'ěr kǎ（ WładysławGomułka） děng rén de pī pàn hé qiǎn zé， bìng jiāng qí cóng jiān yù lǐ shì fàng chū lái。 tóng nián 10 yuè 19 rì， gē mù 'ěr kǎ dāng xuǎn wéi zhōng yāng wěi yuán。 zài sū bō liǎng dǎng huì tán zhōng， gē mù 'ěr kǎ fǎn duì sū lián duì bō lán nèi zhèng de gān shè hé yā lì， jiān chí zǒu“ bō lán zì jǐ de dào lù”。 10 yuè 21 rì， dāng xuǎn wéi dǎng zhōng yāng dì yī shū jì。 tóng nián 10 yuè jǔ xíng de dǎng de 'èr jiè bā zhōng quán huì shàng gē mù 'ěr kǎ dāng xuǎn wéi dì yī shū jì， 1956～ 1960 nián de wǔ nián jìhuà， bǎ fā zhǎn xiāo fèi pǐn shēng chǎn hé nóng yè， tí gāo rén mín shēng huó shuǐ píng zuò wéi zhù yào rèn wù。 huì yì duì yǐ qián de fāng zhēn zhèng cè jìn xíng liǎo pī píng， tí chū kè fú“ guān liáo zhù yì hé jiào tiáo zhù yì”、“ jiā qiáng fǎ zhì hé zhèng zhì shēng huó mín zhù huà”， fā zhǎn jīng jì，“ gèng kuài dì gǎi shàn rén mín shēng huó” de xīn fāng zhēn。 dàn yóu yú sū lián mó shì de yán zhòng quē xiàn wú fǎ gēn běn kè fú， zài yǐ hòu de liǎng gè wǔ nián jìhuà（ 1961～ 1970） qī jiān， guó mín jīng jì bǐ lì yǐ rán yán zhòng shī diào。 1970 nián 12 yuè， bō lán yòu yī cì miàn lín wēi jī。 gé dàn sī kè（ yuán dàn zé shì） děng yán hǎi chéng shì de gōng rén、 xué shēng、 shì mín kàng yì zhèng fǔ tí gāo shí pǐn hé rì yòng pǐn de jià gé， jǔ xíng bà gōng， bìng dǎo zhì liǎo yīcháng yán zhòng de shè huì sāo dòng， hòu lái fā zhǎn chéng liúxiě chōng tū。 zài 12 yuè 20 rì jǔ xíng de wǔ jiè qī zhōng quán huì shàng ﹐ jiě chú gē mù 'ěr kǎ dì yī shū jì zhí wù﹐ yóu gài lāi kè（ EdwardGierek） jì rèn dǎng de dì yī shū jì。 xī lún kǎi wéi cí gǎi rèn guó wù wěi yuán huì zhù xí， yóu yǎ luó xiè wéi qí rèn bù cháng huì yì zhù xí。 70 nián dài， shì bō lán zhàn hòu jīng jì fā zhǎn zuì kuài de shí qī， gài lāi kè zhèng fǔ chóu chú mǎn zhì dì tuī xíng wén míng yú shì“ gāo sù dù、 gāo jī lěi、 gāo xiāo fèi” de suǒ wèi“ sān gāo zhèng cè”， dà liàng yǐn jìn wài zī， dà shàng jiàn shè xiàng mù， dà fú dù tí gāo rén mín shēng huó shuǐ píng。 bō lán yī pài xīn xīn xiàng róng。 rán 'ér， yù sù bù dá， zài biǎo miàn fán róng de bèi hòu， 70 nián dài mò， zhèng fǔ gè zhǒng bǔ tiē dá dào cái zhèng yù suàn de 40%， wài zhài gāo dá 260 yì měi yuán。 jìn rù 80 nián dài， zhèng fǔ bù dé bù cǎi qǔ dòng jié gōng zī hé bù fēn shāng pǐn tí jià de cuò shī yǐ bì miǎn wēi jī， cháng qī xí guàn yú jìhuà jià gé de bō lán rén háo wú xīn lǐ zhǔn bèi。 dāng zhèng fǔ zài 1980 nián 7 yuè xuān bù“ yì jià shāng diàn” ròu lèi jià gé tí gāo 40-60% de shí hòu， qún zhòng de bù mǎn yǐn fā liǎo quán guó xìng de bà gōng。 tóng nián 9 yuè， bō lán tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng de bā jiè liù zhōng quán huì jiě chú gài lāi kè dì yī shū jì de zhí wù， yóu kǎ ní yà（ StanislawKania） jì rèn。 10 yuè， yī gè zài dāng shí shēng míng xiǎn hè de gōng huì zǔ zhì， yě shì dōng 'ōu dì yī gè dú lì de gōng huì zǔ zhì héng héng tuán jié gōng huì（ Solidarność） chū xiàn liǎo， wǎ wén sà（ LechWałęsa） dāng xuǎn wéi dāng shí tuán jié gōng huì de lǐng dǎo rén。 tuán jié gōng huì lǐng dǎo de bà gōng yùn dòng zuì chū cǎi qǔ hé píng fāng shì， bìng chéng rèn shè huì zhù yì shì bō lán de zhèng zhì jī chǔ， chéng rèn tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng de lǐng dǎo zuò yòng hé yǔ sū lián jié méng。 1981 nián zài gé dàn sī kè jǔ hángdì yī cì quán guó dài biǎo dà huì， jué dìng chéng lì quán guó wěi yuán huì qǔ dài quán guó xié shāng wěi yuán huì， tōng guò xīn de zhèng zhì gāng lǐng， yào qiú zài bō lán shí xíng duō yuán huà， jiàn lì“ zì zhì gòng hé guó”。 chēng tuán jié gōng huì shì bō lán gǎi gé de zhù lì， gōng huì gāng lǐng zhōng wèi tí dào shè huì zhù yì jí tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng de lǐng dǎo zuò yòng。 zài bà gōng yùn dòng zhōng， gōng huì tí chū yào yòu zì jǐ de bào kān、 yòu zì yóu chū bǎn quán， yào“ zì xià 'ér shàng duó quán”。 gōng huì yǔ zhèng fǔ fēn tíng kàng lǐ。 1981 nián tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng de jiǔ jiè sì zhōng quán huì shàng， kǎ ní yà cí zhí， yǎ lǔ zé 'ěr sī jī（ WojciechJaruzelski） dāng xuǎn wéi dǎng zhōng yāng dì yī shū jì。 1981 nián 12 yuè 13 rì bō lán xuān bù jìn rù zhàn shí zhuàng tài， tuán jié gōng huì bèi qǔ dì， wǎ wén sà děng gōng huì lǐng dǎo rén bèi jū jìn， bù fēn gōng huì gǔgàn zhuǎn rù dì xià huó dòng。 gōng huì nèi bù fēn chéng liǎng pài， yǐ wǎ wén sà wéi shǒu de huǎn hé pài zhù zhāng bì miǎn tóng zhèng fǔ fā shēng zhèng miàn chōng tū， tí chàng xié shāng duì huà； jī jìn pài zé zhù zhāng tōng guò bào lì tuī fān zhèng fǔ。 suí zhī shè huì shàng yě fā shēng zhòng dà fēn huà， yuán zhī chí tuán jié gōng huì de rén zhuànxiàng zhī chí zhèng fǔ。 1982 nián 2 yuè yì huì tōng guò xīn de gōng huì fǎ， yào qiú chóngjiàn xīn de gōng huì。 1982 nián 2 yuè yì huì tōng guò xīn de gōng huì fǎ， yào qiú chóngjiàn xīn de gōng huì， 1983 nián 7 yuè zhàn shí zhuàng tài jié shù。 1984 nián bō lán xuān bù dà shè， ér wǎ wén sà děng rén zé nǔ lì wéi shǐ tuán jié gōng huì hé fǎ huà 'ér dǒu zhēng。 bō lán jú shì jìn rù liǎo duǎn zàn de wěn dìng qī。 dì sān gòng hé guó shí qī（ 1989 zhì jīn） cóng 1986 nián kāi shǐ， yóu yú sū lián de gē 'ěr bā qiáo fū（ МихаилСергеевичГорбачёв） de nèi wài zhèng cè kāi shǐ cǎi yòng xiàng yòu zhuǎn de“ xīn sī wéi”， bìng gěi dōng 'ōu guó jiā sōng bǎng， sū lián hé dōng 'ōu de jú shì kāi shǐ dòng dàng。 1988 nián bō lán zhèng fǔ de jià gé gǎi gé yǐn qǐ qún zhòng bù mǎn。 1989 nián 2 zhì 4 yuè， bō lán tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng yǔ tuán jié gōng huì děng fǎn duì pài jǔ xíng yuán zhuō huì yì（ RozmowyOkrągłegoStołu）， jīng tǎo lùn， tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng tóng yì tuán jié gōng huì hé fǎ。 6 yuè bō lán jǔ xíng quán guó dà xuǎn， tuán jié gōng huì huò 99% de cān yì yuàn xí wèi。 9 yuè 12 rì tuán jié gōng huì de mǎ zuǒ wéi yé cí jī（ TadeuszMazowiecki） zǔ chéng yǐ tuán jié gōng huì wéi zhù dǎo， bāo kuò tǒng yī nóng mín dǎng hé mín zhù dǎng de lián hé zhèng fǔ。 yuán tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng lǐng dǎo rén yǎ lǔ zé 'ěr sī jī chū rèn shǒu rèn zǒng tǒng， rèn qī 6 nián。 tóng nián 12 yuè 29 rì， yì huì tōng guò xiàn fǎ xiū zhèng 'àn， jué dìng gǎi guó míng wéi bō lán gòng hé guó， hóng dǐ dài wáng guān de bái yīng huī fù wéi bō lán de guó huī。 shǐ chēng bō lán dì sān gòng hé guó。 bō lán zhèng shì zǒu shàng liǎo zhèng zhì shàng fèng xíng xī fāng shì de yì huì mín zhù， jīng jì shàng shí xíng yǐ sī yòu huà wéi jī chǔ de shì chǎng jīng jì de fā zhǎn dào lù。 bù jiǔ， yǎ lǔ zé 'ěr sī jī cí qù bō lán tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng zǒng shū jì zhí wù， wǎ wén sà jí zhī chí zhě xuān chēng yuán zhuō huì yì xié yì yǐ jīng guò shí， yào qiú zǒng tǒng cí zhí， jǔ xíng xīn zǒng tǒng hé yì huì dà xuǎn。 1990 nián 1 yuè 27 rì， bō lán de tǒng yī gōng rén dǎng zhào kāi shí yī dà， xuān bù dǎng tíng zhǐ huó dòng， yī gè zhí zhèng 45 nián， céng yōng yòu jìn 300 wàn dǎng yuán de dà dǎng jiù zhè yàng jiě sàn liǎo。 1990 nián wǎ wén sà tí chū jìng xuǎn zǒng tǒng， zāo mǎ zuǒ wéi yé cí jī de zhèng fǔ pài fǎn duì。 tuán jié gōng huì nèi bù fēn liè wéi zhī chí wǎ wén sà de zhōng jiān pài xié yì huì hé zhī chí mǎ zuǒ wéi yé cí jī de gōng mín yùn dòng mín zhù xíng dòng huì。 1990 nián 11 yuè jǔ xíng dà xuǎn， wǎ wén sà zài dì 'èr lún tóu piào zhōng dāng xuǎn zǒng tǒng。 tā tí chū“ jiàn shè zì yóu、 mín zhù、 fù yù de xīn gòng hé guó”， jīng jì shàng fā zhǎn yǐ sī yòu zhì wéi jī chǔ de shì chǎng jīng jì， qǔ xiāo duì tǔ dì zì yóu mǎi mài de xiàn zhì hé duì wài zhèng cè qiáng diào xiàng zhěng gè 'ōu zhōu hé shì jiè kāi fàng děng。 cóng cǐ， bō lán shí xiàn liǎo zhèng quán de gēngdié hé zhèng zhì zhì dù de gǎi biàn， bìng kāi shǐ xiàng xī fāng kào lǒng。 1995 nián， wǎ wén sà zài zǒng tǒng jìng xuǎn shí shū gěi kè wǎ xī niè fū sī jī。 zài jīng jì shàng， bō lán de zhuǎn guǐ dài lái liǎo zhèn tòng。 dàn bō lán yǐ rán chéng wéi dōng 'ōu guó jiā zhōng jīng jì zhuǎn guǐ zuì chéng gōng de jǐ gè guó jiā zhī yī， shí xiàn liǎo jīng jì de wěn bù zēngzhǎng。 1999 nián， bō lán jiā rù běi dà xī yáng gōng yuē zǔ zhì， 2004 nián， bō lán hé qí tā 10 gè 'ōu zhōu guó jiā yī dào jiā rù liǎo 'ōu zhōu lián méng。 zì rán dì lǐ bō lán miàn jī wéi ３ １ wàn duō píng fāng gōng lǐ。 wèi yú zhōng 'ōu dōng běi bù， běi bīn bō luó de hǎi， xī lín dé guó， nán jiè jié kè、 sī luò fá kè， dōng běi hé dōng nán yǔ bái 'é luó sī hé wū kè lán、 lì táo wǎn xiāng lián。 hǎi 'àn xiàn cháng ５ ２ ８ gōng lǐ。 quán jìng jué dà bù fēn wéi lüè yòu qǐ fú de dī píng yuán（ píng jūn hǎi bá 173 mǐ）， běi dī nán gāo， běi bù duō bīng qì hú， nán bù yòu dī qiū líng， kào jìn jié biān jìng wéi sū tái dé shān hé bèi sī jī dé shān。 dì shì běi dī nán gāo， zhōng bù xià 'āo。 hǎi bá２ ００ mǐ yǐ xià de píng yuán yuē zhàn quán guó miàn jī de ７２ ％。 zhù yào shān mài yòu kā 'ěr bā qiān shān mài hé sū tái dé shān mài。 jiào dà hé liú yòu wéi sī wǎ hé（ cháng１０ ４７ gōng lǐ） hé 'ào dé hé（ bō lán jìng nèi cháng７４２ gōng lǐ）。 quán guó 99.7％ shǔ bō luó de hǎi liú yù， qí zhōng wéi sī wǎ hé liú yù zhàn 'èr fēn zhī yī， ào dé hé liú yù zhàn sān fēn zhī yī。 zuì dà de húpō shì xī ní yà 'ěr dé wéi hú， miàn jī１０ ９ ．７ píng fāng gōng lǐ。 quán jìng shǔ yú yóu hǎi yáng xìng xiàng dà lù xìng qì hòu guò dù de wēn dài kuò yè lín qì hòu， zì xī 'ér dōng， zì běi 'ér nán， hǎi yáng xìng jiàn jiǎn， dà lù xìng dì zēng， nián jiàng shuǐ liàng 450-800 háo mǐ， nán bù shān qū kě chāo guò 1， 000 háo mǐ。 sēn lín zhàn guó tǔ 28％。 rén kǒu ３８ ６３．２ wàn（２００１ nián dǐ）， zhù yào mín zú shì bō lán rén（９８％）， qí yú wéi wū kè lán、 bái 'é luó sī、 lì táo wǎn、 é luó sī、 dé yì zhì hé yóu tài děng shǎo shù mín zú。 quán guó yuē９０％ yǐ shàng de jū mín xìn fèng luó mǎ tiān zhù jiào。 guān fāng yǔ yán wéi bō lán yǔ。 shǒu dū huá shā（ Warsaw）， rén kǒu１６１ .５ wàn（２００１ nián）， nián píng jūn qì wēn９ .６ ℃。 xíng zhèng qū huá １９９８ nián７ yuè， bō lán zhòng yì yuàn tōng guò yī xiàng jué yì， jiāng quán guó４９ gè shěng gǎi wéi１６ gè shěng， tóng shí chóngxīn shè lì xiàn zhì， yóu mù qián de shěng、 xiāng liǎng jí gǎi wéi shěng、 xiàn、 xiāng sān jí， gòng shè１６ gè shěng，３０８ gè xiàn，２４８９ gè xiāng。１０ yuè， quán guó jǔ xíng liǎo sān jí dì fāng zì zhì jī gòu xuǎn jǔ。 xīn jī zhì yú１９９９ nián１ yuè１ rì qǐ dòng。 zhèng zhì １９９７ nián５ yuè， quán mín gōng jué tōng guò xīn xiàn fǎ，１０ yuè１７ rì， xīn xiàn fǎ shēng xiào， tā qǔ dài liǎo１９５２ nián de xiàn fǎ。 xīn xiàn fǎ què lì liǎo sān quán fēn lì de zhèng zhì zhì dù hé yǐ shè huì shì chǎng jīng jì wéi zhù de jīng jì tǐ zhì， guī dìng： zhòng yì yuàn hé cān yì yuàn yōng yòu lì fǎ quán， zǒng tǒng hé zhèng fǔ yōng yòu zhí fǎ quán， fǎ yuàn hé fǎ tíng xíng shǐ sī fǎ quán； bō jīng jì tǐ zhì de jī chǔ wéi jīng jì zì yóu huà、 sī yòu zhì děng yuán zé； bō wǔ zhuāng lì liàng zài guó jiā zhèng zhì shì wù zhōng bǎo chí zhōng lì。 xīn xiàn fǎ bǎo zhèng gōng mín quán hé jīng jì zì yóu quán， jiā qiáng liǎo zhōng yāng yínháng de dú lì xìng， xuē ruò liǎo zǒng tǒng de quán lì， yì huì dé dào xià yuàn３ ／５ de piào shù jiù néng tuī fān zǒng tǒng de fǒu jué， fù yú xiàn fǎ fǎ yuàn qiáng yòu lì de quán lì， yì huì bù zài yòu quán fǒu jué xiàn fǎ fǎ yuàn de cái jué。 zǒng tǒng xuǎn jǔ fǎ guī dìng， rú mǒu yī hòu xuǎn rén zài dì yī lún xuǎn jǔ zhōng de dé piào shuài chāo guò yòu xiào xuǎn piào de５０％， jí kě dāng xuǎn； rú wú yī rén dá dào５０％， zé yóu huò xuǎn piào zuì duō de qián liǎng míng jìn rù dì 'èr lún jì xù jìng xuǎn， dé piào jiào duō zhě dāng xuǎn。 zǒng tǒng rèn qī５ nián， kě lián rèn yī jiè。 zǒng tǒng fǔ héng héng bèi 'ěr wéi dé gōng。 jīng jì gōng yè fā dá。 cǎi kuàng yè yǐ méi jí hè méi zuì zhòng yào， méi tàn chǔ liàng jū 'ōu zhōu qián liè。 zhù yào kuàng chǎn yòu méi、 liú huáng、 tóng、 xīn、 qiān、 lǚ、 yín děng。２０００ nián yìng méi chǔ liàng wéi４５３ .６２ yì dūn， hè méi１３９ .８４ yì dūn， liú huáng５ .０４ yì dūn， tóng２４ .８５ yì dūn。 hǔ pò chǔ liàng fēng fù， jià zhí yuē jìn qiān yì měi yuán， shì shì jiè hǔ pò shēng chǎn dà guó， yòu jǐ bǎi nián kāi cǎi hǔ pò de lì shǐ。 gōng yè yǐ cǎi méi、 jī qì zhì zào、 zào chuán、 qì chē hé gāng tiě wéi zhù。２００１ nián yòu nóng yè yòng dì１８３９ wàn gōng qǐng。 gēng dì zhàn guó tǔ miàn jī 50％ zuǒ yòu。 zhù yào zuò wù wéi gè zhǒng mài lèi hé mǎ líng shǔ、 tián cài děng。 shēng chù zhù yào yǎng niú、 zhū hé yáng。２００１ nián nóng cūn rén kǒu zhàn quán guó rén kǒu de３８ .３％。 nóng yè jiù yè rén shù zhàn jiù yè zǒng shù de２８ .３％。 chū kǒu yǐ gōng kuàng chǎn pǐn（ méi、 hè méi、 jiāo tàn、 chuán bó、 chē liàng děng） wéi dà zōng； jìn kǒu yǐ shí yóu zhì pǐn、 tiě kuàng shí、 mián huā hé liáng shí wéi zhù。 bō lán shì shì jiè shí dà lǚ yóu guó zhī yī。 qì hòu yí rén de bō luó de hǎi gǎng wān， fēng jǐng yǐ nǐ de kā 'ěr bā qiān shān qū， qiǎo duó tiān gōng de wéi lì qí kǎ yán kuàng měi nián dū xī yǐn wú shù yóu kè mù míng qián lái。 zhè lǐ de rén dǒng dé sēn lín shì bǎo hù shēng tài huán jìng de zhùjué， yīn cǐ tā men 'ài lín rú mìng。 bō lán de sēn lín miàn jī wéi８８９ wàn duō gōng qǐng， sēn lín fù gài shuài jìn３０％。 chū dào bō lán de rén， cháng cháng huì bèi zhè shī qíng huà yì bān de lǜ sè shì jiè suǒ táo zuì。 lǚ yóu yè yǐ chéng wéi bō lán wài huì shōu rù de zhù yào lái yuán。 zhù yào chéng shì yòu luó cí、 bō cí nán、 kè lā kē fū、 shí qiē qīng、 gé dàn sī kè děng。 wén huà tí qǐ bō lán， rén men zì rán huì xiǎng dào xiào bāng hé jū lǐ fū rén。 xiào bāng shì bō lán rén yǐn yǐ wéi jiāo 'ào de wěi dà zuòqǔ jiā hé gāng qín jiā。 huá shā jǔ bàn de wǔ nián yī dù de xiào bāng guó jì gāng qín dà sài， xī yǐn zhe quán shì jiè hǎo shǒu juézhú， chéng wéi guó jì yīnyuè jiè de dǐng jí shèng shì。 chū shēng yú huá shā de jū lǐ fū rén shì shì jiè shàng dì yī gè liǎng cì huò dé nuò bèi 'ěr jiǎng de nǚ kē xué jiā， tā wéi rén lèi jiē kāi yuán zǐ de 'ào mì zuò chū liǎo jù dà gòng xiàn。 xīn wén chū bǎn bō lán bào kān shí xíng sī yòu huà yǐ lái， bào kān fā hángqíng kuàng biàn huà bù dìng。２００１ nián dǐ quán guó chū bǎn fā xíng de bào kān zá zhì５８３７ zhǒng， qí zhōng zhù yào bào kān yòu：《 xuǎn jǔ bào》， shì bō lán fā xíng liàng zuì dà de rì bào；《 gòng hé guó bào》。 cǐ wài， hái yòu《 lùn tán bào》、《 zhèng zhì》 zhōu kān、《 zhí yán》 zhōu kān、《 NEWSWEEK》 děng。 guó jiā zhù yào tōng xùn shè yòu bō lán tōng xùn shè、 bō lán guó jì xīn wén shè。 guó jiā zhù yào diàn tái hé diàn shì tái shì bō lán guǎng bō diàn tái hé bō lán diàn shì tái。１９９０ nián１０ yuè， bō lán zhòng yì yuàn tōng guò guān yú yǔn xǔ kāi bàn sī yíng diàn tái hé diàn shì tái de fǎ lìng。 mù qián bō lán yòu jìn１８０ jiā sī yíng guǎng bō diàn tái hé２６ jiā sī yíng diàn shì tái。 yǔ zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guān xì １９４９ nián１０ yuè７ rì， zhōng guó hé bō lán jiàn lì dà shǐ jí wài jiāo guān xì。 zhōng bō liǎng guó yòu zhe chuán tǒng de yǒu hǎo guān xì， zǎo zài１９５０ nián liǎng guó jiù qiān shǔ liǎo dì yī gè zhèng fǔ jiān mào yì xié dìng。 jìn nián lái， zhōng bō guān xì zài xiāng hù zūn zhòng、 píng děng hù lì、 hù bù gān shè nèi zhèng de yuán zé jī chǔ shàng wěn bù fā zhǎn， zhōng bō jīng mào guān xì yě yòu liǎo cháng zú de jìn zhǎn，２００３ nián liǎng guó de mào yì 'é dá１９．８ yì měi yuán。 yě xǔ tā shì shì jiè shàng zuì qí guài de yī gè chāo jí fǎn huá de guó jiā。 1919 bā lí hé huì : bō lán rén tǐng rì fǎn huá。 dú guò《 gù wéi jūn huí yì lù》， duì bō lán zhèng fǔ de bǐ shì wú yǐ fù jiā： 1919 nián bā lí hé huì， rì běn xiǎng bǎ yī zhàn zhōng chèn huǒ dǎ jié gǎo dào de shān dōng quán yì hé fǎ huà， gù wéi jūn zài huì shàng kāng kǎi jī 'áng jù lǐ lì zhēng， gè zhōng xiǎo guó jiā zé zài gōng kāi huò sī xià chǎng hé duì zhōng guó biǎo shì tóng qíng。 yīng měi fǎ yì gè dà guó yī shí yě yòu suǒ gù jì。 zhǐ yòu yī gè guó jiā de dài biǎo gōng rán tiào chū lái， fā biǎo yǎn jiǎng， zhī chí rì běn duì shān dōng de yào qiú， fǎn duì zhōng guó－－ bō lán。 2008 nián 3 yuè， bō lán zǒng lǐ xuān bù jiāng bù cān jiā běi jīng 'ào yùn huì kāi mù shì 'ér dài zhī huì jiàn dá lài。 zhōng guó zì gǔ gēn bō lán jiù wú yuān wú chóu kě bù zhī zěn me gǎo de wú lùn shì běi yáng zhèng fǔ shí dài hái shì zhōng huá mín guó hái shì xiàn zài， bō lán zǒng xǐ huān gēn zhōng guó guò bù qǐ。 lì shǐ shàng bō lán cóng lái zài zhōng guó de fǎn miàn。 bō lán zhè gè guó jiā zuò shí me qí tā de bù yào jǐn， kě shì zhè gè guó jiā duì zhōng guó yī xiàng chóu shì héng héng bù guǎn guó mín dǎng zhèng fǔ， hái shì zhōng gòng shí qī zhè yàng chóu shì zhōng guó de guó jiā。１９９７ nián１１ yuè， kè wǎ xī niè fū sī jī zǒng tǒng duì zhōng guó jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn， zhè shì jìn４０ nián lái bō lán guó jiā yuán shǒu shǒu cì duì zhōng guó jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn。２００４ nián６ yuè， hú jǐn tāo zhù xí duì bō lán jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn， shuāng fāng qiān shǔ liǎo lián hé shēng míng。 zhōng guó guān xì sì chuān mén chuān dà dì zhèn fā shēng hòu， lǚ bō huá rén huá qiáo、 zài bō zhōng zī jī gòu hé liú xué shēng shí kè qiān guà zhe zāi qū tóng bāo de 'ān wēi， fēn fēn yǒng yuè xiàng zāi qū juān kuǎn， yǐ biǎo dá duì dà dì zhèn yùnàn tóng bāo de 'āi sī、 duì shòu zāi rén yuán de chéng zhì wèi wèn， wéi zǔ guó de kàng zhèn jiù zāi gòng xiàn zì jǐ de mián bó zhī lì。 jié zhì 5 yuè 21 rì， zhù bō lán shǐ guǎn shōu dào juān kuǎn zhé hé rén mín bì 99.3642 wàn。 mù qián juān kuǎn huó dòng réng zài jì xù。 sì chuān mén chuān dà dì zhèn fā shēng hòu， lǚ bō huá rén huá qiáo、 zài bō zhōng zī jī gòu hé liú xué shēng shí kè qiān guà zhe zāi qū tóng bāo de 'ān wēi， fēn fēn yǒng yuè xiàng zāi qū juān kuǎn， yǐ biǎo dá duì dà dì zhèn yùnàn tóng bāo de 'āi sī、 duì shòu zāi rén yuán de chéng zhì wèi wèn， wéi zǔ guó de kàng zhèn jiù zāi gòng xiàn zì jǐ de mián bó zhī lì The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity by its ruler Mieszko I in 966 (see Baptism of Poland), when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. Poland became a kingdom in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by uniting to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth collapsed in 1795, and its territory was partitioned among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I but lost it again in World War II, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, and emerged several years later as a socialist republic within the Eastern Bloc under strong Soviet influence. In 1989 communist rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic". Poland is a unitary state made up of sixteen voivodeships (Polish: województwo). Poland is also a member of the European Union, NATO and OECD. Poland’s territory extends across several geographical regions. In the northwest is the Baltic seacoast, which extends from the Bay of Pomerania to the Gulf of Gdansk. This coast is marked by several spits, coastal lakes (former bays that have been cut off from the sea), and dunes. The largely straight coastline is indented by the Szczecin Lagoon, the Bay of Puck, and the Vistula Lagoon. The center and parts of the north lie within the Northern European Lowlands. Rising gently above these lowlands is a geographical region comprising the four hilly districts of moraines and moraine-dammed lakes formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. These lake districts are the Pomeranian Lake District, the Greater Polish Lake District, the Kashubian Lake District, and the Masurian Lake District. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four and covers much of northeastern Poland. The lake districts form part of the Baltic Ridge, a series of moraine belts along the southern shore of the Baltic Sea. South of the Northern European Lowlands lie the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by broad ice-age river valleys. Farther south lies the Polish mountain region, including the Sudetes, the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, the Świętokrzyskie Mountains, and the Carpathian Mountains, including the Beskids. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra Mountains, along Poland’s southern border. Rivers The longest rivers are the Vistula (Polish: Wisła), 1,047 km (678 miles) long; the Oder (Polish: Odra) – which forms part of Poland’s western border – 854 km (531 miles) long; its tributary, the Warta, 808 km (502 miles) long; and the Bug – a tributary of the Vistula – 772 km (480 miles) long. The Vistula and the Oder flow into the Baltic Sea, as do numerous smaller rivers in Pomerania. The Łyna and the Angrapa flow by way of the Pregolya to the Baltic, and the Czarna Hańcza flows into the Baltic through the Neman. While the great majority of Poland’s rivers drain into the Baltic Sea, Poland’s Beskids are the source of some of the upper tributaries of the Orava, which flows via the Váh and the Danube to the Black Sea. The eastern Beskids are also the source of some streams that drain through the Dniester to the Black Sea. Poland’s rivers have been used since early times for navigation. The Vikings, for example, traveled up the Vistula and the Oder in their longships. In the Middle Ages and in early modern times, when Poland-Lithuania was the breadbasket of Europe, the shipment of grain and other agricultural products down the Vistula toward Gdańsk and onward to eastern Europe took on great importance. For an overview of Polish rivers, see Category:Rivers of Poland. Geology Granite crags of the High TatrasThe geological structure of Poland has been shaped by the continental collision of Europe and Africa over the past 60 million years, on the one hand, and the Quaternary glaciations of northern Europe, on the other. Both processes shaped the Sudetes and the Carpathians. The moraine landscape of northern Poland contains soils made up mostly of sand or loam, while the ice-age river valleys of the south often contain loess. The Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, the Pieniny, and the Western Tatras consist of limestone, while the High Tatras, the Beskids, and the Karkonosze are made up mainly of granite and basalts. The Kraków-Częstochowa Upland is one of the oldest mountain ranges on earth. Mountains and topography The Pieniny in the CarpathiansPoland has 21 mountains over 2,000 metres (6,561 ft) in elevation, all in the High Tatras. The Polish Tatras, which consist of the High Tatras and the Western Tatras, is the highest mountain group of Poland and of the entire Carpathian range. In the High Tatras lies Poland’s highest point, the northwestern peak of Rysy, 2,499 metres (8,199 ft) in elevation. At its foot lies the mountain lake, the Morskie Oko. The second-highest mountain group in Poland is the Beskids, whose highest peak is Babia Góra, at 1,725 metres (5,659 ft). The next highest mountain group is the Karkonosze, whose highest point is Śnieżka, at 1,602 metres (5,256 ft). Among the most beautiful mountains of Poland are the Bieszczady Mountains in the far southeast of Poland, whose highest point in Poland is Tarnica, with an elevation of 1,346 metres (4,416 ft). Tourists also frequent the Gorce Mountains in Gorce National Park, with elevations around 1,300 metres (4,300 ft), and the Pieniny in Pieniny National Park, with elevations around 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The lowest point in Poland—at 2 metres (7 ft) below sea level—is at Raczki Elbląskie, near Elbląg in the Vistula Delta. For a list of the most important mountain ranges of Poland, see the Category:Mountain ranges of Poland. Lakes Rożnowskie Lake, near Rożnów in southeastern PolandWith almost ten thousand closed bodies of water covering more than one hectare (2.47 acres) each, Poland has one of the highest numbers of lakes in the world. In Europe, only Finland has a greater density of lakes. The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometers (38.6 square miles), are Lake Śniardwy and Lake Mamry in Masuria, as well as Lake Łebsko and Lake Drawsko in Pomerania. In addition to the lake districts in the north (in Masuria, Pomerania, Kashubia, Lubuskie, and Greater Poland), there is also a large number of mountain lakes in the Tatras, of which the Morskie Oko is the largest in area. The lake with the greatest depth—of more than 100 metres (328 ft) —is Lake Hańcza in the Wigry Lake District, east of Masuria in Podlaskie Voivodship. Among the first lakes whose shores were settled are those in the Greater Polish Lake District. The stilt house settlement of Biskupin, occupied by more than one thousand residents, was founded before the seventh century BC by people of the Lusatian culture. The ancestors of today’s Poles, the Polanie, built their first fortresses on islands in these lakes. The legendary Prince Popiel is supposed to have ruled from Kruszwica on Lake Gopło. The first historically documented ruler of Poland, Duke Mieszko I, had his palace on an island in the Warta River in Poznań. For the most important lakes of Poland, see the Category:Lakes of Poland. The coast Dunes in Słowiński National ParkThe Polish Baltic coast is approximately 528 kilometres (328 miles) long and extends from Świnoujście on the islands of Usedom and Wolin in the west to Krynica Morska on the Vistula Spit in the east. For the most part, Poland has a smooth coastline, which has been shaped by the continual movement of sand by currents and winds from west to east. This continual erosion and deposition has formed cliffs, dunes, and spits, many of which have migrated landwards to close off former lagoons, such as Łebsko Lake in Słowiński National Park. The largest spits are Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Spit. The largest Polish Baltic island is Wolin. The largest port cities are Gdynia, Gdańsk, Szczecin, and Świnoujście. The main coastal resorts are Sopot, Międzyzdroje, Kołobrzeg, Łeba, Władysławowo, and the Hel Peninsula. The Desert Błędów Desert, the only desert in PolandBłędów Desert is a desert located in Southern Poland in the Silesian Voivodeship and stretches over the Zagłębie Dąbrowskie region. It has a total area of 32 km². It is the only desert located in Poland. It is one of only five natural deserts in Europe. It is the warmest desert that appears at this latitude. It was created thousands of years ago by a melting glacier. The specific geological structure has been of big importance - the average thickness of the sand layer is about 40 meters (maximum 70 m), which made the fast and deep drainage very easy. In recent years the desert has started to shrink. The phenomenon of mirages has been known to exist there. Land use The patchwork landscape of MasuriaForests cover 28% of Poland’s land area. More than half of the land is devoted to agriculture. While the total area under cultivation is declining, the remaining farmland is more intensively cultivated. More than 1% of Poland’s territory — 3,145 square kilometres (1,214 square miles) — is protected within 23 national parks. In this respect, Poland ranks first in Europe. Three more national parks are projected for Masuria, the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, and the eastern Beskids. Most Polish national parks are located in the southern part of the country. In addition, wetlands along lakes and rivers in central Poland are legally protected, as are coastal areas in the north. There are also over 120 areas designated as landscape parks, and numerous nature reserves and other protected areas. Flora and fauna A wisent in the Białowieża ForestPhytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Poland can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Baltic mixed forests, Central European mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests. Many animals that have since died out in other parts of Europe still survive in Poland, such as the wisent in the ancient woodland of the Białowieża Forest and in Podlachia. Other such species include the brown bear in Białowieża, in the Tatras, and in the Beskids, the gray wolf and the Eurasian lynx in various forests, the moose in northern Poland, and the beaver in Masuria, Pomerania, and Podlachia. In the forests, one also encounters game animals, such as red deer, roe deer, and boars. In eastern Poland there are a number of ancient woodlands, like Białowieża, that have never been cleared by people. There are also large forested areas in the mountains, Masuria, Pomerania, and Lower Silesia. Family of White stork, a national bird in PolandPoland is the most important breeding ground for European migratory birds. Out of all of the migratory birds who come to Europe for the summer, one quarter breed in Poland, particularly in the lake districts and the wetlands along the Biebrza, the Narew, and the Warta, which are part of nature reserves or national parks. In Masuria, there are villages in which storks outnumber people. Climate The climate is mostly temperate throughout the country. The climate is oceanic in the north and west and becomes gradually warmer and continental as one moves south and east. Summers are generally warm, with average temperatures between 20 °C (68 °F) and 27 °C (80,6 °F). Winters are cold, with average temperatures around 3 °C (37,4 °F) in the northwest and –8 °C (17,6 °F) in the northeast. Precipitation falls throughout the year, although, especially in the east; winter is drier than summer. The warmest region in Poland is Lesser Poland located in Southern Poland where temperatures in the summer average between 23 °C (73,4 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F) but can go as high as 32 °C (89,6 °F) to 38 °C (100,4 °F) on some days in the warmest month of the year July. The warmest city in Poland is Tarnów. The city is located in Lesser Poland; it is the hottest place in Poland all year round. The average temperatures being 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer and 4 °C (39,2 °F) in the winter. Tarnów also has the longest summer in Poland spreading from mid May to mid September. Also it has the shortest winter in Poland which often lasts from January to March, less than the regular three-month winter. The coldest region of Poland is in the Northeast in the Podlachian Voivodeship near the border of Belarus. The climate is efficient due to cold fronts which come from Scandinavia and Siberia. The average temperature in the winter in Podlachian ranges from -15 °C (5 °F) to -4 °C ( 24,8 °F). Demographics Three generations in West Pomerania after World War II: Pomnik Czynu Polaków, SzczecinPoland, with 38.5 million inhabitants, has the eighth-largest population in Europe and the sixth-largest in the European Union. It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometer (328 per square mile). Poland historically contained many languages, cultures and religions on its soil. The country had a particularly large Jewish population prior to the Second World War, when the Nazi Holocaust caused Poland's Jewish population, estimated at 3 million before the war, to drop to just 300,000. The outcome of the war, particularly the westward shift of Poland's borders to the area between the Curzon line and the Oder-Neisse line, coupled with post-war expulsion of minorities, gave Poland an appearance of homogeneity. As of 2002, 36,983,700 people, or 96.74% of the population consider themselves Polish (Census 2002), while 471,500 (1.23%) declared another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. The largest nationalities and ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language, a member of the West Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, functions as the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken. In recent years, Poland's population has decreased because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a slight rise on the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, a significant number of Poles have emigrated to Western European countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany and Ireland in search of work. Some organizations have stated that Polish emigration is primarily due to Poland's high unemployment rate (10.5%), with Poles searching for better work opportunities abroad. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to approximately 300,000 and estimates place the Polish population in Ireland at 65,000. However lately it has been reported that large numbers of Polish citizens who had previously emigrated to other parts of the EU for better prospects are in fact returning due to the dramatic increase in standards of living for Poles in their own country as well as sharp increases in wages. The Central Statistical Office of the Polish government recently published figures which gave evidence that there is now a net inflow of people into the country. Polish minorities are still present in the neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries (see Poles for population numbers). Altogether, the number of ethnic Poles living abroad is estimated to be around 20 million. The largest number of Poles outside of Poland can be found in the United States. Urban Areas The largest metropolitan areas in Poland are the Upper Silesian Coal Basin centred on Katowice (3.5 million inhabitants); the capital, Warsaw (3 million);Kraków (1.3 million) Łódź (1.3 million); the Tricity of Gdańsk-Sopot-Gdynia in the Vistula delta (1.1 million); Poznań (0.9 million); Wrocław (0.9 million); and Szczecin (0.7 million). For an overview of Polish cities, see List of cities in Poland. Ethnicity and religion In terms of ethnicity, Poland has been a homogeneous state since the end of World War II. This is a major departure from much of Polish history. Due to the Holocaust and the flight and expulsion of German and Ukrainian populations, Poland has become almost uniformly Catholic. About 88% of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, with 58% as practising Catholics according to 2005 survey by the Centre for Public Opinion Research. Though rates of religious observance are currently lower than they have been in the past, Poland remains one of the most devoutly religious countries in Europe. Religious minorities include Polish Orthodox (1.3% or about 506,000), Jehovah’s Witnesses (0.6% or about 220,000), various Protestants (0.4% or about 159,000), Eastern Catholics (0.2%), and smaller minorities of Mariavites, Polish Catholics, Jews, Muslims (including the Tatars of Białystok). Protestant churches include about 0.2% or 76,000 in the largest Evangelical-Augsburg Church, plus about as many in smaller Pentecostal and Evangelical churches. Resulting from the socio-political emancipation of the county, freedom of religion has become guaranteed by the 1989 statute of the Polish constitution, allowing for the emergence of additional denominations. However, due to pressure from the Polish Episcopate, exposition of doctrine has entered public education system as well, drawing criticism from the popular media, as unconstitutional. According to 2007 survey, 72% of respondents were not against the fostering of catechism in public schools; nevertheless, the alternative courses in ethics have become available only in one percent of the entire public educational system. Poles (including Silesians and Kashubians) make up an overwhelming 99.3% majority of the Polish population. According to the 2002 census, the remainder of the population is made up of small minorities of Germans (152,897), Belarusians (c. 49,000), and Ukrainians (c. 30,000), as well as Tatars, Lithuanians, Roma, Lemkos, Russians, Karaites, Slovaks, and Czechs. Among foreign citizens, the Vietnamese are the largest ethnic group, followed by Greeks, and Armenians. History History of Poland Chronology Until 966 966–1385 1385–1569 1569–1795 1795–1918 1918–1939 1939–1945 1945–1989 1989–present Prehistory Historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now known as Poland. The exact ethnicity and linguistic affiliation of these groups has been hotly debated; in particular the time and route of the original settlement of Slavic peoples in these regions has been the subject of much controversy. The most famous archeological find from Poland's prehistory is the Biskupin fortified settlement (now reconstructed as a museum), dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, around 700 BC. Piast dynasty Poland around 1020Poland began to form into a recognizable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the tenth century under the Piast dynasty. Poland's first historically documented ruler, Mieszko I, was baptized in 966, adopting Catholic Christianity as the nation's new official religion, to which the bulk of the population converted in the course of the next centuries. In the twelfth century, Poland fragmented into several smaller states. In 1320, Władysław I became the King of a reunified Poland. His son, Kazimierz III, is remembered as one of the greatest Polish kings. Poland was also a centre of migration of peoples and the Jewish community began to settle and flourish in Poland during this era (see History of the Jews in Poland). The Black Death which affected most parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351 did not reach Poland. Jagiellon dynasty Under the Jagiellon dynasty Poland forged an alliance with its neighbour, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1410, a Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive defeat on the Teutonic Knights, both countries' main adversary, in the battle of Grunwald. After the Thirteen Years War, the Knight's state became a Polish vassal. Polish culture and economy flourished under the Jagiellons, and the country produced such figures as astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus and poet Jan Kochanowski. Compared to other European nations, Poland was exceptional in its tolerance of religious dissent, allowing the country to avoid the religious turmoil that spread over Western Europe in that time. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extentA golden age ensued during the sixteenth century after the Union of Lublin which gave birth to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The szlachta (nobility) of Poland, far more numerous than in Western European countries, took pride in their freedoms and parliamentary system. During the Golden Age period, Poland expanded its borders to become the largest country in Europe. In the mid-seventeenth century, a Swedish invasion ("The Deluge") and Cossack's Chmielnicki Uprising which ravaged the country marked the end of the golden age. Numerous wars against Russia coupled with government inefficiency caused by the Liberum Veto, a right which had allowed any member of the parliament to dissolve it and to veto any legislation it had passed, marked the steady deterioration of the Commonwealth from a European power into a near-anarchy controlled by its neighbours. The reforms, particularly those of the Great Sejm, which passed the Constitution of May 3, 1791, the world's second modern constitution, were thwarted with the three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, and 1795) which ended with Poland's being erased from the map and its territories being divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Partitions of Poland Poles would resent their fate and would several times rebel against the partitioners, particularly in the nineteenth century. In 1807 Napoleon recreated a Polish state, the Duchy of Warsaw, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was again divided in 1815 by the victorious Allies at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern portion was ruled by the Russian Czar as a Congress Kingdom, and possessed a liberal constitution. However, the Czars soon reduced Polish freedoms and Russia eventually de facto annexed the country. Later in the nineteenth century, Austrian-ruled Galicia, particularly the Free City of Kraków, became a centre of Polish cultural life. Reconstitution of Poland Poland between 1922 and 1938During World War I, all the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland that United States President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed in Point 13 of his Fourteen Points. Shortly after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). It reaffirmed its independence after a series of military conflicts, the most notable being the Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921) when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army. The 1926 May Coup of Józef Piłsudski turned the reins of the Second Polish Republic over to the Sanacja movement. World War II The Sanacja movement controlled Poland until the start of World War II in 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded on September 1 and the Soviet Union followed on September 17. Warsaw capitulated on September 28, 1939. As agreed in the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Germany while the eastern provinces fell under the control of the Soviet Union. Of all the countries involved in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: over six million perished, half of them Polish Jews. Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution to the Allied war effort, after the Soviets, the British and the Americans. The Polish expeditionary corps played an important role in the Italian Campaign, particularly at the Battle of Monte Cassino. At the war's conclusion, Poland's borders were shifted westwards, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line. Meanwhile, the western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland emerged 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions of people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews. The main German Nazi death camps were in Poland. Of a pre-war population of 3,300,000 Polish Jews, 3,000,000 were killed during the Holocaust. Postwar Communist Poland At the end of World War II, the gray territories were transferred from Poland to the Soviet Union, and the pink territories from Germany to PolandThe Soviet Union instituted a new Communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War was also part of this change. The People's Republic of Poland (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of communist opposition persisted. Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" ("Solidarność"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981, it eroded the dominance of the Communist Party and by 1989 had triumphed in parliamentary elections. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communism across Eastern Europe. Democratic Poland A shock therapy programme of Leszek Balcerowicz during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into a market economy. As with all other post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary slumps in social and economic standards, but became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels. Most visibly, there were numerous improvements in other human rights, such as free speech. In 1991, Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003, with Poland becoming a full member on May 1, 2004. Politics Poland is a democracy, with a President as a Head of State, whose current constitution dates from 1997. The government structure centres on the Council of Ministers, led by a prime minister. The president appoints the cabinet according to the proposals of the prime minister, typically from the majority coalition in the Sejm. The president is elected by popular vote every five years. The current president is Lech Kaczyński, the current prime minister is Donald Tusk. Polish voters elect a bicameral parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member Senate (Senat). The Sejm is elected under proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method, a method similar to that used in many parliamentary political systems. The Senate, on the other hand, is elected under a rare plurality bloc voting method where several candidates with the highest support are elected from each constituency. With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm. When sitting in joint session, members of the Sejm and Senate form the National Assembly (the Zgromadzenie Narodowe). The National Assembly is formed on three occasions: when a new President takes the oath of office; when an indictment against the President of the Republic is brought to the State Tribunal (Trybunał Stanu); and when a President's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared. To date, only the first instance has occurred. The judicial branch plays an important role in decision-making. Its major institutions include the Supreme Court of Poland (Sąd Najwyższy); the Supreme Administrative Court of Poland (Naczelny Sąd Administracyjny); the Constitutional Tribunal of Poland (Trybunał Konstytucyjny); and the State Tribunal of Poland (Trybunał Stanu). On the approval of the Senate, the Sejm also appoints the Ombudsman or the Commissioner for Civil Rights Protection (Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich) for a five-year term. The Ombudsman has the duty of guarding the observance and implementation of the rights and liberties of Polish citizens and residents, of the law and of principles of community life and social justice. Administrative divisions Poland's current voivodeships (provinces) are largely based on the country's historic regions, whereas those of the past two decades (to 1998) had been centred on and named for individual cities. The new units range in area from less than 10,000 km² (Opole Voivodeship) to more than 35,000 km² (Masovian Voivodeship). Administrative authority at voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed voivode (governor), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and an executive elected by that assembly. The voivodeships are subdivided into powiats (often referred to in English as counties), and these are further divided into gminas (also known as communes or municipalities). Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat. Poland currently has 16 voivodeships, 379 powiats (including 65 cities with powiat status), and 2,478 gminas. Division of Poland Greater Poland Wielkopolskie Poznań Kuyavian-Pomeranian Kujawsko-Pomorskie Bydgoszcz / Toruń Lesser Poland Małopolskie Kraków Łódź Łódzkie Łódź Lower Silesian Dolnośląskie Wrocław Lublin Lubelskie Lublin Lubusz Lubuskie Gorzów Wielkopolski / Zielona Góra Masovian Mazowieckie Warsaw Opole Opolskie Opole Podlachian Podlaskie Białystok Pomeranian Pomorskie Gdańsk Silesian Śląskie Katowice Subcarpathian Podkarpackie Rzeszów Świętokrzyskie Świętokrzyskie Kielce Warmian-Masurian Warmińsko-Mazurskie Olsztyn West Pomeranian Zachodniopomorskie Szczecin Economy Financial centre of Warsaw, Poland's capital and largest cityPoland is considered to have one of the healthiest economies of the post-communist countries, with GDP growing by 6.1% in 2006. Since the fall of communism, Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of liberalising the economy and today stands out as a successful example of the transition from a state-directed economy to a primarily privately owned market economy. The privatisation of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms have allowed the development of an aggressive private sector. As a consequence, consumer rights organizations have also appeared. Restructuring and privatisation of "sensitive sectors" such as coal, steel, railways, and energy has been continuing since 1990. Between 2007 and 2010, the government plans to float twenty public companies on the Polish stock market, including parts of the coal industry. To date (2007), the biggest privatisations have been the sale of the national telecoms firm Telekomunikacja Polska to France Telecom in 2000, and an issue of 30% of the shares in Poland's largest bank, PKO Bank Polski, on the Polish stockmarket in 2004. Poland has a large number of private farms in its agricultural sector, with the potential to become a leading producer of food in the European Union. Structural reforms in health care, education, the pension system, and state administration have resulted in larger-than-expected fiscal pressures. Warsaw leads Central Europe in foreign investment. GDP growth had been strong and steady from 1993 to 2000 with only a short slowdown from 2001 to 2002. Leopard sport-style car designed and produced in PolandThe prospect of closer integration with the European Union has put the economy back on track, with growth of 3.7% annually in 2003, a rise from 1.4% annually in 2002. In 2004, GDP growth equaled 5.4%, in 2005 3.3% and in 2006 6.2%. For 2007, the government has set a target for GDP growth at 6.5 to 7.0%. Although the Polish economy is currently undergoing economic development, there are many challenges ahead. The most notable task on the horizon is the preparation of the economy (through continuing deep structural reforms) to allow Poland to meet the strict economic criteria for entry into the European Single Currency (Euro). According to the minister of finance Jacek Rostowski Poland is likely to join ERM in 2009 and adopt Euro in 2012 or 2013.. Some businesses may accept the euro as payment. Average salaries in enterprise sector in April 2008 were 3137PLN (equals to 925 euro or 1434 US dollars) and growing sharply. Salaries varies between the regions: median wage in the capital city Warsaw was 4600 PLN (1200 euro or 2000 US dollars) while in Bialystok only 2400 (670 euro or 1000 US dollars). Since joining the European Union, many workers have left to work in other EU countries (particularly Ireland and the UK) because of high unemployment, which was the second-highest in the EU (14.2% in May 2006). However, with the rapid growth of the salaries, booming economy, strong value of Polish currency, and quickly decreasing unemployment (8% in March 2008) exodus of Polish workers seems to be over. In 2008 people who came back outnumbered thoses leaving the country. Commodities produced in Poland include: electronics, cars (including the luxurious Leopard car), buses (Autosan, Jelcz SA, Solaris, Solbus), helicopters (PZL Świdnik), transport equipment, locomotives, planes (PZL Mielec), ships, military engineering (including tanks, SPAAG systems), medicines (Polpharma, Polfa), food, clothes, glass, pottery (Bolesławiec), chemical products and others. Science, technology and education Education The education of Polish society was a goal of rulers as early as the 12th century, and Poland soon became one of the most educated European countries. The library catalogue of the Cathedral Chapter of Kraków dating back to 1110 shows that already in the early 12th century Polish intellectuals had access to the European literature. In 1364, in Kraków, the Jagiellonian University, founded by King Casimir III, became one of Europe's great early universities. In 1773 King Stanisław August Poniatowski established his Commission on National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), the world's first state ministry of education. Current situation Today Poland has more than a hundred tertiary education institutions; traditional universities to be found in its major cities of Białystok, Bydgoszcz, Gdańsk, Katowice, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Olsztyn, Opole, Poznań, Rzeszów, Szczecin, Toruń, Warsaw, Wrocław and Zielona Góra as well as technical, medical, economic institutions elsewhere, employing around 61,000 workers. There are also around 300 research and development institutes, with about 10,000 more researchers. In total, there are around 91,000 scientists in Poland today. According to Frost & Sullivan's Country Industry Forecast the country is becoming an interesting location for research and development investments. Multinational companies such as: ABB, Delphi, GlaxoSmithKline, Google, Hewlett–Packard, IBM, Intel, LG Electronics and Microsoft have set up R&D centres in Poland. Motorola in Kraków, Siemens in Wrocław and Samsung in Warszawa are one of the largest owned by those companies. Over 40 R&D centers, and 4,500 researchers make Poland the biggest R&D hub in Central and Eastern Europe. Companies chose Poland because of the availability of highly qualified labor force, presence of universities, support of authorities, and the largest market in Central Europe. According to KPMG report 80% of Poland's current investors are contented with their choice and willing to reinvest. In 2006 Intel decided to double the number of employees in its R&D centre. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Poland's education as the 23rd best in the world, being neither significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average. Telecommunication and IT For a more detailed treatment of this topic, see the subarticles Communications in Poland and Software development in Poland. The share of the telecom sector in the GDP is 4.4% (end of 2000 figure), compared to 2.5% in 1996. Nevertheless, despite high expenditures for telecom infrastructure (the coverage increased from 78 users per 1000 inhabitants in 1989 to 282 in 2000). The value of the telecommunication market is zl 38.2bn (2006), and it grew by 12.4% in 2007 PMR the coverage mobile cellular is over 1000 users per 1000 people (2007) Telephones—mobile cellular: 38.7 million (Onet.pl & GUS Report, 2007) Telephones—main lines in use: 12.5 million (Telecom Team Report, 2005) Culture Polish architecture: Main Market Square in Kraków. St Mary's Basilica (left), Sukiennice (centre), Town Hall Tower (right)Polish culture has been influenced by both Eastern and Western influences. Today, these influences are evident in Polish architecture, folklore, and art. Poland is the birthplace of some world famous individuals, including Pope John Paul II, Marie Skłodowska Curie, Kazimierz Pułaski, Nicolaus Copernicus and Frederic Chopin. The character of Polish art always reflected world trends. The famous Polish painter, Jan Matejko included many significant historical events in his paintings. Also a famous person in history of Polish art was Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz. He was an example of a Polish Renaissance Man. Polish literature dates back to 1100s and includes many famous poets and writers such as Jan Kochanowski, Adam Mickiewicz, Bolesław Prus, Juliusz Słowacki, Witold Gombrowicz, Stanisław Lem and, Ryszard Kapuściński. Writers Henryk Sienkiewicz, Władysław Reymont, Czesław Miłosz, Wisława Szymborska have each won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Many world renowned Polish movie directors include Academy Awards winners Roman Polański, Andrzej Wajda, Zbigniew Rybczyński, Janusz Kamiński and, Krzysztof Kieślowski. The traditional Polish music composers include world-renowned pianist Frederic Chopin as well as famous composers such as Krzysztof Penderecki, Henryk Mikołaj Górecki, Karol Szymanowski, and others. Notable foods in Polish cuisine include Polish sausage, red beet soup, Polish dumplings, flaczki (tripe soup), cabbage rolls, Oscypek, Polish pork chops, Polish traditional stew, various potato dishes, a fast food sandwich zapiekanka, and many more. Traditional Polish desserts include Polish doughnuts, Polish gingerbread and others. |
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