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英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| Poland Capital:warsaw Country Code: pl |
 波兰 波兰The Republic of Poland 波兰共和国 首都： 华沙 面积： 312,683.00 平方公里 同北京时差： -7.00 国际电话码： 48 人口： 3864.3万人(1996年) 语言： 波兰语 货币： Zloty兹罗提 民族： 波兰人占97.6%，德意志人占1.3%，乌克兰人0.6%，白俄罗斯人占0.5%。 宗教： 天主教占95%，东正教、基督教新教和其他教派占5%。 国花： 康乃馨（石竹科） 历史 早在6～10世纪中叶，西斯拉夫的原始公社就开始逐步解体，封建土地所有制产生。10世纪中叶，以格涅兹诺为中心的波兰部落逐渐统一了其它部落。皮亚斯特（Piastów）家族的梅什科一世（Mieszko I，约960～992在位）建立了早期封建国家。公元996年，波兰接受基督教。1025年，博莱斯瓦夫一世（Boleslaus I，992～1025在位）加冕为波兰国王，波兰成为一个强大而统一的国家。 封建国家的建立和统一时期（10－15世纪中叶） 12世纪中叶，博莱斯瓦夫三世（Boleslaus I，1102～1138在位）死后，由于王公、贵族和教会封建大土地所有制的发展和城市的兴起，全国分裂为几个公国，波兰进入封建割据时期，达200年之久。瓦迪斯瓦夫一世（Ladislaus I，1314～1333在位）统一大波兰、小波兰、库雅维，于1320年在克拉科夫加冕为波兰国王。卡吉米日三世（Kazimierz III Wielki，1333～1370在位）又统一了马佐夫舍。但是，西波莫瑞和东波莫瑞还分别为勃兰登堡和条顿骑士团占领。西里西亚则被波希米亚王室占领。为抵抗条顿骑士团的侵略，波兰王国和立陶宛大公国实行了王朝联合（1385），立陶宛大公瓦迪斯瓦夫二世•亚盖洛（Jagiellon）为波兰国王。1410年，波兰－立陶宛联军在格伦瓦尔德战役中，给了条顿骑士团以毁灭性打击。1466年，收复了东波莫瑞。 第一共和国时期（15世纪中叶－1795） 以格但斯克为中心的东波莫瑞的收复，刺激了波兰粮食的出口，贵族庄园纷纷建立劳役制庄园，从事商品粮食的生产。城镇出现手工工场。1505年，议会通过宪法，规定未经议会同意，国王无权颁布法律。从而削弱了王权，招致外来势力干预，面对莫斯科咄咄逼人的扩张势头，波兰王国和立陶宛大公国议会在卢布林通过了成立统一的波兰共和国的决议，首都从克拉科夫迁到华沙。波兰共和国成为一个多民族的农奴制国家，面积达31万平方公里，17世纪后半期，波兰的农奴制进入了危机阶段，1648年赫梅利尼茨基（Богдан Михайлович Хмельницкий），领导的哥萨克在乌克兰举行民族起义。统治阶级内部也分崩离析，1652年大贵族迫使议会通过自由否决权，1654年沙俄对波兰宣战，兼并了第聂伯河以东的乌克兰。北方战争初期、波兰被迫追随俄国参战。1655年波兰－瑞典战争爆发，波兰丢失部分领土。1733～1735年俄、奥与法、西、撒丁为争夺波兰进行了战争，严重破坏了波兰主权和国家经济。 波兰第一共和国的政治制度非常特别，在当时也是相当先进的，称为“贵族民主制”。这种制度有两根支柱，一个叫自由选王制，国王由贵族选举，凡不是贵族就没有民主权力；一个叫自由否决权，只要有一个议员反对，这项议案就不能通过。而真正的民主是基于少数服从多数的基础之上的，所以这种贵族民主造成了波兰极端的民主和无政府状态。这也导致了在有争议的议题上往往议而不决，从而导致国家意志得不到体现，这也是波兰最后衰亡的一个重要因素。 18世纪后半期，波兰生产关系中出现了资本主义萌芽，在西欧启蒙运动影响下，中小贵族和新兴资产阶级发起爱国革新运动，但受到俄国女皇叶卡捷琳娜二世（Екатерина II Алексеевна）武装干涉。1772年，俄国、普鲁士和奥地利对波兰进行了第一次瓜分。波兰人民在法国革命的影响下，把革新运动推向高潮。1791年5月3日，波兰四年议会通过了《五三宪法》（Konstytucja 3 Maja），取消自由否决权，这也是欧洲最早的宪法。叶卡捷琳娜二世再次对波兰进行武装干涉。1793年，俄普两国对波兰进行了第二次瓜分。1794年，波兰人民在民族英雄科希丘什科领导下举行起义，后被俄国镇压下去。1795年，俄、普、奥三国对波兰进行了第三次瓜分。 波兰的三次被瓜分 1772年5月，沙皇俄国、普鲁士、奥地利三国在彼得堡会谈，于8月5日签署第一次瓜分波兰的条约。据此，波兰丧失了约35%的领土和33%的人口，波兰成为俄、普、奥的保护国。1793年1月23日，俄、普在彼得堡签订第二次瓜分波兰的协定，经第二次瓜分，波兰成为仅剩领土20万平方公里，人口400万的小国，成为沙俄的傀儡国，波兰国王未经沙皇许可，不得与外国宣战与媾和。 1795年1月3日，俄、奥签订第三次瓜分波兰的协定，10月24日，普鲁土也在协定上签署。根据该协定，波兰领土被全部瓜分。“俄国吞并了立陶宛、库尔兰、西白俄罗斯和沃伦西部，把边界推进到涅曼河—布格河一线，共12万平方公里，人口120万；奥地利占领了包括克拉科夫、卢布林在内的全部小波兰和一部分玛佐夫舍地区，共4.75万平方公里，人口150万；普鲁士夺得其余的西部地区、华沙、其于部分的玛佐夫舍地区，共5.5万平方公里，人口100万。”至此，存在了800多年的波兰国家灭亡了。概括在三次瓜分波兰的过程中，沙俄夺占的领土约占原波兰领土的62%，共约46万多平方公里；普鲁士夺占约20%，共约14.11万平方公里；奥地利夺占约18%，共约12.18万平方公里。经史了这三次瓜分之后，波兰亡国，波兰就从欧洲地图上消失长达123多年。 外族统治时期（1795～1918） 1809年拿破仑一世（Napoléon Bonaparte）在波兰中部建立华沙公国（Księstwo Warszawskie），拿破仑失败后，华沙公国被肢解，其西部土地成为波兹南公国（Wielkie Księstwo Poznańskie），受普鲁士管辖；在克拉科夫成立了中立的克拉科夫共和国（也叫克拉科夫自由市，Rzeczpospolita Krakowska，或者 Wolne Miasto Kraków）；在其主要地区成立了波兰王国（Królestwo Kongresowe），由俄国沙皇兼领国王。1830年11月29日，一批贵族青年在华沙举行起义，结果失败。1846年克拉科夫起义也遭失败，克拉科夫被并入奥地利。1848年波兰人民又一次掀起革命，迫使普奥当局废除农奴制度。1863年 1月的起义遍及波兰王国、立陶宛和白俄罗斯西部。1864年3月2日，沙皇政府不得不颁布解放农奴的法令。 1864年后，波兰王国的资本主义有了很大发展，19世纪七八十年代，完成产业革命。从80年代起，先后成立了波兰国家民主党、波兰无产阶级党、波兰社会党和波兰王国社会民主党（后改名为波兰王国和立陶宛社会民主党）。第一次世界大战期间，国家民主党投靠俄国，社会党右派投靠奥、德，只有社会民主党和社会党左派坚决反对战争。 第二共和国时期（1918－1939） 第一次世界大战进行到1917年，俄国爆发了十月革命，1918年8月29日，苏俄政府颁布法令，宣布废除沙俄与普、奥签订的关于瓜分波兰的一切条约，承认波兰人民享有“独立和统一的不可否认的权利”。与此同时，1916年11月，德国政府许诺建立“独立的波兰国家”，12月底，德、奥成立了“波兰临时国务会议”，并在波兰青年中征兵，社会党人毕苏斯基（Józef Klemens Piłsudski，1867—1935）被任命为临时国务会议的军政部长。1918年10、11月，奥匈帝国和德国趋于崩解，从而为波兰的复国形成了有利的国际条件。10月28日，奥占区的波兰爱国者在克拉科夫成立了“波兰清算委员会”。11月7日，社会民主党人在卢布林成立了波兰共和国临时人民政府。10月23日，华沙组成了波兰政府，11月11日，该政府由毕苏茨基领导。卢布林政府和克拉科夫的清算委员会也宣布接受毕苏茨基领导。11月18日，毕苏茨基在华沙组成联合政府，他成为波兰共和国的国家元首。这样，自1795年波兰被瓜分灭亡以来，历经123年，至1918年11月恢复独立，重建祖国。 1919年12月8日，协约国最高委员会在巴黎和会上通过决议，同意重建波兰国家，承认波兰共和国，并建议在俄波之间划一临时分界线，即沿着格罗德诺、布列斯特、赫鲁别舒夫、普热米代尔、直到喀尔巴阡山一线。然而，波兰政府力图恢复1772年的俄波边界线，为此，新成立的波兰共和国就发动了对也是新诞生的社会主义国家苏维埃俄国的战争，史称苏波战争。1920年4月，波军进占乌克兰和白俄罗斯广大地区，苏俄红军进行反击，但最后被波军击败，波兰军队虽然取得了最后军事上的胜利，但是自己也力不胜任的战争弄得民穷财尽，最后双方同意媾和。7月12日，英国外交大臣寇松（George Nathaniel Curzon，1859—1925）代表协约国致电苏俄建议停火，停火线大体是巴黎和会决议中规定的分界线，故称“寇松线”。7月22日，波兰要求停战。1921年3月18日，波兰与苏俄在里加正式签订《波兰与俄罗斯和乌克兰和平条约》，即《里加条约》。其主要内容是：缔约双方承认乌克兰和白俄罗斯的独立，划定了波兰东部边界（将乌克兰和白俄罗斯的西部地区划归波兰），这时波俄边界线约在寇松线以东150英里处。根据该条约，波兰获得西乌克兰和西白俄罗斯以及立陶宛的一部分，苏俄在这场战争中损失了大片领土，这也为二战时苏联和德国分割波兰埋下了伏笔。由《里加条约》确定的波俄（苏）边界一直保持到1939年9月17日。另外，根据1919年巴黎和会决议，波兰获得了东波莫瑞和波兹南地区，但泽（后波兰改为格但斯克）被辟为国际自由市，西里西亚的大部分仍归德国，波兰领土面积共38.8万平方公里。1921年 3月，议会通过宪法，波兰成为议会制共和国，史称波兰第二共和国。 1926年 5月，毕苏斯基发动军事政变并上台，自任总理，在波兰境内实行独裁统治，逮捕议会中反对他的人，宣传法西斯主义。另外，他积极和纳粹德国的元首希特勒（Adolf Hitler）合作，签定了《波德互不侵犯条约》。1938年，波兰共产党被解散，党的主要领导人也被害。 第二次世界大战时期（1939－1944） 从1938年10月起，希特勒向波兰提出波兰走廊的问题，并向波兰发出战争威胁。1939年8月23日，苏德签订了互不侵犯条约和划分势力范围的秘密议定书（苏联一直否认该秘密议定书的存在）。1939年9月1日，德国以闪电战突袭波兰，迅速侵占波兰大部分领土，波兰军民英勇抗战。9月17日，波兰政府逃亡国外，先在巴黎组成了以西科尔斯基（Władysław Eugeniusz Sikorski）将军为首的流亡政府。法国战败后，1940年，流亡政府迁往英国。与此同时，9月17日，苏联领导人斯大林（Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин）为了建立东方防线，命令60万苏联红军越过苏波边界，进入波兰东部，占领了西乌克兰和西白俄罗斯。9月18日，苏军与德军在布列斯特—立托夫斯克会师，德、苏两军以皮萨河—那累夫河—维斯瓦河—桑河一线为界分割了波兰。9月28日，德军攻陷华沙，波兰再次沦亡。波兰人民开始了反法西斯民族解放战争。 1941年德国进攻苏联，并全部占领了波兰领土，而后苏联与波兰流亡政府建立外交关系。 1942年，流亡政府在国内建立了国民军，同年，苏联支持的波兰共产党人建立了波兰工人党和人民军，在地下同纳粹占领军展开了艰苦卓绝的斗争。为此，许多人付出了珍贵的生命。1943年，由于发生了卡廷森林事件，流亡政府和再次和苏联断交。 随着战争形势的发展，苏军的反攻将战线逐渐推进到波兰境内。1944年元旦，在工人党的倡议下，成立了全国人民代表会议，由贝鲁特（Bolesław Bierut）任主席。1944年7月22日，全国人民代表会议在海乌姆组成了波兰民族解放委员会，颁布了具有历史意义的《七月宣言》，宣告波兰新国家诞生。 1944年8月，苏联红军推进到了华沙的近郊，在英国的流亡政府为了在新生的波兰国家权利机构中获得更大的利益，就命令在华沙的地下国民军发起起义，这就是著名的华沙起义。由于斯大林认为，这种不负责任的做法不应得到同情，从而苏军并没有给予华沙城内起义军太多的支持，在纳粹德军的血腥镇压下，起义失败，疯狂的希特勒下令将华沙夷为平地，许多珍贵的文物古迹遭到毁坏，大部分华沙人也被送入死亡集中营。事后证明，苏联应为华沙起义的失败负有一定道义上的责任。1945年1月17日，苏波军队解放了已成为废墟的华沙。4月，波苏两国签订了友好互助与经济合作条约。6月，波兰民族解放委员会改组为临时民族统一政府。 根据雅尔塔和波茨坦会议的决定，确定了波兰东、西部边界，东部以寇松线为波苏边界，西部波德边界则向西推移至奥德－尼斯河，并把什切青和施维诺威斯划入边界的波兰一侧。这样，波兰的版图整体西移了200多公里，面积也比战前缩小了约7.6万平方公里，大约是损失了20%的领土。 在二战中，波兰人民为反法西斯战争作出了巨大的牺牲，大约有600万波兰军人和平民在这场战争中丧生。在波兰境内发现了许多纳粹屠杀犹太人和其他平民的集中营，其中最著名的是奥斯维辛（Auschwitz）集中营。在所有参战国中，若按人口比例来计算的话，波兰是死伤最惨重的国家。 人民共和国时期（1944～1989） 1947年，波兰举行议会选举，苏联支持的贝鲁特当选为总统，社会党人西伦凯维兹（Józef Cyrankiewicz）任政府总理，波兰走上了社会主义的发展道路，西方的流亡政府基本被排斥在权利中心之外。1948年12月，波兰工人党和波兰社会党合并，成立了波兰统一工人党（Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza， PZPR）。贝鲁特任总书记。人民政府把大中工业、交通运输、银行收归国有，实行了土地改革，动员人民完成恢复国民经济的三年计划（1947～1949），国家经济状况和人民生活有了改善，1949年10月7日，波兰同新生的中华人民共和国建立了外交关系。从1950年起，波兰开始执行发展国民经济的六年计划（1950～1955）。 1952年，波兰改国号为波兰人民共和国（Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa，PRL），并通过波兰人民共和国宪法，萨瓦茨基（Aleksander Zawadzki）当选国务委员会主席，贝鲁特被任命为部长会议主席。1956年 3月，贝鲁特病逝于莫斯科，奥哈布（Edward Ochab）继任第一书记。 但波兰的社会结构、政治和文化传统、宗教信仰以及资本主义经济的发展，都说明在波兰建立社会主义具有先天不足的缺陷。但以贝鲁特为首的波兰政府的教条主义者还是全盘接受了苏联模式的社会主义。依据苏联模式，波兰制定了把发展重工业放在首位，按“重—轻—农”的顺序进行工业化的经济发展战略，结果使国民经济比例严重失调，重工业片面发展，农业长期落后，物价飞涨，货币贬值，人民生活水平下降。 苏联模式的严重缺陷加上波兰人内心深处的反俄叛逆心理，宗教、自由主义的传统和波党执政的失误、官僚腐败现象盛行等等综合因素，使得社会主义在波兰的执行显得异常艰难，导致波兰成为二战后东方社会主义阵营中最不安定的国家。 1956年，苏联最高领导人赫鲁晓夫（Никита Сергеевич Хрущев）的“非斯大林化”，给整个社会主义东方阵营都带来了巨大的冲击，波兰就在当时发生了著名的波兹南事件。当年6月，波兰西部工业城市波兹南的斯大林机车厂的工人，在要求增加工资、减少税收的经济要求被当局拒绝后，于是在1956年6月28日，波兹南市爆发了十万人的示威活动。后来演变成警察和工人的枪战。坦克和保安部队也参加了对工人的镇压。据统计，仅一天的冲突骚乱，就有54人死亡，2000多人受伤，另有300多人被捕。为了平息业已非常严峻的局势，当局采取了妥协了立场。6月30日，当局采取一些缓和矛盾的措施：原机械工业部部长被降职；向斯大林机车车辆厂征收的税款将分期还给该厂工人；为事件中的受难者举行安葬仪式等，骚动遂平息下去。 1956年8月4日，波兰统一工人党决定撤销1949年11月对原波共领导哥穆尔卡（Władysław Gomułka）等人的批判和谴责，并将其从监狱里释放出来。同年10月19日，哥穆尔卡当选为中央委员。在苏波两党会谈中，哥穆尔卡反对苏联对波兰内政的干涉和压力，坚持走“波兰自己的道路”。10月21日，当选为党中央第一书记。同年10月举行的党的二届八中全会上哥穆尔卡当选为第一书记，1956～1960年的五年计划，把发展消费品生产和农业，提高人民生活水平作为主要任务。会议对以前的方针政策进行了批评，提出克服“官僚主义和教条主义”、“加强法制和政治生活民主化”，发展经济，“更快地改善人民生活”的新方针。但由于苏联模式的严重缺陷无法根本克服，在以后的两个五年计划（1961～1970）期间，国民经济比例依然严重失调。 1970年12月，波兰又一次面临危机。格但斯克（原但泽市）等沿海城市的工人、学生、市民抗议政府提高食品和日用品的价格，举行罢工，并导致了一场严重的社会骚动，后来发展成流血冲突。在12月20日举行的五届七中全会上﹐解除哥穆尔卡第一书记职务﹐由盖莱克（Edward Gierek）继任党的第一书记。西伦凯维兹改任国务委员会主席，由雅罗谢维奇任部长会议主席。 70年代，是波兰战后经济发展最快的时期，盖莱克政府踌躇满志地推行闻名于世“高速度、高积累、高消费”的所谓“三高政策”，大量引进外资，大上建设项目，大幅度提高人民生活水平。波兰一派欣欣向荣。然而，欲速不达，在表面繁荣的背后，70年代末，政府各种补贴达到财政预算的40%，外债高达260亿美元。进入80年代，政府不得不采取冻结工资和部分商品提价的措施以避免危机，长期习惯于计划价格的波兰人毫无心理准备。当政府在1980年7月宣布“议价商店”肉类价格提高40-60%的时候，群众的不满引发了全国性的罢工。 同年9月，波兰统一工人党的八届六中全会解除盖莱克第一书记的职务，由卡尼亚（Stanislaw Kania）继任。10月，一个在当时声名显赫的工会组织，也是东欧第一个独立的工会组织——团结工会（Solidarność）出现了，瓦文萨（Lech Wałęsa）当选为当时团结工会的领导人。团结工会领导的罢工运动最初采取和平方式，并承认社会主义是波兰的政治基础，承认统一工人党的领导作用和与苏联结盟。1981年在格但斯克举行第一次全国代表大会，决定成立全国委员会取代全国协商委员会，通过新的政治纲领，要求在波兰实行多元化，建立“自治共和国”。称团结工会是波兰改革的主力，工会纲领中未提到社会主义及统一工人党的领导作用。在罢工运动中，工会提出要有自己的报刊、有自由出版权，要“自下而上夺权”。工会与政府分庭抗礼。 1981年统一工人党的九届四中全会上，卡尼亚辞职，雅鲁泽尔斯基（Wojciech Jaruzelski）当选为党中央第一书记。1981年12月13日波兰宣布进入战时状态，团结工会被取缔，瓦文萨等工会领导人被拘禁，部分工会骨干转入地下活动。工会内部分成两派，以瓦文萨为首的缓和派主张避免同政府发生正面冲突，提倡协商对话；激进派则主张通过暴力推翻政府。随之社会上也发生重大分化，原支持团结工会的人转向支持政府。1982年2月议会通过新的工会法，要求重建新的工会。1982年2月议会通过新的工会法，要求重建新的工会，1983年7月战时状态结束。1984年波兰宣布大赦，而瓦文萨等人则努力为使团结工会合法化而斗争。波兰局势进入了短暂的稳定期。 第三共和国时期（1989至今） 从1986年开始，由于苏联的戈尔巴乔夫（Михаил Сергеевич Горбачёв）的内外政策开始采用向右转的“新思维”，并给东欧国家松绑，苏联和东欧的局势开始动荡。1988年波兰政府的价格改革引起群众不满。1989年2至4月，波兰统一工人党与团结工会等反对派举行圆桌会议（Rozmowy Okrągłego Stołu），经讨论，统一工人党同意团结工会合法。6月波兰举行全国大选，团结工会获99%的参议院席位。9月12日团结工会的马佐维耶茨基（Tadeusz Mazowiecki）组成以团结工会为主导，包括统一农民党和民主党的联合政府。原统一工人党领导人雅鲁泽尔斯基出任首任总统，任期6年。同年12月29日，议会通过宪法修正案，决定改国名为波兰共和国，红底戴王冠的白鹰恢复为波兰的国徽。史称波兰第三共和国。波兰正式走上了政治上奉行西方式的议会民主，经济上实行以私有化为基础的市场经济的发展道路。 不久，雅鲁泽尔斯基辞去波兰统一工人党总书记职务，瓦文萨及支持者宣称圆桌会议协议已经过时，要求总统辞职，举行新总统和议会大选。1990年1月27日，波兰的统一工人党召开十一大，宣布党停止活动，一个执政45年，曾拥有近300万党员的大党就这样解散了。1990年瓦文萨提出竞选总统，遭马佐维耶茨基的政府派反对。团结工会内部分裂为支持瓦文萨的中间派协议会和支持马佐维耶茨基的公民运动民主行动会。 1990年11月举行大选，瓦文萨在第二轮投票中当选总统。他提出“建设自由、民主、富裕的新共和国”，经济上发展以私有制为基础的市场经济，取消对土地自由买卖的限制和对外政策强调向整个欧洲和世界开放等。 从此，波兰实现了政权的更迭和政治制度的改变，并开始向西方靠拢。1995年，瓦文萨在总统竞选时输给克瓦希涅夫斯基。在经济上，波兰的转轨带来了阵痛。但波兰依然成为东欧国家中经济转轨最成功的几个国家之一，实现了经济的稳步增长。1999年，波兰加入北大西洋公约组织，2004年，波兰和其他10个欧洲国家一道加入了欧洲联盟。 自然地理 波兰面积为３１万多平方公里。位于中欧东北部，北濒波罗的海，西邻德国，南界捷克、斯洛伐克，东北和东南与白俄罗斯和乌克兰、立陶宛相连。海岸线长５２８公里。全境绝大部分为略有起伏的低平原（平均海拔173米），北低南高，北部多冰碛湖，南部有低丘陵，靠近捷边境为苏台德山和贝斯基德山。地势北低南高，中部下凹。海拔２００米以下的平原约占全国面积的７２％。主要山脉有喀尔巴阡山脉和苏台德山脉。较大河流有维斯瓦河（长１０４７公里）和奥得河（波兰境内长７４２公里）。全国99.7％属波罗的海流域，其中维斯瓦河流域占二分之一，奥得河流域占三分之一。最大的湖泊是希尼亚尔德维湖，面积１０９．７平方公里。全境属于由海洋性向大陆性气候过渡的温带阔叶林气候，自西而东，自北而南，海洋性渐减，大陆性递增，年降水量450-800毫米，南部山区可超过1，000毫米。森林占国土 28％。 人口 ３８６３．２万（２００１年底），主要民族是波兰人（９８％），其余为乌克兰、白俄罗斯、立陶宛、俄罗斯、德意志和犹太等少数民族。全国约９０％以上的居民信奉罗马天主教。官方语言为波兰语。 首都 华沙（Warsaw），人口１６１.５万（２００１年），年平均气温９.６℃。 行政区划 １９９８年７月，波兰众议院通过一项决议，将全国４９个省改为１６个省，同时重新设立县制，由目前的省、乡两级改为省、县、乡三级，共设１６个省，３０８个县，２４８９个乡。１０月，全国举行了三级地方自治机构选举。新机制于１９９９年１月１日启动。 政治 １９９７年５月，全民公决通过新宪法，１０月１７日，新宪法生效，它取代了１９５２年的宪法。新宪法确立了三权分立的政治制度和以社会市场经济为主的经济体制，规定：众议院和参议院拥有立法权，总统和政府拥有执法权，法院和法庭行使司法权；波经济体制的基础为经济自由化、私有制等原则；波武装力量在国家政治事务中保持中立。新宪法保证公民权和经济自由权，加强了中央银行的独立性，削弱了总统的权力，议会得到下院３／５的票数就能推翻总统的否决，赋予宪法法院强有力的权力，议会不再有权否决宪法法院的裁决。总统选举法规定，如某一候选人在第一轮选举中的得票率超过有效选票的５０％，即可当选；如无一人达到５０％，则由获选票最多的前两名进入第二轮继续竞选，得票较多者当选。总统任期５年，可连任一届。总统府——贝尔维德宫。 经济 工业发达。采矿业以煤及褐煤最重要，煤炭储量居欧洲前列。主要矿产有煤、硫磺、铜、锌、铅、铝、银等。２０００年硬煤储量为４５３.６２亿吨，褐煤１３９.８４亿吨，硫磺５.０４亿吨，铜２４.８５亿吨。琥珀储量丰富，价值约近千亿美元，是世界琥珀生产大国，有几百年开采琥珀的历史。工业以采煤、机器制造、造船、汽车和钢铁为主。２００１年有农业用地１８３９万公顷。耕地占国土面积50％左右。主要作物为各种麦类和马铃薯、甜菜等。牲畜主要养牛、猪和羊。２００１年农村人口占全国人口的３８.３％。农业就业人数占就业总数的２８.３％。出口以工矿产品（煤、褐煤、焦炭、船舶、车辆等）为大宗；进口以石油制品、铁矿石、棉花和粮食为主。波兰是世界十大旅游国之一。气候宜人的波罗的海港湾，风景旖旎的喀尔巴阡山区，巧夺天工的维利奇卡盐矿每年都吸引无数游客慕名前来。这里的人懂得森林是保护生态环境的主角，因此他们爱林如命。波兰的森林面积为８８９万多公顷，森林覆盖率近３０％。初到波兰的人，常常会被这诗情画意般的绿色世界所陶醉。旅游业已成为波兰外汇收入的主要来源。主要城市有罗兹、波兹南、克拉科夫、什切青、格但斯克等。 文化 提起波兰，人们自然会想到肖邦和居里夫人。肖邦是波兰人引以为骄傲的伟大作曲家和钢琴家。华沙举办的五年一度的肖邦国际钢琴大赛，吸引着全世界好手角逐，成为国际音乐界的顶级盛事。出生于华沙的居里夫人是世界上第一个两次获得诺贝尔奖的女科学家，她为人类揭开原子的奥秘作出了巨大贡献。 新闻出版 波兰报刊实行私有化以来，报刊发行情况变化不定。２００１年底全国出版发行的报刊杂志５８３７种，其中主要报刊有：《选举报》，是波兰发行量最大的日报；《共和国报》。此外，还有《论坛报》、《政治》周刊、《直言》周刊、《NEWSWEEK》等。国家主要通讯社有波兰通讯社、波兰国际新闻社。国家主要电台和电视台是波兰广播电台和波兰电视台。１９９０年１０月，波兰众议院通过关于允许开办私营电台和电视台的法令。目前波兰有近１８０家私营广播电台和２６家私营电视台。 与中华人民共和国关系 １９４９年１０月７日，中国和波兰建立大使级外交关系。中波两国有着传统的友好关系，早在１９５０年两国就签署了第一个政府间贸易协定。近年来，中波关系在相互尊重、平等互利、互不干涉内政的原则基础上稳步发展，中波经贸关系也有了长足的进展，２００３年两国的贸易额达１９．８亿美元。也许它是世界上最奇怪的一个超级反华的国家。1919巴黎和会:波兰人挺日反华。读过《顾维钧回忆录》，对波兰政府的鄙视无以复加：1919年巴黎和会，日本想把一战中趁火打劫搞到的山东权益合法化，顾维钧在会上慷慨激昂据理力争，各中小国家则在公开或私下场合对中国表示同情。英美法意各大国一时也有所顾忌。只有一个国家的代表公然跳出来，发表演讲，支持日本对山东的要求，反对中国－－波兰。2008年3月，波兰总理宣布将不参加北京奥运会开幕式而代之会见达 赖。中国自古跟波兰就无冤无仇可不知怎么搞的无论是北洋政府时代还是中华民国还是现在，波兰总喜欢跟中国过不起。历史上波兰从来在中国的反面。波兰这个国家做什么其他的不要紧，可是这个国家对中国一向仇视——不管国民党政府，还是中 共时期这样仇视中国的国家。１９９７年１１月，克瓦希涅夫斯基总统对中国进行国事访问，这是近４０年来波兰国家元首首次对中国进行国事访问。２００４年６月，胡锦涛主席对波兰进行国事访问，双方签署了联合声明 。 中国关系 四川汶川大地震发生后，旅波华人华侨、在波中资机构和留学生时刻牵挂着灾区同胞的安危，纷纷踊跃向灾区捐款，以表达对大地震遇难同胞的哀思、对受灾人员的诚挚慰问，为祖国的抗震救灾贡献自己的绵薄之力。 截至5月21日，驻波兰使馆收到捐款折合人民币99.3642万。目前捐款活动仍在继续。 四川汶川大地震发生后，旅波华人华侨、在波中资机构和留学生时刻牵挂着灾区同胞的安危，纷纷踊跃向灾区捐款，以表达对大地震遇难同胞的哀思、对受灾人员的诚挚慰问，为祖国的抗震救灾贡献自己的绵薄之力 The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity by its ruler Mieszko I in 966 (see Baptism of Poland), when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. Poland became a kingdom in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by uniting to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth collapsed in 1795, and its territory was partitioned among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I but lost it again in World War II, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, and emerged several years later as a socialist republic within the Eastern Bloc under strong Soviet influence. In 1989 communist rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic". Poland is a unitary state made up of sixteen voivodeships (Polish: województwo). Poland is also a member of the European Union, NATO and OECD. Poland’s territory extends across several geographical regions. In the northwest is the Baltic seacoast, which extends from the Bay of Pomerania to the Gulf of Gdansk. This coast is marked by several spits, coastal lakes (former bays that have been cut off from the sea), and dunes. The largely straight coastline is indented by the Szczecin Lagoon, the Bay of Puck, and the Vistula Lagoon. The center and parts of the north lie within the Northern European Lowlands. Rising gently above these lowlands is a geographical region comprising the four hilly districts of moraines and moraine-dammed lakes formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. These lake districts are the Pomeranian Lake District, the Greater Polish Lake District, the Kashubian Lake District, and the Masurian Lake District. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four and covers much of northeastern Poland. The lake districts form part of the Baltic Ridge, a series of moraine belts along the southern shore of the Baltic Sea. South of the Northern European Lowlands lie the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by broad ice-age river valleys. Farther south lies the Polish mountain region, including the Sudetes, the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, the Świętokrzyskie Mountains, and the Carpathian Mountains, including the Beskids. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra Mountains, along Poland’s southern border. Rivers The longest rivers are the Vistula (Polish: Wisła), 1,047 km (678 miles) long; the Oder (Polish: Odra) – which forms part of Poland’s western border – 854 km (531 miles) long; its tributary, the Warta, 808 km (502 miles) long; and the Bug – a tributary of the Vistula – 772 km (480 miles) long. The Vistula and the Oder flow into the Baltic Sea, as do numerous smaller rivers in Pomerania. The Łyna and the Angrapa flow by way of the Pregolya to the Baltic, and the Czarna Hańcza flows into the Baltic through the Neman. While the great majority of Poland’s rivers drain into the Baltic Sea, Poland’s Beskids are the source of some of the upper tributaries of the Orava, which flows via the Váh and the Danube to the Black Sea. The eastern Beskids are also the source of some streams that drain through the Dniester to the Black Sea. Poland’s rivers have been used since early times for navigation. The Vikings, for example, traveled up the Vistula and the Oder in their longships. In the Middle Ages and in early modern times, when Poland-Lithuania was the breadbasket of Europe, the shipment of grain and other agricultural products down the Vistula toward Gdańsk and onward to eastern Europe took on great importance. For an overview of Polish rivers, see Category:Rivers of Poland. Geology Granite crags of the High TatrasThe geological structure of Poland has been shaped by the continental collision of Europe and Africa over the past 60 million years, on the one hand, and the Quaternary glaciations of northern Europe, on the other. Both processes shaped the Sudetes and the Carpathians. The moraine landscape of northern Poland contains soils made up mostly of sand or loam, while the ice-age river valleys of the south often contain loess. The Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, the Pieniny, and the Western Tatras consist of limestone, while the High Tatras, the Beskids, and the Karkonosze are made up mainly of granite and basalts. The Kraków-Częstochowa Upland is one of the oldest mountain ranges on earth. Mountains and topography The Pieniny in the CarpathiansPoland has 21 mountains over 2,000 metres (6,561 ft) in elevation, all in the High Tatras. The Polish Tatras, which consist of the High Tatras and the Western Tatras, is the highest mountain group of Poland and of the entire Carpathian range. In the High Tatras lies Poland’s highest point, the northwestern peak of Rysy, 2,499 metres (8,199 ft) in elevation. At its foot lies the mountain lake, the Morskie Oko. The second-highest mountain group in Poland is the Beskids, whose highest peak is Babia Góra, at 1,725 metres (5,659 ft). The next highest mountain group is the Karkonosze, whose highest point is Śnieżka, at 1,602 metres (5,256 ft). Among the most beautiful mountains of Poland are the Bieszczady Mountains in the far southeast of Poland, whose highest point in Poland is Tarnica, with an elevation of 1,346 metres (4,416 ft). Tourists also frequent the Gorce Mountains in Gorce National Park, with elevations around 1,300 metres (4,300 ft), and the Pieniny in Pieniny National Park, with elevations around 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The lowest point in Poland—at 2 metres (7 ft) below sea level—is at Raczki Elbląskie, near Elbląg in the Vistula Delta. For a list of the most important mountain ranges of Poland, see the Category:Mountain ranges of Poland. Lakes Rożnowskie Lake, near Rożnów in southeastern PolandWith almost ten thousand closed bodies of water covering more than one hectare (2.47 acres) each, Poland has one of the highest numbers of lakes in the world. In Europe, only Finland has a greater density of lakes. The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometers (38.6 square miles), are Lake Śniardwy and Lake Mamry in Masuria, as well as Lake Łebsko and Lake Drawsko in Pomerania. In addition to the lake districts in the north (in Masuria, Pomerania, Kashubia, Lubuskie, and Greater Poland), there is also a large number of mountain lakes in the Tatras, of which the Morskie Oko is the largest in area. The lake with the greatest depth—of more than 100 metres (328 ft) —is Lake Hańcza in the Wigry Lake District, east of Masuria in Podlaskie Voivodship. Among the first lakes whose shores were settled are those in the Greater Polish Lake District. The stilt house settlement of Biskupin, occupied by more than one thousand residents, was founded before the seventh century BC by people of the Lusatian culture. The ancestors of today’s Poles, the Polanie, built their first fortresses on islands in these lakes. The legendary Prince Popiel is supposed to have ruled from Kruszwica on Lake Gopło. The first historically documented ruler of Poland, Duke Mieszko I, had his palace on an island in the Warta River in Poznań. For the most important lakes of Poland, see the Category:Lakes of Poland. The coast Dunes in Słowiński National ParkThe Polish Baltic coast is approximately 528 kilometres (328 miles) long and extends from Świnoujście on the islands of Usedom and Wolin in the west to Krynica Morska on the Vistula Spit in the east. For the most part, Poland has a smooth coastline, which has been shaped by the continual movement of sand by currents and winds from west to east. This continual erosion and deposition has formed cliffs, dunes, and spits, many of which have migrated landwards to close off former lagoons, such as Łebsko Lake in Słowiński National Park. The largest spits are Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Spit. The largest Polish Baltic island is Wolin. The largest port cities are Gdynia, Gdańsk, Szczecin, and Świnoujście. The main coastal resorts are Sopot, Międzyzdroje, Kołobrzeg, Łeba, Władysławowo, and the Hel Peninsula. The Desert Błędów Desert, the only desert in PolandBłędów Desert is a desert located in Southern Poland in the Silesian Voivodeship and stretches over the Zagłębie Dąbrowskie region. It has a total area of 32 km². It is the only desert located in Poland. It is one of only five natural deserts in Europe. It is the warmest desert that appears at this latitude. It was created thousands of years ago by a melting glacier. The specific geological structure has been of big importance - the average thickness of the sand layer is about 40 meters (maximum 70 m), which made the fast and deep drainage very easy. In recent years the desert has started to shrink. The phenomenon of mirages has been known to exist there. Land use The patchwork landscape of MasuriaForests cover 28% of Poland’s land area. More than half of the land is devoted to agriculture. While the total area under cultivation is declining, the remaining farmland is more intensively cultivated. More than 1% of Poland’s territory — 3,145 square kilometres (1,214 square miles) — is protected within 23 national parks. In this respect, Poland ranks first in Europe. Three more national parks are projected for Masuria, the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, and the eastern Beskids. Most Polish national parks are located in the southern part of the country. In addition, wetlands along lakes and rivers in central Poland are legally protected, as are coastal areas in the north. There are also over 120 areas designated as landscape parks, and numerous nature reserves and other protected areas. Flora and fauna A wisent in the Białowieża ForestPhytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Poland can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Baltic mixed forests, Central European mixed forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests. Many animals that have since died out in other parts of Europe still survive in Poland, such as the wisent in the ancient woodland of the Białowieża Forest and in Podlachia. Other such species include the brown bear in Białowieża, in the Tatras, and in the Beskids, the gray wolf and the Eurasian lynx in various forests, the moose in northern Poland, and the beaver in Masuria, Pomerania, and Podlachia. In the forests, one also encounters game animals, such as red deer, roe deer, and boars. In eastern Poland there are a number of ancient woodlands, like Białowieża, that have never been cleared by people. There are also large forested areas in the mountains, Masuria, Pomerania, and Lower Silesia. Family of White stork, a national bird in PolandPoland is the most important breeding ground for European migratory birds. Out of all of the migratory birds who come to Europe for the summer, one quarter breed in Poland, particularly in the lake districts and the wetlands along the Biebrza, the Narew, and the Warta, which are part of nature reserves or national parks. In Masuria, there are villages in which storks outnumber people. Climate The climate is mostly temperate throughout the country. The climate is oceanic in the north and west and becomes gradually warmer and continental as one moves south and east. Summers are generally warm, with average temperatures between 20 °C (68 °F) and 27 °C (80,6 °F). Winters are cold, with average temperatures around 3 °C (37,4 °F) in the northwest and –8 °C (17,6 °F) in the northeast. Precipitation falls throughout the year, although, especially in the east; winter is drier than summer. The warmest region in Poland is Lesser Poland located in Southern Poland where temperatures in the summer average between 23 °C (73,4 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F) but can go as high as 32 °C (89,6 °F) to 38 °C (100,4 °F) on some days in the warmest month of the year July. The warmest city in Poland is Tarnów. The city is located in Lesser Poland; it is the hottest place in Poland all year round. The average temperatures being 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer and 4 °C (39,2 °F) in the winter. Tarnów also has the longest summer in Poland spreading from mid May to mid September. Also it has the shortest winter in Poland which often lasts from January to March, less than the regular three-month winter. The coldest region of Poland is in the Northeast in the Podlachian Voivodeship near the border of Belarus. The climate is efficient due to cold fronts which come from Scandinavia and Siberia. The average temperature in the winter in Podlachian ranges from -15 °C (5 °F) to -4 °C ( 24,8 °F). Demographics Three generations in West Pomerania after World War II: Pomnik Czynu Polaków, SzczecinPoland, with 38.5 million inhabitants, has the eighth-largest population in Europe and the sixth-largest in the European Union. It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometer (328 per square mile). Poland historically contained many languages, cultures and religions on its soil. The country had a particularly large Jewish population prior to the Second World War, when the Nazi Holocaust caused Poland's Jewish population, estimated at 3 million before the war, to drop to just 300,000. The outcome of the war, particularly the westward shift of Poland's borders to the area between the Curzon line and the Oder-Neisse line, coupled with post-war expulsion of minorities, gave Poland an appearance of homogeneity. As of 2002, 36,983,700 people, or 96.74% of the population consider themselves Polish (Census 2002), while 471,500 (1.23%) declared another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. The largest nationalities and ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language, a member of the West Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, functions as the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken. In recent years, Poland's population has decreased because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a slight rise on the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, a significant number of Poles have emigrated to Western European countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany and Ireland in search of work. Some organizations have stated that Polish emigration is primarily due to Poland's high unemployment rate (10.5%), with Poles searching for better work opportunities abroad. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to approximately 300,000 and estimates place the Polish population in Ireland at 65,000. However lately it has been reported that large numbers of Polish citizens who had previously emigrated to other parts of the EU for better prospects are in fact returning due to the dramatic increase in standards of living for Poles in their own country as well as sharp increases in wages. The Central Statistical Office of the Polish government recently published figures which gave evidence that there is now a net inflow of people into the country. Polish minorities are still present in the neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries (see Poles for population numbers). Altogether, the number of ethnic Poles living abroad is estimated to be around 20 million. The largest number of Poles outside of Poland can be found in the United States. Urban Areas The largest metropolitan areas in Poland are the Upper Silesian Coal Basin centred on Katowice (3.5 million inhabitants); the capital, Warsaw (3 million);Kraków (1.3 million) Łódź (1.3 million); the Tricity of Gdańsk-Sopot-Gdynia in the Vistula delta (1.1 million); Poznań (0.9 million); Wrocław (0.9 million); and Szczecin (0.7 million). For an overview of Polish cities, see List of cities in Poland. Ethnicity and religion In terms of ethnicity, Poland has been a homogeneous state since the end of World War II. This is a major departure from much of Polish history. Due to the Holocaust and the flight and expulsion of German and Ukrainian populations, Poland has become almost uniformly Catholic. About 88% of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, with 58% as practising Catholics according to 2005 survey by the Centre for Public Opinion Research. Though rates of religious observance are currently lower than they have been in the past, Poland remains one of the most devoutly religious countries in Europe. Religious minorities include Polish Orthodox (1.3% or about 506,000), Jehovah’s Witnesses (0.6% or about 220,000), various Protestants (0.4% or about 159,000), Eastern Catholics (0.2%), and smaller minorities of Mariavites, Polish Catholics, Jews, Muslims (including the Tatars of Białystok). Protestant churches include about 0.2% or 76,000 in the largest Evangelical-Augsburg Church, plus about as many in smaller Pentecostal and Evangelical churches. Resulting from the socio-political emancipation of the county, freedom of religion has become guaranteed by the 1989 statute of the Polish constitution, allowing for the emergence of additional denominations. However, due to pressure from the Polish Episcopate, exposition of doctrine has entered public education system as well, drawing criticism from the popular media, as unconstitutional. According to 2007 survey, 72% of respondents were not against the fostering of catechism in public schools; nevertheless, the alternative courses in ethics have become available only in one percent of the entire public educational system. Poles (including Silesians and Kashubians) make up an overwhelming 99.3% majority of the Polish population. According to the 2002 census, the remainder of the population is made up of small minorities of Germans (152,897), Belarusians (c. 49,000), and Ukrainians (c. 30,000), as well as Tatars, Lithuanians, Roma, Lemkos, Russians, Karaites, Slovaks, and Czechs. Among foreign citizens, the Vietnamese are the largest ethnic group, followed by Greeks, and Armenians. History History of Poland Chronology Until 966 966–1385 1385–1569 1569–1795 1795–1918 1918–1939 1939–1945 1945–1989 1989–present Prehistory Historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now known as Poland. The exact ethnicity and linguistic affiliation of these groups has been hotly debated; in particular the time and route of the original settlement of Slavic peoples in these regions has been the subject of much controversy. The most famous archeological find from Poland's prehistory is the Biskupin fortified settlement (now reconstructed as a museum), dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, around 700 BC. Piast dynasty Poland around 1020Poland began to form into a recognizable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the tenth century under the Piast dynasty. Poland's first historically documented ruler, Mieszko I, was baptized in 966, adopting Catholic Christianity as the nation's new official religion, to which the bulk of the population converted in the course of the next centuries. In the twelfth century, Poland fragmented into several smaller states. In 1320, Władysław I became the King of a reunified Poland. His son, Kazimierz III, is remembered as one of the greatest Polish kings. Poland was also a centre of migration of peoples and the Jewish community began to settle and flourish in Poland during this era (see History of the Jews in Poland). The Black Death which affected most parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351 did not reach Poland. Jagiellon dynasty Under the Jagiellon dynasty Poland forged an alliance with its neighbour, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1410, a Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive defeat on the Teutonic Knights, both countries' main adversary, in the battle of Grunwald. After the Thirteen Years War, the Knight's state became a Polish vassal. Polish culture and economy flourished under the Jagiellons, and the country produced such figures as astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus and poet Jan Kochanowski. Compared to other European nations, Poland was exceptional in its tolerance of religious dissent, allowing the country to avoid the religious turmoil that spread over Western Europe in that time. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extentA golden age ensued during the sixteenth century after the Union of Lublin which gave birth to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The szlachta (nobility) of Poland, far more numerous than in Western European countries, took pride in their freedoms and parliamentary system. During the Golden Age period, Poland expanded its borders to become the largest country in Europe. In the mid-seventeenth century, a Swedish invasion ("The Deluge") and Cossack's Chmielnicki Uprising which ravaged the country marked the end of the golden age. Numerous wars against Russia coupled with government inefficiency caused by the Liberum Veto, a right which had allowed any member of the parliament to dissolve it and to veto any legislation it had passed, marked the steady deterioration of the Commonwealth from a European power into a near-anarchy controlled by its neighbours. The reforms, particularly those of the Great Sejm, which passed the Constitution of May 3, 1791, the world's second modern constitution, were thwarted with the three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, and 1795) which ended with Poland's being erased from the map and its territories being divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Partitions of Poland Poles would resent their fate and would several times rebel against the partitioners, particularly in the nineteenth century. In 1807 Napoleon recreated a Polish state, the Duchy of Warsaw, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was again divided in 1815 by the victorious Allies at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern portion was ruled by the Russian Czar as a Congress Kingdom, and possessed a liberal constitution. However, the Czars soon reduced Polish freedoms and Russia eventually de facto annexed the country. Later in the nineteenth century, Austrian-ruled Galicia, particularly the Free City of Kraków, became a centre of Polish cultural life. Reconstitution of Poland Poland between 1922 and 1938During World War I, all the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland that United States President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed in Point 13 of his Fourteen Points. Shortly after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). It reaffirmed its independence after a series of military conflicts, the most notable being the Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921) when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army. The 1926 May Coup of Józef Piłsudski turned the reins of the Second Polish Republic over to the Sanacja movement. World War II The Sanacja movement controlled Poland until the start of World War II in 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded on September 1 and the Soviet Union followed on September 17. Warsaw capitulated on September 28, 1939. As agreed in the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Germany while the eastern provinces fell under the control of the Soviet Union. Of all the countries involved in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: over six million perished, half of them Polish Jews. Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution to the Allied war effort, after the Soviets, the British and the Americans. The Polish expeditionary corps played an important role in the Italian Campaign, particularly at the Battle of Monte Cassino. At the war's conclusion, Poland's borders were shifted westwards, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line. Meanwhile, the western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland emerged 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions of people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews. The main German Nazi death camps were in Poland. Of a pre-war population of 3,300,000 Polish Jews, 3,000,000 were killed during the Holocaust. Postwar Communist Poland At the end of World War II, the gray territories were transferred from Poland to the Soviet Union, and the pink territories from Germany to PolandThe Soviet Union instituted a new Communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War was also part of this change. The People's Republic of Poland (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of communist opposition persisted. Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" ("Solidarność"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981, it eroded the dominance of the Communist Party and by 1989 had triumphed in parliamentary elections. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communism across Eastern Europe. Democratic Poland A shock therapy programme of Leszek Balcerowicz during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into a market economy. As with all other post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary slumps in social and economic standards, but became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels. Most visibly, there were numerous improvements in other human rights, such as free speech. In 1991, Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003, with Poland becoming a full member on May 1, 2004. Politics Poland is a democracy, with a President as a Head of State, whose current constitution dates from 1997. The government structure centres on the Council of Ministers, led by a prime minister. The president appoints the cabinet according to the proposals of the prime minister, typically from the majority coalition in the Sejm. The president is elected by popular vote every five years. The current president is Lech Kaczyński, the current prime minister is Donald Tusk. Polish voters elect a bicameral parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member Senate (Senat). The Sejm is elected under proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method, a method similar to that used in many parliamentary political systems. The Senate, on the other hand, is elected under a rare plurality bloc voting method where several candidates with the highest support are elected from each constituency. With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm. When sitting in joint session, members of the Sejm and Senate form the National Assembly (the Zgromadzenie Narodowe). The National Assembly is formed on three occasions: when a new President takes the oath of office; when an indictment against the President of the Republic is brought to the State Tribunal (Trybunał Stanu); and when a President's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared. To date, only the first instance has occurred. The judicial branch plays an important role in decision-making. Its major institutions include the Supreme Court of Poland (Sąd Najwyższy); the Supreme Administrative Court of Poland (Naczelny Sąd Administracyjny); the Constitutional Tribunal of Poland (Trybunał Konstytucyjny); and the State Tribunal of Poland (Trybunał Stanu). On the approval of the Senate, the Sejm also appoints the Ombudsman or the Commissioner for Civil Rights Protection (Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich) for a five-year term. The Ombudsman has the duty of guarding the observance and implementation of the rights and liberties of Polish citizens and residents, of the law and of principles of community life and social justice. Administrative divisions Poland's current voivodeships (provinces) are largely based on the country's historic regions, whereas those of the past two decades (to 1998) had been centred on and named for individual cities. The new units range in area from less than 10,000 km² (Opole Voivodeship) to more than 35,000 km² (Masovian Voivodeship). Administrative authority at voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed voivode (governor), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and an executive elected by that assembly. The voivodeships are subdivided into powiats (often referred to in English as counties), and these are further divided into gminas (also known as communes or municipalities). Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat. Poland currently has 16 voivodeships, 379 powiats (including 65 cities with powiat status), and 2,478 gminas. Division of Poland Greater Poland Wielkopolskie Poznań Kuyavian-Pomeranian Kujawsko-Pomorskie Bydgoszcz / Toruń Lesser Poland Małopolskie Kraków Łódź Łódzkie Łódź Lower Silesian Dolnośląskie Wrocław Lublin Lubelskie Lublin Lubusz Lubuskie Gorzów Wielkopolski / Zielona Góra Masovian Mazowieckie Warsaw Opole Opolskie Opole Podlachian Podlaskie Białystok Pomeranian Pomorskie Gdańsk Silesian Śląskie Katowice Subcarpathian Podkarpackie Rzeszów Świętokrzyskie Świętokrzyskie Kielce Warmian-Masurian Warmińsko-Mazurskie Olsztyn West Pomeranian Zachodniopomorskie Szczecin Economy Financial centre of Warsaw, Poland's capital and largest cityPoland is considered to have one of the healthiest economies of the post-communist countries, with GDP growing by 6.1% in 2006. Since the fall of communism, Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of liberalising the economy and today stands out as a successful example of the transition from a state-directed economy to a primarily privately owned market economy. The privatisation of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms have allowed the development of an aggressive private sector. As a consequence, consumer rights organizations have also appeared. Restructuring and privatisation of "sensitive sectors" such as coal, steel, railways, and energy has been continuing since 1990. Between 2007 and 2010, the government plans to float twenty public companies on the Polish stock market, including parts of the coal industry. To date (2007), the biggest privatisations have been the sale of the national telecoms firm Telekomunikacja Polska to France Telecom in 2000, and an issue of 30% of the shares in Poland's largest bank, PKO Bank Polski, on the Polish stockmarket in 2004. Poland has a large number of private farms in its agricultural sector, with the potential to become a leading producer of food in the European Union. Structural reforms in health care, education, the pension system, and state administration have resulted in larger-than-expected fiscal pressures. Warsaw leads Central Europe in foreign investment. GDP growth had been strong and steady from 1993 to 2000 with only a short slowdown from 2001 to 2002. Leopard sport-style car designed and produced in PolandThe prospect of closer integration with the European Union has put the economy back on track, with growth of 3.7% annually in 2003, a rise from 1.4% annually in 2002. In 2004, GDP growth equaled 5.4%, in 2005 3.3% and in 2006 6.2%. For 2007, the government has set a target for GDP growth at 6.5 to 7.0%. Although the Polish economy is currently undergoing economic development, there are many challenges ahead. The most notable task on the horizon is the preparation of the economy (through continuing deep structural reforms) to allow Poland to meet the strict economic criteria for entry into the European Single Currency (Euro). According to the minister of finance Jacek Rostowski Poland is likely to join ERM in 2009 and adopt Euro in 2012 or 2013.. Some businesses may accept the euro as payment. Average salaries in enterprise sector in April 2008 were 3137PLN (equals to 925 euro or 1434 US dollars) and growing sharply. Salaries varies between the regions: median wage in the capital city Warsaw was 4600 PLN (1200 euro or 2000 US dollars) while in Bialystok only 2400 (670 euro or 1000 US dollars). Since joining the European Union, many workers have left to work in other EU countries (particularly Ireland and the UK) because of high unemployment, which was the second-highest in the EU (14.2% in May 2006). However, with the rapid growth of the salaries, booming economy, strong value of Polish currency, and quickly decreasing unemployment (8% in March 2008) exodus of Polish workers seems to be over. In 2008 people who came back outnumbered thoses leaving the country. Commodities produced in Poland include: electronics, cars (including the luxurious Leopard car), buses (Autosan, Jelcz SA, Solaris, Solbus), helicopters (PZL Świdnik), transport equipment, locomotives, planes (PZL Mielec), ships, military engineering (including tanks, SPAAG systems), medicines (Polpharma, Polfa), food, clothes, glass, pottery (Bolesławiec), chemical products and others. Science, technology and education Education The education of Polish society was a goal of rulers as early as the 12th century, and Poland soon became one of the most educated European countries. The library catalogue of the Cathedral Chapter of Kraków dating back to 1110 shows that already in the early 12th century Polish intellectuals had access to the European literature. In 1364, in Kraków, the Jagiellonian University, founded by King Casimir III, became one of Europe's great early universities. In 1773 King Stanisław August Poniatowski established his Commission on National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), the world's first state ministry of education. Current situation Today Poland has more than a hundred tertiary education institutions; traditional universities to be found in its major cities of Białystok, Bydgoszcz, Gdańsk, Katowice, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Olsztyn, Opole, Poznań, Rzeszów, Szczecin, Toruń, Warsaw, Wrocław and Zielona Góra as well as technical, medical, economic institutions elsewhere, employing around 61,000 workers. There are also around 300 research and development institutes, with about 10,000 more researchers. In total, there are around 91,000 scientists in Poland today. According to Frost & Sullivan's Country Industry Forecast the country is becoming an interesting location for research and development investments. Multinational companies such as: ABB, Delphi, GlaxoSmithKline, Google, Hewlett–Packard, IBM, Intel, LG Electronics and Microsoft have set up R&D centres in Poland. Motorola in Kraków, Siemens in Wrocław and Samsung in Warszawa are one of the largest owned by those companies. Over 40 R&D centers, and 4,500 researchers make Poland the biggest R&D hub in Central and Eastern Europe. Companies chose Poland because of the availability of highly qualified labor force, presence of universities, support of authorities, and the largest market in Central Europe. According to KPMG report 80% of Poland's current investors are contented with their choice and willing to reinvest. In 2006 Intel decided to double the number of employees in its R&D centre. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Poland's education as the 23rd best in the world, being neither significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average. Telecommunication and IT For a more detailed treatment of this topic, see the subarticles Communications in Poland and Software development in Poland. The share of the telecom sector in the GDP is 4.4% (end of 2000 figure), compared to 2.5% in 1996. Nevertheless, despite high expenditures for telecom infrastructure (the coverage increased from 78 users per 1000 inhabitants in 1989 to 282 in 2000). The value of the telecommunication market is zl 38.2bn (2006), and it grew by 12.4% in 2007 PMR the coverage mobile cellular is over 1000 users per 1000 people (2007) Telephones—mobile cellular: 38.7 million (Onet.pl & GUS Report, 2007) Telephones—main lines in use: 12.5 million (Telecom Team Report, 2005) Culture Polish architecture: Main Market Square in Kraków. St Mary's Basilica (left), Sukiennice (centre), Town Hall Tower (right)Polish culture has been influenced by both Eastern and Western influences. Today, these influences are evident in Polish architecture, folklore, and art. Poland is the birthplace of some world famous individuals, including Pope John Paul II, Marie Skłodowska Curie, Kazimierz Pułaski, Nicolaus Copernicus and Frederic Chopin. The character of Polish art always reflected world trends. The famous Polish painter, Jan Matejko included many significant historical events in his paintings. Also a famous person in history of Polish art was Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz. He was an example of a Polish Renaissance Man. Polish literature dates back to 1100s and includes many famous poets and writers such as Jan Kochanowski, Adam Mickiewicz, Bolesław Prus, Juliusz Słowacki, Witold Gombrowicz, Stanisław Lem and, Ryszard Kapuściński. Writers Henryk Sienkiewicz, Władysław Reymont, Czesław Miłosz, Wisława Szymborska have each won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Many world renowned Polish movie directors include Academy Awards winners Roman Polański, Andrzej Wajda, Zbigniew Rybczyński, Janusz Kamiński and, Krzysztof Kieślowski. The traditional Polish music composers include world-renowned pianist Frederic Chopin as well as famous composers such as Krzysztof Penderecki, Henryk Mikołaj Górecki, Karol Szymanowski, and others. Notable foods in Polish cuisine include Polish sausage, red beet soup, Polish dumplings, flaczki (tripe soup), cabbage rolls, Oscypek, Polish pork chops, Polish traditional stew, various potato dishes, a fast food sandwich zapiekanka, and many more. Traditional Polish desserts include Polish doughnuts, Polish gingerbread and others. |
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