威廉·莎士比亚生平
伟大的英国剧作家、诗人威廉·莎士比亚1564年生于英国中部瓦维克郡埃文河畔斯特拉特福。其父约翰·莎士比亚是经营羊毛、皮革制造及谷物生意的杂货商，1565年任镇民政官，3年后被选为镇长。莎士比亚幼年在当地文法学校读书。历史学家乔治·斯蒂文森说，后人从这些文字资料中大概勾勒出莎士比亚的生 活轨迹：１３岁时家道中落，此后辍学经商，２２岁时前往伦敦，在剧院工作，后来成为演员和剧作家；１５９７年重返家乡购置房产，度过人生最后时光。他虽受过良好的基本教育，但是未上过大学。1582年，18岁 中，列举莎士比亚35岁以前的剧作，称赞他的喜剧、悲剧都“无与伦比”，能和古代第一流戏剧诗人们并称。但他生前没出版过自己的剧作。1596年，他以他父亲的名义申请到“绅士”称号和拥有纹章的权利,又先后3次购置了可观的房地产。1603年，詹姆士一世继位，他的剧团改称“国王供奉剧团”，他和团中演员被任命为御前侍从。1612年左右他告别伦敦回到家乡定居。1616年 4月23日病逝，葬于镇上的圣三一教堂。死前留有遗嘱。他的两个据说比较可靠的肖像是教堂中的半身塑像和德罗肖特画像，手迹则有 6份签名和《托马斯·莫尔爵士》一剧中三页手稿。1623年，演员J.海明和H.康代尔把他的剧作印成对开本，收进36出戏(其中20出是首次付印)，号称“第一对开本”。从1772年开始，有人对于莎剧的作者不断提出过疑问，并且企图证实作者是培根、C.马洛、勒特兰伯爵、牛津伯爵、德比伯爵等等，但都缺乏证据。
莎士比亚在伦敦住了二十多年，而在此期间他的妻子仍一直呆在斯特拉福。他在接近天命之年时隐退回归故里斯特拉福（1612年左右）。1616年莎士比亚在其五十二岁生日前后不幸去世，葬于圣三一教堂。死前留有遗嘱。他的两个据说比较可靠的肖像是教堂中的半身塑像和德罗肖特画像，手迹则有 6份签名和《托马斯·莫尔爵士》一剧中三页手稿。1623年，演员J.海明和H.康代尔把他的剧作印成对开本，收进36出戏(其中20出是首次付印)，号称“第一对开本”。
作品
莎士比亚在约1590～1612的20余年内共写了三十七部戏剧（如加上与弗莱彻合写的《两位贵亲》则是三十八部），还写有二首长诗和一百五十四首十四行诗。他的戏剧多取材于历史记载、小说、民间传说和老戏等已有的材料，反映了封建社会向资本主义社会过渡的历史现实，宣扬了新兴资产阶级的人道主义思想和人性论观点。由于一方面广泛借鉴古代戏剧、英国中世纪戏剧以及欧洲新兴的文化艺术，一方面深刻观察人生，了解社会，掌握时代的脉搏，故使莎士比亚得以塑造出众多栩栩如生的人物形象，描绘广阔的、五光十色的社会生活图景，并使之以悲喜交融、富于诗意和想象、寓统一于矛盾变化之中以及富有人生哲理和批判精神等特点著称。
一般来说，莎士比亚的戏剧创作可分以下3个时期：
第一时期（1590～1600年） 以写作历史剧、喜剧为主，有9部历史剧、10部喜剧和2部悲剧。
9部历史剧中除《约翰王》是写 13 世纪初英国历史外 ，其他8部是内容相衔接的两个4部曲 ：《 亨利六世 》上 、中、下篇与《查理三世》；《查理二世》、《亨利四世》（被称为最成功的历史剧）上、下篇与《亨利五世》。这些历史剧概括了英国历史上百余年间的动乱，塑造了一系列正、反面君主形象，反映了莎士比亚反对封建割据，拥护中央集权，谴责暴君暴政，要求开明君主进行自上而下改革，建立和谐社会关系的人文主义政治与道德理想。
10部喜剧《错误的喜剧》、《驯悍记》、《维洛那二绅士》、《爱的徒劳》、《仲夏夜之梦》、《威尼斯商人 》、《 温莎的风流娘儿们 》、《无事生非》、《皆大欢喜》和《第十二夜》大都以爱情、友谊、婚姻为主题，主人公多是一些具有人文主义智慧与美德的青年男女，通过他们争取自由、幸福的斗争，歌颂进步、美好的新人新风，同时也温和地揭露和嘲讽旧事物的衰朽和丑恶，如禁欲主义的虚矫、清教徒的伪善和高利贷者的贪鄙等。莎士比亚这一时期戏剧创作的基本情调是乐观、明朗的，充满着以人文主义理想解决社会矛盾的信心，以致写在这一时期的悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》中，也洋溢着喜剧气氛。尽管主人公殉情而死，但爱的理想战胜死亡，换来了封建世仇的和解。然而，这一时期较后的成熟喜剧《威尼斯商人》中，又带有忧郁色彩和悲剧因素，在鼓吹仁爱、友谊和真诚爱情的同时，反映了基督教社会中弱肉强食的阶级压迫、种族歧视问题，说明作者已逐渐意识到理想与现实之间存在着难以解决的矛盾。
第二时期（1601～1607年） 以悲剧为主 ，写了3部罗马剧、5部悲剧和3部“阴暗的喜剧”或“问题剧”。
罗马剧《尤利乌斯·凯撒》、《安东尼和克莉奥佩特拉》和《科里奥拉努斯》是取材于普卢塔克《希腊罗马英雄传 》的历史剧。
四大悲剧《哈姆雷特》、《 奥赛罗 》、《 李尔王 》、《麦克白》和悲剧《雅典的泰门》标志着作者对时代、人生的深入思考，着力塑造了这样一些新时代的悲剧主人公：他们从中世纪的禁锢和蒙昧中醒来，在近代黎明照耀下，雄心勃勃地想要发展或完善自己，但又不能克服时代和自身的局限，终于在同环境和内心敌对势力的力量悬殊斗争中，遭到不可避免的失败和牺牲。哈姆雷特为报父仇而发现“整个时代脱榫”了，决定担起“重整乾坤”的责任，结果是空怀大志，无力回天。奥赛罗正直淳朴，相信人而又嫉恶如仇，在奸人摆布下杀妻自戕，为追求至善至美反遭恶报。李尔王在权势给他带来的尊荣 、自豪 、 自信中迷失本性 ，丧失理智，幻想以让权分国来证明自己不当国王而做一个普通人，也能同样或更加伟大，因而经受了一番痛苦的磨难。麦克白本是有功的英雄，性格中有善和美的一面，只因王位的诱惑和野心的驱使，沦为“从血腥到血腥”、懊悔无及的罪人。这些人物的悲剧，深刻地揭示了在资本原始积累时期已开始出现的种种社会罪恶和资产阶级的利己主义，表现了人文主义理想与残酷现实之间矛盾的不可调和，具有高度的概括意义。
由于这一时期剧作思想深度和现实主义深度的增强，使《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》、《终成眷属》和《一报还一报》等“喜剧”也显露出阴暗的一面，笼罩着背信弃义、尔虞我诈的罪恶阴影，因而被称为“问题剧”或“阴暗的喜剧”。
第三时期（1608～1613）倾向于妥协和幻想的悲喜剧或传奇剧。
主要作品是4部悲喜剧或传奇剧《泰尔亲王里克里斯》、《辛白林》、《冬天的故事 》、《暴风雨》。这些作品多写失散、团聚、诬陷、昭雪。尽管仍然坚持人文主义理想，对黑暗现实有所揭露，但矛盾的解决主要靠魔法、幻想、机缘巧合和偶然事件，并以宣扬宽恕、容忍、妥协、和解告终。
莎士比亚还与弗莱彻合作写了历史剧《亨利八世》和传奇剧《两位贵亲》，后者近年来被有的莎士比亚戏剧集收入。
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威廉·莎士比亚（1564—1616）是文艺复兴时期英国以及欧洲最重要的作家。他出生于英格兰中部斯特拉福镇的一个商人家庭。少年时代曾在当地文法学校接受基础教育，学习拉丁文、哲学和历史等，接触过古罗马剧作家的作品。后因家道中落，辍学谋生。莎士比亚幼年时，常有著名剧团来乡间巡回演出，培养了他对戏剧的爱好。1585年前后，他离开家乡去伦敦，先在剧院打杂，后来当上一名演员，进而改编和编写剧本。莎士比亚除了参加演出和编剧，还广泛接触社会，常常随剧团出入宫廷或来到乡间。这些经历扩大了他的视野，为他的创作打下了基础。
1590年到1600年是莎士比亚创作的早期，又称为历史剧、喜剧时期。这一时期莎士比亚人文主义思想和艺术风格渐渐形成。当时的英国正处于伊丽莎白女王统治的鼎盛时期，王权稳固统一，经济繁荣。莎士比亚对在现实社会中实现人文主义理想充满信心，作品洋溢着乐观明朗的色彩。这一时期，他写的历史剧包括《理查三世》（1592）、《亨利四世》（上下集）（1597—1598）和《 亨利五世 》（1599）等9部。剧本的基本主题是拥护中央王权，谴责封建暴君和歌颂开明君主。比如，《亨利四世》展现的是国内局势动荡的画面，贵族们联合起来反叛国王，但叛乱最终被平息；王太子早先生活放荡，后来认识错误，在平定内乱中立下战功。剧作中，历史事实和艺术虚构达到高度统一。人物形象中以福斯塔夫最为生动，此人自私、懒惰、畏缩，却又机警、灵巧、乐观，令人忍俊不禁。
这一时期创作的喜剧包括诗意盎然的《仲夏夜之梦》（1596）、扬善惩恶的《威尼斯商人》（1597）、反映市民生活风俗的《温莎的风流娘儿们》（1598）、宣扬贞洁爱情的《无事生非》（1599）和歌颂爱情又探讨人性的《第十二夜》（1600）等10部。这些剧本基本主题是爱情、婚姻和友谊，带有浓郁的抒情色彩，表现了莎士比亚的人文主义生活理想。与此同时，他还写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》（1595）等悲剧3部，作品虽然有哀怨的一面，但是基本精神与喜剧同。莎士比亚还写有长诗《维纳斯和阿多尼斯》（1592—1593）、《鲁克丽丝受辱记》（1593—1594）和154首十四行诗。
17世纪初，伊丽莎白女王一世与詹姆士一世政权交替，英国社会矛盾激化，社会丑恶日益暴露。这一时期，莎士比亚的思想和艺术走向成熟，人文主义理想同社会现实发生激烈碰撞。他痛感理想难以实现，创作由早期的赞美人文主义理想转变为对社会黑暗的揭露和批判。莎士比亚创作的第二时期（1601—1607），又称悲剧时期。他写出了《哈姆莱特》（1601）、《奥瑟罗》（1604）、《李尔王》（1606）、《麦克白》（1606）和《雅典的泰门》（1607）等著名悲剧。《奥瑟罗》中出身贵族的苔丝狄蒙娜不顾父亲和社会的反对，与摩尔人奥瑟罗私下结婚，表现了反对种族偏见的主题，而导致他们悲剧的原因不仅是奥瑟罗的嫉妒，而且是以伊阿古为代表的邪恶势力的强大。奥瑟罗临死前的清醒，包含着人类理性的胜利。《李尔王》中展现的则是一个分崩离析的社会，李尔王因为自己的刚愎自用付出了生命的代价，也给国家和人民带来了巨大的灾难。主人公从具有绝对权威的封建君主变成了一无所有、无家可归的老人，人物命运和性格发生巨大的变化，这在莎士比亚的作品中最具特色。《麦克白》中，一位英雄人物由于内在的野心和外部的唆使，成为个人野心家和暴君。其悲剧意义在于，个人野心和利己主义可以毁灭一个原本并非邪恶的人物。总体而言，这些悲剧对封建贵族的腐朽衰败、利己主义的骇人听闻、金钱关系的罪恶和劳动人民的疾苦，作了深入的揭露；风格上，浪漫欢乐的气氛减少，忧郁悲愤的情调增加，形象更丰满，语言更纯熟。
1608年以后，莎士比亚进入创作的最后时期。这时的莎士比亚已看到人文主义的理想在现实社会中无法实现，便从写悲剧转而为写传奇剧，从揭露批判现实社会的黑暗转向写梦幻世界。因此，这一时期又称莎士比亚的传奇剧时期。这时期，他的作品往往通过神话式的幻想，借助超自然的力量来解决理想与现实之间的矛盾；作品贯串着宽恕、和解的精神，没有前期的欢乐，也没有中期的阴郁，而是充满美丽的生活幻想，浪漫情调浓郁。《暴风雨》（1611）最能代表这一时期的风格，被称为“用诗歌写的遗嘱”。此外，他还写有《辛白林》和《冬天的故事》等3部传奇剧和历史剧《亨利八世》。
莎士比亚的作品从生活真实出发，深刻地反映了时代风貌和社会本质。他认为，戏剧“仿佛要给自然照一面镜子：给德行看一看自己的面貌，给荒唐看一看自己的姿态，给时代和社会看一看自己的形象和印记”。马克思、恩格斯将莎士比亚推崇为现实主义的经典作家，提出戏剧创作应该更加“莎士比亚化”。这是针对戏剧创作中存在的“把个人变成时代精神的单纯的传声筒”的缺点而提出的创作原则。所谓“莎士比亚化”，就是要求作家象莎士比亚那样，善于从生活真实出发，展示广阔的社会背景，给作品中的人物和事件提供富有时代特点的典型环境；作品的情节应该生动、丰富，人物应该有鲜明个性，同时具有典型意义；作品中现实主义的刻画和浪漫主义的氛围要巧妙结合；语言要丰富，富有表现力；作家的倾向要在情节和人物的描述中隐蔽而自然地流露出来。
莎士比亚的作品包括：
悲剧：罗密欧与朱丽叶，麦克白，李尔王，哈姆莱特，奥瑟罗，泰特斯·安特洛尼克斯，裘力斯·凯撒，安东尼与克莉奥佩屈拉（埃及艳后），科利奥兰纳斯，特洛埃围城记，雅典的泰门等。
喜剧：错中错，终成眷属，皆大欢喜，仲夏夜之梦，无事生非，一报还一报，暴风雨，驯悍记，第十二夜，威尼斯商人，温莎的风流娘们，爱的徒劳，维洛那二绅士，泰尔亲王佩力克尔斯，辛白林，冬天的故事等。
历史剧：亨利四世，亨利五世，亨利六世，亨利八世，约翰王，里查二世，里查三世。
十四行诗：爱人的怨诉，鲁克丽丝失贞记，维纳斯和阿多尼斯，热情的朝圣者，凤凰和斑鸠等。
成就和影响
莎士比亚的戏剧大都取材于旧有剧本、小说、编年史或民间传说，但在改写中注入了自己的思想，给旧题材赋予新颖、丰富、深刻的内容。在艺术表现上，他继承古代希腊罗马、中世纪英国和文艺复兴时期欧洲戏剧的三大传统并加以发展，从内容到形式进行了创造性革新。他的戏剧不受三一律束缚，突破悲剧、喜剧界限，努力反映生活的本来面目，深入探索人物内心奥秘，从而能够塑造出众多性格复杂多样、形象真实生动的人物典型，描绘了广阔的 、五光十色的社会生活图景，并以其博大、深刻、富于诗意和哲理著称。
莎士比亚的戏剧是为当时英国的舞台和观众写作的大众化的戏剧。因而，它的悲喜交融、雅俗共赏以及时空自由 、极力调动观众想象来弥补舞台的简陋等特点，曾在18世纪遭到以伏尔泰为代表的古典主义者的指摘，并在演出时被任意删改。莎剧的真正价值，直到19世纪初，在柯尔律治和哈兹里特等批评家的阐发下，才开始为人们所认识。然而当时的莎剧演出仍常被纳入5幕结构剧的模式 。19世纪末 ，W.波埃尔和H.格兰威尔 - 巴克强烈反对当时莎剧演出的壮观传统 ，提倡按伊丽莎白时代剧场不用布景的方式演出，以恢复其固有特点。
17世纪始，莎士比亚戏剧传入德、法、意、俄、北欧诸国，然后渐及美国乃至世界各地，对各国戏剧发展产生了巨大、深远的影响，并已成为世界文化发展、交流的重要纽带和灵感源泉。中国从本世纪初开始介绍和翻译莎剧，到1978年出版了在朱生豪译本基础上经全面校订、补译的11卷《莎士比亚全集》。1902年，上海圣约翰书院学生最早用英语演出《威尼斯商人》。据不完全统计，中国先后有65个职业和业余演出团体 ，以英 、汉 、藏 、蒙 、粤5种语言 ，文明戏、现代话剧、戏曲、广播剧、芭蕾舞剧 、木偶剧6种形式 ，共演出莎剧21部，包括了莎剧大部分重要作品。莎剧已成为中国中学、大学特别是戏剧院校的教材。莎剧的重要角色为中国演员的培养和提高开辟了广阔天地。
莎士比亚给世人留下了三十七部戏剧，其中包括一些他与别人合写的一般剧作。此外，他还写有一百五十四首十四行诗和三、四首长诗。
就莎士比亚的天才、成就和声望而言，他的名字未能在本册中名列前茅看来有点离奇。我把莎士比亚排得这样低，不是因为我不赏识他的艺术成就，而是我认为文学艺术人物一般说来对人类历史影响较小。
宗教领袖、科学家、政治家、探险家、哲学家或发明家的活动经常影响到人类奋斗的许多其他领域的发展。例如，科学的进展对经济和政治事物已经产生了巨大的影响，也影响了宗教信仰、哲学观点和艺术的发展。
一位著名的画家，虽然可能对后来的画家的作品影响很大，但是他对音乐和文学可能带来的影响却微乎其微，对探险和其他人类奋斗的领域实际上则毫无影响可言。类似的说法也适合于诗人、剧作家和音乐作曲家。一般说来，文艺人物只对文艺有影响，实际上只对他们所从事的那个特殊领域有影响。正是由于这种原因，没有一名文学、音乐或美术人物被列进前三十名，且只有少数几个人物才被列入本册。
那么为什么本册中有文艺人物呢？这是因为欣赏文艺对每个人的生活有一定的直接影响（虽然这种影响并不总是很大），换句话说，一个人可能会花一部分时间听音乐，一部分时间读书，一部分时间作画，等等。即使我们听音乐的时间对我们的其他活动毫无影响（这肯定是种夸张的说法），这一部分时间仍然代表着我们生活中的无聊时间。
一位艺术家对我们生活的影响可能比我们听、读或看他的作品所花的时间还要多。这是因为他的作品很可能对其他作家的创作活动产生影响，他们的作品为我们所体验和赏识。
在有些情况下，文艺作品或多或少地有些明确的哲学内容，这会影响我们对其他问题的看法。当然文学作品比音乐或美术作品更经常是如此这般。例如，在《罗密欧与朱丽叶》（第三幕，第一场）中，莎士比亚让亲王说：“对杀人的凶手不能讲慈悲，否则就是鼓励杀人。”这里提出的观点（不管人们接受与否）具有鲜明的哲学内容，可能会对人们的政治态度产生影响，而不是其他如欣赏“蒙娜丽莎”所产生的影响。
莎士比亚在所有的文学人物中首屈一指，这看来是无容置辩的。相对来说，今天很少有人谈乔叟、维吉尔、甚至荷马的作品，但是要上演一部莎士比亚的戏剧，肯定会有很多观众。莎士比亚创造词汇的天才是无与伦比的，他的话常被引用──甚至包括从未看过或读过他的戏剧的人。况且他的名气也并非昙花一现。近四百年来他的作品一直给读者和评论家带来了许多欢乐。由于莎士比亚的作品已经接受住了时间的考验，因此在将来的许许多多世纪里也将会受到普遍欢迎，这一推测看来不无道理。
在评价莎士比亚的影响时，我们应该这样考虑，如果没有他，就根本不会有他的作品（当然类似的论断适合于每一位文学艺术人物，但是这个因素在评价一般的艺术家的影响时看来并不特别重要）。
据统计，莎士比亚用此高达两网格以上。它广泛采用民间语言（如民谣、俚语、古谚语和滑稽幽默的散文等），注意吸收外来词汇，还大量运用比喻、隐喻、双关语，可谓集当时英语之大成。莎剧中许多语句已成为现代英语中的成语、典故和格言。相对而言，他早期的剧作喜欢用华丽铿锵的词句；后来的成熟作品则显得更得心应手，既能用丰富多样的语言贴切而生动的表现不同人物的特色，也能用朴素自然的词句传达扣人心弦的感情和思想。
虽然莎士比亚用英文写作，但是他是一位真正闻名世界的人物。虽然英语不完全是一种世界语言，但是它比任何其它语言都更接近世界语言。而且莎士比亚的作品被译成许多种文学，许多国家都读他的著作，上演他的戏剧。
当然有些受欢迎的作家的作品也会受到文学评论家的轻视，但是莎士比亚就不同了，文学学者都不遗余力地赞扬他的作品。世世代代的戏剧家都研究他的作品，企图获得他的文学气质。正是因为莎士比亚对其他作家有巨大的影响和不断受到大众的赏识，才使他在本书中获得相当高的名次。
某版本的莎翁戏剧集中的序言，有一段这样的话：
他通过具有强大艺术力量的形象，从他的那些典型的、同时又具有鲜明个性的主人公的复杂的关系中，从他们的行动和矛盾中去揭示出他们的性格。戏剧中放射出的强烈的人文主义思想光芒，以及卓越而大胆的艺术技巧，其意义早已超出了他的时代和国家的范围。
对文学界造成如此大的影响，难怪他的朋友、著名的戏剧家本·琼孙说：“他不只属于一个时代而属于全世纪。”
最后一点不得不提的是-----
莎士比亚与世界图书与版权日
4月23日，对于世界文学领域是一个具有象征性的日子，因为塞万提斯、威廉·莎士比亚和加尔西拉索·德·拉·维加都在1616年的这一天去世。此外，4月23日也是另一些著名作家出生或去世的日子，如莫里斯·德律恩、拉克斯内斯、佛拉吉米尔·纳博科夫、约瑟·普拉和曼努埃尔·梅希亚?巴列霍。
很自然地，1995年在巴黎召开的联合国教科文组织大会选择这一天，向全世界的书籍和作者表示敬意；鼓励每个人，尤其是年轻人，去发现阅读的快乐，并再度对那些为促进人类的社会和文化进步做出无以替代的贡献的人表示尊敬。
1995年11月，联合国教科文组织第二十八次大会通过决议，宣布每年4月23日为世界图书和版权日。
版权即著作权，是指文学、艺术、科学作品的作者对其作品享有的权利（包括财产权、人身权）。版权的取得有两种方式：自动取得和登记取得。我国的著作权法规定，作品完成就自动有版权。
经典台词
1. 脆弱啊，你的名字是女人！
2. To be or not to be，that's a question。（生存还是毁灭，那是个值得思考的问题。）
3. 放弃时间的人，时间也会放弃他。
4. 成功的骗子，不必再以说谎为生，因为被骗的人已经成为他的拥护者，我再说什么也是枉然。
5. 人们可支配自己的命运，若我们受制于人，那错不在命运，而在我们自己。
6 美满的爱情，使斗士紧绷的心情松弛下来。
7 太完美的爱情，伤心又伤身，身为江湖儿女，没那个闲工夫。
8 嫉妒的手足是谎言！
9 上帝是公平的，掌握命运的人永远站在天平的两端，被命运掌握的人仅仅只明白上帝赐给他命运！
10 一个骄傲的人，结果总是在骄傲里毁灭了自己。
11 爱是一种甜蜜的痛苦，真诚的爱情永不是一条平坦的道路的。
12 因为她生的美丽，所以被男人追求；因为她是女人，所以被男人俘获。
13 如果女性因为感情而嫉妒起来那是很可怕的。
14 不要只因一次挫败，就放弃你原来决心想达到的目的。
15 女人不具备笑傲情场的条件。
16 我承认天底下再没有比爱情的责罚更痛苦的，也没有比服侍它更快乐的事了。
17 新的火焰可以把旧的火焰扑灭，大的苦痛可以使小的苦痛减轻。
18 聪明人变成了痴愚，是一条最容易上钩的游鱼；因为他凭恃才高学广，看不见自己的狂妄。
19 愚人的蠢事算不得稀奇，聪明人的蠢事才叫人笑痛肚皮；因为他用全副的本领，证明他自己愚笨。
20 外观往往和事物的本身完全不符，世人都容易为表面的装饰所欺骗。
21 黑暗无论怎样悠长，白昼总会到来。
22 勤劳一天，可得一日安眠；勤奋一生，可永远长眠。
24 金子啊，,你是多么神奇。你可以使老的变成少的，丑的变成美的，黑的变成白的，错的变成对的……
25 目眩时更要旋转，自己痛不欲生的悲伤，以别人的悲伤，就能够治愈！
26 爱情就像是生长在悬崖上的一朵花，想要摘就必需要有勇气。
27 全世界是一个巨大的舞台，所有红尘男女均只是演员罢了。上场下场各有其时。每个人一生都扮演着许多角色，从出生到死亡有七种阶段。
28 在自己还得不到幸福的时候，不要靠橱窗太近，盯着幸福出神
29 人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！多么高贵的理性！多么伟大的力量！多么优美的仪表！多么文雅的举动！在行动上多么像一个天使！在智慧上多么像一个天神！宇宙的精华！万物的灵长！
名言
Do not , for one repulse , give up the purpose that you resolved to effect .(William Shakespeare , British dramatist)
不要只因一次失败，就放弃你原来决心想达到的目的。(英国剧作家 莎士比亚.W.)
A light heart lives long .( William Shakespeare , British dramatist )
豁达者长寿。 (英国剧作家 莎士比亚. W.)
In delay there lies no plenty , Then come kiss me , sweet and twenty , Youth's a stuff that will not endure . (William Shakespeare , British dramatist)
迁延蹉跎,来日无多,二十丽株,请来吻我,衰草枯杨,青春易过。(英国剧作家 莎士比亚. W.)
The time of life is short ; to spend that shortness basely, it would be too long . (William Shakespeare , British dramatist )
人生苦短，若虚度年华，则短暂的人生就太长了。(英国剧作家 莎士比亚. W.)
Don't gild the lily.
不要给百合花镀金/画蛇添足。 (英国剧作家 莎士比亚 . W .)
The empty vessels make the greatest sound . (William Shakespeare , British dramatist )
满瓶不响，半瓶咣当。 (英国剧作家 莎士比亚. W.)
Just be myself.
超越你自己。——莎士比亚
最著名的是莎士比亚的戏剧集，分喜悲两册，被译成多国文字。
莎士比亚隽语钞
新的火焰可以把旧的火焰扑灭；
大的苦痛可以使小的苦痛减轻。
《罗密欧与朱丽叶》
聪明人变成了痴愚，是一条最容易上钩的游鱼；因为他凭恃才高学广，看不见自己的狂妄。
愚人的蠢事算不得稀奇，聪明人的蠢事才叫人笑痛肚皮；因为他用全副的本领，证明他自己愚笨。
《爱的徒劳》
对自己忠实，才不会对别人欺诈。
习惯简直有一种改变气质的神奇力量，它可以使魔鬼主宰人类的灵魂，也可以把他们从人们的心里驱逐出去。
《哈姆雷特》
我没有路，所以不需要眼睛；当我能够看见的时候，我也会失足颠仆，我们往往因为有所自恃而失之于大意，反不如缺陷却能对我们有益。
《李尔王》
要一个骄傲的人看清他自己的嘴脸，只有用别人的骄傲给他做镜子；倘若向他卑躬屈膝，不过添长了他的气焰，徒然自取其辱。
《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》
外观往往和事物的本身完全不符，世人都容易为表面的装饰所欺骗。
没有比较，就显不出长处；没有欣赏的人，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。要是夜莺在白天杂在聒噪里歌唱，人家绝不以为它比鹪鹩唱得更美。多少事情因为逢到有利的环境，才能达到尽善的境界，博得一声恰当的赞赏。
《威尼斯商人》
懦夫在未死以前，就已经死了好多次；勇士一生只死一次，在一切怪事中，人们的贪生怕死就是一件最奇怪的事情。
行为胜于雄辩，愚人的眼睛是比他们的耳朵聪明得多的。
《英雄叛国记》
疑惑足以败事。一个人往往因为遇事畏缩的原故，失去了成功的机会。
最好的好人，都是犯过错误的过来人；一个人往往因为有一点小小的缺点，更显出他的可爱。
《量罪记》
他赏了你钱，所以他是好人；有了拍马的人，自然就有爱拍马的人。
《黄金梦》
世界是一个舞台，所有的男男女女不过是一些演员，他们都有下场的时候，也都有上场的时候。一个人的一生中扮演着好几个角色。
《皆大欢喜》
赞美倘从被赞美自己的嘴里发出，是会减去赞美的价值的；从敌人嘴里发出的赞美才是真正的光荣。
《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》
黑暗无论怎样悠长，白昼总会到来。
世界上还没有一个方法，可以从一个人的脸上探察他的居心。
《麦克佩斯》
要是你做了狮子，狐狸会来欺骗你：
要是你做了羔羊，狐狸会来吃了你；
要是你做了狐狸，万一骗子向你告发，狮子会对你起疑心；
要是你做了骗子，你的愚蠢将使你受苦，而且你也不免做豺狼的一顿早餐……
《黄金梦》
魔鬼为了陷害我们起见，往往故意向我们说真话，在小事情上取得我们的信任，然后我们在重要的关头便会堕入他的圈套。
《麦克佩斯》
上天生下我们，是要把我们当做火炬，不是照亮自己，而是普照世界。因为我们的德行倘不能推及他人，那就等于没有一样。
《一报还一报》
一个骄傲的人，结果总是在骄傲里毁灭了自己，他一味对镜自赏，自吹自擂，遇事只顾浮夸失实，到头来只是事事落空而已。
无论一个人的天赋如何优异，外表或内心如何美好，也必须在他们德性的光辉照耀到他人身上发生了热力，再由感受他的热力的人把那热力反射到自己身上的时候，才会体会到他本身的价值的存在。
作品集
《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》
·暴风雨 ·哈姆雷特 ·维洛那二绅士
·温莎的风流娘儿们 ·一报还一报 ·错误的喜剧
·无事生非 ·爱的徒劳 ·仲夏夜之梦
·第十二夜 ·冬天的故事 ·皆大欢喜
·威尼斯商人 ·驯悍记 ·约翰王
·终成眷属 ·亨利六世上篇 ·亨利六世中篇
·亨利六世下篇 ·亨利四世上篇 ·亨利四世下篇
·亨利五世 ·理查二世 ·亨利八世
·科利奥兰纳斯 ·理查三世 ·罗密欧与朱丽叶
·泰特斯·安德洛尼克斯 ·特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达 ·奥瑟罗
·李尔王 ·麦克白 ·裘力斯·凯撒
·雅典的泰门 ·安东尼与克莉奥佩特拉 ·泰尔亲王配力克里斯
·辛白林 ·莎士比亚诗选
浓缩简介
【莎士比亚】（1564～1616） 英国著名戏剧家和诗人。出生于沃里克郡斯特拉特福镇的一个富裕市民家庭，曾在当地文法学校学习。13岁时家道中落辍学经商，约1586年前往伦敦。先在剧院门前为贵族顾客看马，后逐渐成为剧院的杂役、演员、剧作家和股东。1597年在家乡购置了房产，一生的最后几年在家乡度过。
莎士比亚是16世纪后半叶到17世纪初英国最著名的作家（本·琼斯称他为“时代的灵魂”），也是欧洲文艺复兴时期人文主义文学的集大成者。他共写有37部戏剧，154首14行诗，两首长诗和其他诗歌。长诗《维纳斯与阿多尼斯》（1592～1593）和《鲁克丽丝受辱记》（1593～1594）均取材于罗马诗人维奥维德吉尔的著作，主题是描写爱情不可抗拒以及谴责违背“荣誉”观念的兽行。14行诗（1592～1598）多采用连续性的组诗形式，主题是歌颂友谊和爱情。其主要成就是戏剧，按时代、思想和艺术风格的发展，可分为早、中、晚3个时期。
早期（1590～1600年）：这时期的伊丽莎白中央主权尚属巩固，王室跟工商业者及新贵族的暂时联盟尚在发展，1588年打败西班牙“无敌舰队”后国势大振。这使作者对生活充满乐观主义情绪，相信人文主义思想可以实现。这时期所写的历史剧和喜剧都表现出明朗、乐观的风格。历史剧如《理查三世》（1592）、《亨利三世》（1599）等，谴责封建暴君，歌颂开明君主，表现了人文主义的反封建暴政和封建割据的开明政治理想。喜剧如《仲夏夜之梦》（1596），《第十二夜》（1600）、《皆大欢喜》（16O0）等，描写温柔美丽、坚毅勇敢的妇女，冲破重重封建阻拦，终于获得爱情胜利，表现了人文主义的歌颂自由爱情和反封建禁欲束缚的社会人生主张。就连这时期写成的悲剧《罗密欧与朱丽叶》（1595）也同样具有不少明朗乐观的因素。
中期（1601～1607年）：这时英国农村的“圈地运动”正在加速进行，王权和资产阶级及新贵族的暂时联盟正在瓦解，社会矛盾深化重结，政治经济形势日益恶化，詹姆士一世继位后的挥霍无度和倒行逆施，更使人民痛苦加剧，反抗迭起。在这种情况下，莎士比亚深感人文主义理想与现实的矛盾越来越加剧，创作风格也从明快乐观变为阴郁悲愤，其所写的悲剧也不是重在歌颂人文主义理想，而是重在揭露批判社会的种种罪恶和黑暗。代表作《哈姆雷特》（16O1）展现了一场进步势力与专治黑暗势力寡不敌众的惊心动魄斗争。《奥赛罗》（1604）描写了一幕冲破封建束缚又陷入资本主义利己主义阴谋的青年男女的感人爱情悲剧。《李尔王》（1606）描写刚愎自用的封建君王在真诚和伪善的事实教育下变为一个现实而具同情心的“人”的过程。《麦克白》（1606）则揭露权势野心对人的毁灭性腐蚀毒害作用。这时期所写的喜剧《终成眷属》、《一报还一报》等也同样具有悲剧色彩。
晚期（1608～1612年）：这时詹姆士一世王朝更加腐败，社会矛盾更加尖锐。莎士比亚深感人文主义理想的破灭，乃退居故乡写浪漫主义传奇剧。其创作风格也随之表现为浪漫空幻。《辛白林》（1609）和《冬天的故事》（1610）写失散后的团聚或遭诬陷后的昭雪、和解。《暴风雨》（1611）写米兰公爵用魔法把谋权篡位的弟弟安东尼奥等所乘的船摄到荒岛，并宽恕了他，其弟也交还了王位。一场类似《哈姆雷特》的政治风暴，在宽恕感化中变得风平浪静。
马克思称莎士比亚为“人类最伟大的天才之一”。恩格斯盛赞其作品的现实主义精神与情节的生动性、丰富性。莎氏的作品几乎被翻译成世界各种文字。1919年后被介绍到中国，现已有中文的《莎士比亚全集》。
伊丽莎白一世（伊丽莎白女王）对他的态度
在莎翁的历史剧当中，君主往往是反面角色。伊丽莎白女王呢，当然知道这一点，她并没有下令禁止演出莎士比亚的戏剧。因为小莎从来就没有对女王有任何不敬，相反，他写了很多歌颂女王和她妈妈的剧本，赢得了大家的喜爱，如果他敢把女王写成反面角色，他早就人头落地了。
尽管在哈姆雷特这样的剧中，就有“脆弱啊，你的名字是女人！”这样的台词。但是呢，这并没有影响伊丽莎白女王一世界、就坐在舞台对面的包厢里看戏。 因为称女人脆弱是一种赞美，反之，如果一女的被说成刚强，则一般被认为是一种污蔑。
女王的宽容，成就了莎士比亚的艺术高度，也成就了英国整个岛国上的人民的面貌和气质。
莎士比亚的作品包括：
悲剧：罗密欧与朱丽叶，麦克白，李尔王，哈姆雷特，奥瑟罗，泰特斯·安德洛尼克斯 ，裘力斯·凯撒，安东尼与克莉奥佩屈拉（埃及艳后），科利奥兰纳斯，特洛埃围城记，雅典的泰门等。
喜剧：错中错，终成眷属，皆大欢喜，仲夏夜之梦，无事生非，一报还一报，暴风雨，驯悍记，第十二夜，威尼斯商人，温莎的风流娘们，爱的徒劳，维洛那二绅士，泰尔亲王佩力克尔斯，辛白林，冬天的故事等。
历史剧：亨利四世，亨利五世，亨利六世，亨利八世，约翰王，里查二世，里查三世。
十四行诗：爱人的怨诉，鲁克丽丝失贞记，维纳斯和阿多尼斯，热情的朝圣者，凤凰和斑鸠等。
Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18 he married Anne Hathaway, who bore him three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Between 1585 and 1592 he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of the playing company the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about such matters as his sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.
Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1590 and 1613. His early plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres he raised to the peak of sophistication and artistry by the end of the sixteenth century. Next he wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest examples in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime, and in 1623, two of his former theatrical colleagues published the First Folio, a collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare's.
Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present heights until the nineteenth century. The Romantics, in particular, acclaimed Shakespeare's genius, and the Victorians hero-worshipped Shakespeare with a reverence that George Bernard Shaw called "bardolatry". In the twentieth century, his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are consistently performed and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.
Early life
John Shakespeare's house in Stratford-upon-Avon
Shakespeare's Coat of ArmsWilliam Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, a successful glover and alderman originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised on 26 April 1564. His unknown birthday is traditionally observed on 23 April, St George's Day. This date, which can be traced back to an eighteenth-century scholar's mistake, has proved appealing because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616. He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son.
Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was educated at the King's New School in Stratford, a free school chartered in 1553, about a quarter of a mile from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but the curriculum was dictated by law throughout England, and the school would have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar and the classics. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. Two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds the next day as surety that there were no impediments to the marriage. The couple may have arranged the ceremony in some haste, since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times. Anne's pregnancy could have been the reason for this. Six months after the marriage, she gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, who was baptised on 26 May 1583. Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised on 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried on 11 August 1596.
After the birth of the twins, there are few historical traces of Shakespeare until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. Because of this gap, scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years". Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare’s first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching. Another eighteenth-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London. John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster. Some twentieth-century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will. No evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death.
London and theatrical career
It is not known exactly when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592. He was well enough known in London by then to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene:
...there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.
Scholars differ on the exact meaning of these words, but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match university-educated writers, such as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and Greene himself. The italicised phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare’s Henry VI, part 3, along with the pun "Shake-scene", identifies Shakespeare as Greene’s target.
"All the world's a stage,
and all the men and women merely players:
they have their exits and their entrances;
and one man in his time plays many parts..."
As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7, 139–42.
Greene’s attack is the first recorded mention of Shakespeare’s career in the theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene’s remarks. From 1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed only by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing company in London. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new king, James I, and changed its name to the King's Men.
In 1599, a partnership of company members built their own theatre on the south bank of the Thames, which they called the Globe. In 1608, the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Records of Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that the company made him a wealthy man. In 1597, he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, he invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford.
Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions from 1594. By 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages. Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus, His Fall (1603). The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson’s Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end. The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after Volpone, although we cannot know for certain what roles he played. In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "good Will" played "kingly" roles. In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father. Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It and the Chorus in Henry V, though scholars doubt the sources of the information.
Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford during his career. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames. He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599, the year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there. By 1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul's Cathedral with many fine houses. There he rented rooms from a French Huguenot called Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of ladies' wigs and other headgear.
Later years and death
Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-AvonAfter 1606–1607, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613. His last three plays were collaborations, probably with John Fletcher, who succeeded him as the house playwright for the King’s Men.
Rowe was the first biographer to pass down the tradition that Shakespeare retired to Stratford some years before his death; but retirement from all work was uncommon at that time, and Shakespeare continued to visit London. In 1612, he was called as a witness in a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy's daughter, Mary. In March 1613, he bought a gatehouse in the Blackfriars priory; and from November 1614, he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall.
Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, and was survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a physician, John Hall, in 1607, and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, two months before Shakespeare’s death.
Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare,
To digg the dvst encloased heare.
Blest be ye man yt spares thes stones,
And cvrst be he yt moves my bones.
Inscription on Shakespeare’s grave
In his will, Shakespeare left the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna. The terms instructed that she pass it down intact to "the first son of her body". The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without marrying. The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare’s direct line. Shakespeare's will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one third of his estate automatically. He did make a point, however, of leaving her "my second best bed", a bequest that has led to much speculation. Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance.
Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death. Sometime before 1623, a monument was erected in his memory on the north wall, with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing. Its plaque compares him to Nestor, Socrates, and Virgil. A stone slab covering his grave is inscribed with a curse against moving his bones.
Plays
Main article: Shakespeare's plays
Scholars have often noted four periods in Shakespeare's writing career. Until the mid-1590s, he wrote mainly comedies influenced by Roman and Italian models and history plays in the popular chronicle tradition. His second period began in about 1595 with the tragedy Romeo and Juliet and ended with the tragedy of Julius Caesar in 1599. During this time, he wrote what are considered his greatest comedies and histories. From about 1600 to about 1608, his "tragic period", Shakespeare wrote mostly tragedies, and from about 1608 to 1613, mainly tragicomedies called romances.
The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI, written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama. Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date, however, and studies of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus, The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew and Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare’s earliest period. His first histories, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty. Their composition was influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe[c], by the traditions of medieval drama, and by the plays of Seneca. The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models; but no source for the The Taming of the Shrew has been found, though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story. Like Two Gentlemen of Verona, in which two friends appear to approve of rape, the Shrew's story of the taming of a woman's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics and directors.
Oberon, Titania and Puck with Fairies Dancing. By William Blake, c. 1786. Tate Britain.Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his greatest comedies. A Midsummer Night's Dream is a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic low-life scenes. Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic The Merchant of Venice, contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock which reflected Elizabethan views but may appear racist to modern audiences. The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing, the charming rural setting of As You Like It, and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies. After the lyrical Richard II, written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s, Henry IV, parts I and 2, and Henry V. His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work. This period begins and ends with two tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence, love, and death; and Julius Caesar—based on Sir Thomas North's 1579 translation of Plutarch's Parallel Lives—which introduced a new kind of drama. According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro, in Julius Caesar "the various strands of politics, character, inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections on the act of writing, began to infuse each other".
Hamlet, Horatio, Marcellus, and the Ghost of Hamlet's Father. Henry Fuseli, 1780–5. Kunsthaus Zürich.Shakespeare's so-called "tragic period" lasted from about 1600 to 1608, though he also wrote the so-called "problem plays" Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and All's Well That Ends Well during this time and had written tragedies before. Many critics believe that Shakespeare's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art. The hero of the first, Hamlet, has probably been more discussed than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his famous soliloquy "To be or not to be; that is the question." Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation, the heroes of the tragedies that followed, Othello and King Lear, are undone by hasty errors of judgement. The plots of Shakespeare's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves. In Othello, the villain Iago stokes Othello's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him. In King Lear, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers, initiating the events which lead to the murder of his daughter and the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester. According to the critic Frank Kermode, "the play offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty". In Macbeth, the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies, uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth, to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne, until their own guilt destroys them in turn. In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure. His last major tragedies, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, contain some of Shakespeare's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. S. Eliot.
In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays: Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale and The Tempest, as well as the collaboration, Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors. Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part, but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day. Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays, Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen, probably with John Fletcher.
Performances
Main article: Shakespeare in performance
It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes. After the plagues of 1592–3, Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the Thames. Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges recording, "Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest...and you scarce shall have a room". When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark. The Globe opened in autumn 1599; with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged. Most of Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello and King Lear.
Reconstructed Globe Theatre, London.After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the King's Men in 1603, they entered a special relationship with the new King James. Although the performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed seven of Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The Merchant of Venice. After 1608, they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer. The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their knees."
The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous Richard Burbage, William Kempe, Henry Condell and John Heminges. Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear. The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing, among other characters. He was replaced around the turn of the sixteenth century by Robert Armin, who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear. In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII "was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony". On 29 June, however, a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision.
Textual sources
Title page of the First Folio, 1623. Copper engraving of Shakespeare by Martin Droeshout.In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's friends from the King's Men, published the First Folio, a collected edition of Shakespeare's plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first time. Many of the plays had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves. No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions, which the First Folio describes as "stol'n and surreptitious copies". Alfred Pollard termed some of them "bad quartos" because of their adapted, paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in places have been reconstructed from memory. Where several versions of a play survive, each differs from the other. The differences may stem from copying or printing errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from Shakespeare's own papers. In some cases, for example Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida and Othello, Shakespeare could have revised texts between the quarto and folio editions. The folio version of King Lear is so different from the 1608 quarto that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both, since they cannot be conflated without confusion.
Poems
In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of plague, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on erotic themes, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton. In Venus and Adonis, an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of Venus; while in The Rape of Lucrece, the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin. Influenced by Ovid's Metamorphoses, the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust. Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare's lifetime. A third narrative poem, A Lover's Complaint, in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609. Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover's Complaint. Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects. The Phoenix and the Turtle, printed in Robert Chester's 1601 Love's Martyr, mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover, the faithful turtle dove. In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim, published under Shakespeare's name but without his permission.
Sonnets
Main article: Shakespeare's sonnets
"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate..."
Lines from Shakespeare's Sonnet 18.
Published in 1609, the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership. Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare's "sugred Sonnets among his private friends". Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare's intended sequence. He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"), and one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth"). It remains unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial "I" who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth believed that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked his heart". The 1609 edition was dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.", credited as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication. Critics praise the Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time.
Style
Main article: Shakespeare's style
Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day. He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama. The poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often rhetorical—written for actors to declaim rather than speak. The grand speeches in Titus Andronicus, in the view of some critics, often hold up the action, for example; and the verse in Two Gentlemen of Verona has been described as stilted.
Soon, however, Shakespeare began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes. The opening soliloquy of Richard III has its roots in the self-declaration of Vice in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard’s vivid self-awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's mature plays. No single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style. Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with Romeo and Juliet perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles. By the time of Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, and A Midsummer Night's Dream in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had begun to write a more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself.
Pity by William Blake, 1795, Tate Britain, is an illustration of two similes in Macbeth: "And pity, like a naked new-born babe, / Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd / Upon the sightless couriers of the air".Shakespeare's standard poetic form was blank verse, composed in iambic pentameter. In practice, this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second syllable. The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later ones. It is often beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and finish at the end of lines, with the risk of monotony. Once Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow. This technique releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet. Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet's mind:
Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting
That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay
Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly—
And prais'd be rashness for it—let us know
Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well...
After Hamlet, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies. The literary critic A. C. Bradley described this style as "more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction, less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical". In the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects. These included run-on lines, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length. In Macbeth, for example, the language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed yourself?" (1.7.35–38); "...pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air..." (1.7.21–25). The listener is challenged to complete the sense. The late romances, with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last poetic style in which long and short sentences are set against one another, clauses are piled up, subject and object are reversed, and words are omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity.
Shakespeare's poetic genius was allied with a practical sense of the theatre. Like all playwrights of the time, Shakespeare dramatised stories from sources such as Petrarch and Holinshed. He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible. This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama. As Shakespeare’s mastery grew, he gave his characters clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech. He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays, however. In his late romances, he deliberately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised the illusion of theatre.
Influence
Main article: Shakespeare's influence
Macbeth Consulting the Vision of the Armed Head. By Henry Fuseli, 1793–94. Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington.Shakespeare's work has made a lasting impression on later theatre and literature. In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of characterisation, plot, language, and genre. Until Romeo and Juliet, for example, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy. Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events; but Shakespeare used them to explore characters' minds. His work heavily influenced later poetry. The Romantic poets attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success. Critic George Steiner described all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes."
Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and Charles Dickens. Dickens often quoted Shakespeare, drawing 25 of his titles from Shakespeare's works. The American novelist Herman Melville's soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick is a classic tragic hero, inspired by King Lear. Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare's works. These include two operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Otello and Falstaff, whose critical standing compares with that of the source plays. Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites. The Swiss Romantic artist Henry Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German. The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.
In Shakespeare's day, English grammar and spelling were less standardised than they are now, and his use of language helped shape modern English. Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his A Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its type. Expressions such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a foregone conclusion" (Othello) have found their way into everyday English speech.
Critical reputation
Main articles: Shakespeare's reputation and Timeline of Shakespeare criticism
"He was not of an age, but for all time."
Ben Jonson
Shakespeare was never revered in his lifetime, but he received his share of praise. In 1598, the cleric and author Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English writers as "the most excellent" in both comedy and tragedy. And the authors of the Parnassus plays at St John's College, Cambridge, numbered him with Chaucer, Gower and Spenser. In the First Folio, Ben Jonson called Shakespeare the "Soul of the age, the applause, delight, the wonder of our stage", though he had remarked elsewhere that "Shakespeare wanted art".
Ophelia (detail). By John Everett Millais, 1851–2. Tate Britain.Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the seventeenth century, classical ideas were in vogue. As a result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson. Thomas Rymer, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic. Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare". For several decades, Rymer's view held sway; but during the eighteenth century, critics began to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and acclaim what they termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly editions of his work, notably those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, added to his growing reputation. By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as the national poet. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among those who championed him were the writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal and Victor Hugo.
During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge; and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays in the spirit of German Romanticism. In the nineteenth century, critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on adulation. "That King Shakespeare," the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, "does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible". The Victorians produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale. The playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry". He claimed that the new naturalism of Ibsen's plays had made Shakespeare obsolete.
The modernist revolution in the arts during the early twentieth century, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant garde. The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow mounted productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T. S. Eliot argued against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him truly modern. Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight and the school of New Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery. In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for "post-modern" studies of Shakespeare. By the eighties, Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as structuralism, feminism, African American studies, and queer studies.
Speculation about Shakespeare
Authorship
Main article: Shakespeare authorship question
Around 150 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to emerge about the authorship of Shakespeare's works. Alternative candidates proposed include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, the Earl of Oxford. Although all alternative candidates are almost universally rejected in academic circles, popular interest in the subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory, has continued into the 21st century.
Religion
Main article: Shakespeare's religion
Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics, at a time when Catholic practice was against the law, Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, certainly came from a pious Catholic family. The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street. The document is now lost, however, and scholars differ on its authenticity. In 1591, the authorities reported that John had missed church "for fear of process for debt", a common Catholic excuse. In 1606, William's daughter Susanna was listed among those who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford. Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare's Catholicism in his plays, but the truth may be impossible to prove either way.
Sexuality
Main article: Sexuality of William Shakespeare
Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, who was pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six months later on 26 May 1583. However, over the centuries readers have pointed to Shakespeare's sonnets as evidence of his love for a young man. Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than sexual love. At the same time, the twenty-six so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets, addressed to a married woman, are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons.
List of works
Further information: List of Shakespeare's works and Chronology of Shakespeare plays
Classification of the plays
The Plays of William Shakespeare. By Sir John Gilbert, 1849.Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623, listed below according to their folio classification as comedies, histories and tragedies. Shakespeare did not write every word of the plays attributed to him; and several show signs of collaboration, a common practice at the time. Two plays not included in the First Folio, The Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles, Prince of Tyre, are now accepted as part of the canon, with scholars agreed that Shakespeare made a major contribution to their composition. No poems were included in the First Folio.
In the late nineteenth century, Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances, and though many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies, his term is often used. These plays and the associated Two Noble Kinsmen are marked with an asterisk (*) below. In 1896, Frederick S. Boas coined the term "problem plays" to describe four plays: All's Well That Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida and Hamlet. "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may therefore borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare's problem plays." The term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy. The other problem plays are marked below with a double dagger (‡).
Plays thought to be only partly written by Shakespeare are marked with a dagger (†) below. Other works occasionally attributed to him are listed as lost plays or apocrypha.
Works
Comedies
Main article: Shakespearean comedy
All's Well That Ends Well‡
As You Like It
The Comedy of Errors
Love's Labour's Lost
Measure for Measure‡
The Merchant of Venice
The Merry Wives of Windsor
A Midsummer Night's Dream
Much Ado About Nothing
Pericles, Prince of Tyre*†[d]
The Taming of the Shrew
The Tempest*
Twelfth Night, or What You Will
The Two Gentlemen of Verona
The Two Noble Kinsmen*†[e]
The Winter's Tale*
Histories
Main article: Shakespearean histories
King John
Richard II
Henry IV, part 1
Henry IV, part 2
Henry V
Henry VI, part 1† [f]
Henry VI, part 2
Henry VI, part 3
Richard III
Henry VIII†[g]
Tragedies
Main article: Shakespearean tragedy
Romeo and Juliet
Coriolanus
Titus Andronicus†[h]
Timon of Athens†[i]
Julius Caesar
Macbeth† [j]
Hamlet
Troilus and Cressida‡
King Lear
Othello
Antony and Cleopatra
Cymbeline*
Poems
Shakespeare's Sonnets
Venus and Adonis
The Rape of Lucrece
The Passionate Pilgrim[k]
The Phoenix and the Turtle
A Lover's Complaint
Lost plays
Love's Labour's Won
Cardenio†[l]
Apocrypha
Main article: Shakespeare Apocrypha
Arden of Faversham
The Birth of Merlin
Locrine
The London Prodigal
The Puritan
The Second Maiden's Tragedy
Sir John Oldcastle
Thomas Lord Cromwell
A Yorkshire Tragedy
Edward III
Sir Thomas More
[show]v • d • eEarly editions of William Shakespeare's works
Folios and Quartos Foul papers • Bad quarto • First quarto • Second quarto • First Folio • Second Folio • False Folio
Early editors John Heminges • Henry Condell • Edward Knight • John Leason • John Shakespeare • Thomas Bowdler
Publishers Robert Allot • William Aspley • John Benson • Edward Blount • Cuthbert Burby • Nathaniel Butter • Philip Chetwinde • Richard Hawkins • Henry Herringman • William Leake • Richard Meighen • Thomas Millington • Thomas Pavier • John Smethwick • Thomas Thorpe • Thomas Walkley • John Waterson • Andrew Wise
Printers Edward Allde • Thomas Cotes • Thomas Creede • George Eld • Richard Field • William Jaggard • Nicholas Okes • Peter Short • Valentine Simmes • William Stansby
Notes
a. ^ Dates use the Julian calendar, used in England throughout Shakespeare's lifespan. Under the Gregorian calendar, which was adopted in Catholic countries in 1582, Shakespeare died on May 3.
b. ^ The exact figures are unknown. See Shakespeare's collaborations and Shakespeare Apocrypha for further details.
c. ^ An essay by Harold Brooks suggests Marlowe's Edward II influenced Shakespeare's Richard III. Other scholars discount this, pointing out that the parallels are commonplace.
d. ^ Many scholars believe that Pericles was co-written with George Wilkins.
e. ^ The Two Noble Kinsmen was co-written with John Fletcher.
f. ^ Henry VI, Part 1 is often thought to be the work of a group of collaborators; but some scholars, for example Michael Hattaway, believe the play was wholly written by Shakespeare.
g. ^ Henry VIII was co-written with John Fletcher.
h. ^ Brian Vickers suggests that Titus Andronicus was co-written with George Peele, though Jonathan Bate, the play's most recent editor for the Arden Shakespeare, believes it to be wholly the work of Shakespeare.
i. ^ Brian Vickers and others believe that Timon of Athens was co-written with Thomas Middleton, though some commentators disagree.
j. ^ The text of Macbeth which survives has plainly been altered by later hands. Most notable is the inclusion of two songs from Thomas Middleton's play The Witch (1615).
k. ^ The Passionate Pilgrim, published under Shakespeare's name in 1599 without his permission, includes early versions of two of his sonnets, three extracts from Love's Labour's Lost, several poems known to be by other poets, and eleven poems of unknown authorship for which the attribution to Shakespeare has not been disproved.
l. ^ Cardenio was apparently co-written with John Fletcher.
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^ McDonald, 36, 39, 75.
^ Gibbons, 4.
^ Gibbons, 1–4.
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^ McDonald, 13.
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^ Chambers, E. K. (1944). Shakespearean Gleanings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 35. OCLC 2364570.
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• Crystal, 63.
^ Quoted in Bartlett, John, Familiar Quotations, 10th edition, 1919. Retrieved 14 June 2007.
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^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 265.
• Greer, Germaine (1986). William Shakespeare. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 9. ISBN 0192875388.
^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 266
^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 266–7
^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 269.
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^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 270–271.
• Levin, 217.
^ Dobson, Michael (1992). The Making of the National Poet: Shakespeare, Adaptation and Authorship, 1660–1769. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198183232. Cited by Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 270.
^ Grady cites Voltaire's Philosophical Letters (1733); Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1795); Stendhal's two-part pamphlet Racine et Shakespeare (1823–5); and Victor Hugo's prefaces to Cromwell (1827) and William Shakespeare (1864). Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 272–274.
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^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 276.
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^ Grady, Modernity, Modernism and Postmodernism, 29.
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• Schoenbaum, Lives, 430–40.
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•Schoenbaum, Compact, 41–2, 286.
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• Shapiro, 167.
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^ Boas, F.S (1896), Shakspere and his Predecessors, 345. Quoted by Schanzer, 1.
^ Schanzer, 1.
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^ Vickers, 8.
• Dominik, 16.
• Farley-Hills, David (1990). Shakespeare and the Rival Playwrights, 1600–06. London; New York: Routledge, 171–172. ISBN 0415040507.
^ Brooke, Nicholas (ed.) (1998). The Tragedy of Macbeth. William Shakespeare. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 57. ISBN 0192834177.
^ Wells, Oxford Shakespeare, 805.
^ Bradford, Gamaliel Jr. "The History of Cardenio by Mr. Fletcher and Shakespeare." Modern Language Notes (February 1910) 25.2, 51–56.
• Freehafer, John. "'Cardenio', by Shakespeare and Fletcher." PMLA. (May 1969) 84.3, 501–513.
Further reading
Schoenbaum, S. (1991). Shakespeare's Lives. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Greenblatt, Stephen (2005). Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare. London: Pimlico. ISBN 0712600981.
Honan, Park (1998). Shakespeare: A Life. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198117922.
Wells, Stanley, et al (2005). The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works, 2nd Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199267170.
Vendler, Helen (1997). The Art of Shakespeare's Sonnets. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674637127.