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英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| yīng guó United Kingdom shǒudōu:lún dūn guógūdàimǎ: uk |
 英国 英国guó qí： chéng héng cháng fāng xíng， cháng yǔ kuān zhī bǐ wéi 2 ∶ 1。 wéi“ mǐ” zì qí， yóu shēn lán dǐ sè hé hóng、 bái sè“ mǐ” zì zǔ chéng。 qí zhōng dài bái biān de hóng sè zhèng shí zì dài biǎo yīng gé lán shǒu hù shén shèng qiáo zhì， bái sè jiāo chā shí zì dài biǎo sū gé lán shǒu hù shén shèng 'ān dé lǔ， hóng sè jiāo chā shí zì dài biǎo 'ài 'ěr lán shǒu hù shén shèng pà tè lǐ kè。 cǐ qí chǎn shēng yú 1801 nián， shì yóu yuán yīng gé lán de bái dì hóng sè zhèng shí qí、 sū gé lán de lán dì bái sè jiāo chā shí zì qí hé 'ài 'ěr lán de bái dì hóng sè jiāo chā shí zì qí chóngdié 'ér chéng。 guó huī： jí yīng wáng huī。 zhōng xīn tú 'àn wéi yī méi dùn huī， dùn miàn shàng zuǒ shàng jiǎo hé yòu xià jiǎo wéi hóng dì shàng sān zhǐ jīn shī， xiàng zhēng yīng gé lán； yòu shàng jiǎo wéi jīn dì shàng bàn zhàn lì de hóng shī， xiàng zhēng sū gé lán； zuǒ xià jiǎo wéi lán dì shàng jīn huáng sè shù qín， xiàng zhēng běi 'ài 'ěr lán。 dùn huī liǎng cè gè yóu yī zhǐ tóu dài wáng guān、 dài biǎo yīng gé lán de shī zǐ hé yī zhǐ dài biǎo sū gé lán de dú jiǎo shòu zhī fú zhe。 dùn huī zhōu wéi yòng fǎ wén xiě zhe yī jù gé yán， yì wéi“ è yòu 'è bào”； xià duān xuán guà zhe jiā dé xūn zhāng， shì dài shàng xiě zhe“ tiān yòu shàng dì， wǒ yòu quán lì”。 dùn huī shàng duān wéi xiāng yòu zhū bǎo de jīn yín sè tóu kuī、 dì guó wáng guān hé tóu dài wáng guān de shī zǐ。 guó gē：《 tiān yòu nǚ wáng》 "godsavethequeen"（ rú zài wèi de shì nán xìng jūn zhù， guó gē gǎi wéi "godsavetheking"） miàn jī： 243600 píng fāng gōng lǐ rén kǒu： 6020 wàn（ 2005 nián 6 yuè）， 2006 nián tǒng jì， yīng guó rén kǒu dà yuē yòu 6060 wàn， xiàn zài yīng guó rén kǒu zǒng shù yuē liù qiān líng qī shí bā wàn rén。 qí zhōng yīng gé lán 4918 wàn rén， wēi 'ěr shì 290 wàn rén， sū gé lán 506 wàn rén， běi 'ài 'ěr lán 169 wàn rén (2001 nián zhōng )。 guān fāng hé tōng yòng yǔ jūn wéi yīng yǔ。 wēi 'ěr shì běi bù hái shǐ yòng wēi 'ěr shì yǔ， sū gé lán xī běi gāo dì jí běi 'ài 'ěr lán bù fēn dì qū réng shǐ yòng gài 'ěr yǔ。 jū mín duō xìn fèng jī dū jiào xīn jiào， zhù yào fēn yīng gé lán jiào huì（ yì chēng yīng guó guó jiào shèng gōng huì， qí chéng yuán yuē zhàn yīng chéng rén de 60 ％） hé sū gé lán jiào huì（ yì chēng zhǎnglǎo huì， yòu chéng nián jiào tú 66 wàn）。 lìng yòu tiān zhù jiào huì hé fó jiào、 yìn dù jiào、 yóu tài jiào jí yī sī lán jiào děng jiào dà de zōng jiào shè tuán。 yīng guó jūn zhù yī lì suō bái 'èr shì (QueenElizabethII)， quán chēng wéi“ dà bù liè diān jí běi 'ài 'ěr lán lián hé wáng guó yǔ qí tā guó tǔ hé lǐng dì zhī nǚ wáng， lián bāng de yuán shǒu”。 １ ９ ２ ６ nián ４ yuè２１ rì shēng yú lún dūn， yuán míng wéi yī lì suō bái · yà lì shān dé lā · mǎ lì (ElizabethAlexandraMary)， shì yīng guó wēn suō wáng cháo dì sì dài jūn zhù、 yīng wáng qiáo zhì liù shì de cháng nǚ。 zì yòu zài huáng gōng nèi jiē shòu jiào yù， zhù xiū xiàn fǎ shǐ hé fǎ lǜ。 tā zài lì shǐ、 yǔ yán hé yīnyuè fāng miàn yòu zào yì， néng liú lì dì jiǎng fǎ yǔ、 xī bān yá yǔ hé dé yǔ。 dì 'èr cì shì jiè dà zhàn hòu qī cān jiā yīng guó běn tǔ fǔ zhù bù duì， jiē shòu jià shǐ hé wéi xiū mó tuō chē de xùn liàn。１９４ ７ nián７ yuè９ rì， tā yǔ yuǎn fáng biǎo xiōng、 xī là hé dān mài qīn wáng fěi lì pǔ · méng bā dùn zhōng wèi（ xiàn wéi 'ài dīng bǎo gōng jué， fěi lì pǔ qīn wáng） dìng hūn， tóng nián１１ yuè２ ０ rì jié hūn。 yī lì suō bái 'èr shì yú１９ ５１ nián kāi shǐ dài biǎo yīng wáng qiáo zhì liù shì chū xí gè zhǒng zhèng shì chǎng hé。１９５２ nián２ yuè６ rì guó wáng shì shì， tā jì chéng wáng wèi。１９５ ３ nián６ yuè２ rì jiā miǎn。２００３ nián１２ yuè， yī lì suō bái 'èr shì zài lún dūn 'ài dé huá qī shì yī yuàn jiē shòu liǎn bù hé xī bù wài kē shǒu shù。 yī shēng qiē chú liǎo nǚ wáng liǎn bù de yī kuài huài pí yǔ zuǒ xī gài zhōng de pò suì ruǎn gǔ。 nǚ wáng shì yīng guó shì xí guó jiā yuán shǒu， chú yīng guó wài， nǚ wáng tóng shí yě shì 'ào dà lì yà、 xīn xī yà、 jiā ná dà děng guó jiā de yuán shǒu。 yī lì suō bái 'èr shì yòu sān zǐ yī nǚ。 zhǎngzǐ chá 'ěr sī wáng zǐ wéi wáng wèi jì chéng rén、 cì zǐ 'ān dé lǔ、 sān zǐ 'ài dé huá、 nǚ 'ér 'ài lì sī · lù yì sī gōng zhù。 yī lì suō bái 'èr shì yú１９ ８６ nián１０ yuè fǎng wèn zhōng guó， shì yīng guó lì shǐ shàng dì yī wèi lái huá fǎng wèn de guó jiā yuán shǒu。 6 yuè 17 rì， zài yīng guó shǒu dū lún dūn， yīng guó nǚ wáng yī lì suō bái 'èr shì（ zuǒ） yǔ zhàng fū fěi lì pǔ qīn wáng chéng zuò mǎ chē shǐ chū bái jīn hàn gōng， qián wǎng cān jiā zì jǐ de 80 suì shēng rì qìng diǎn。 yī lì suō bái 'èr shì de shēng rì shì 4 yuè 21 rì。 àn zhào guàn lì， yīng guó guān fāng tōng cháng xuǎn zé 6 yuè fèn de yī gè xīng qī liù wéi qí jǔ xíng shēng rì qìng diǎn。 shǒu dū： lún dūn (London)； rén kǒu： 7,172,036（ 2001 nián）。 zuì rè yuè fèn wéi 7 yuè， yī bān qì wēn zài 13 ℃ ~22℃； zuì lěng yuè fèn wéi 1 yuè， yī bān qì wēn zài 2℃ ~6℃。 2006 nián 4 yuè， běi jīng yǔ lún dūn jié wéi yǒu hǎo chéng shì。 lún dūn shì quán guó de zhèng zhì zhōng xīn， shì yīng guó wáng shì、 zhèng fǔ、 yì huì yǐ jí gè zhèng dǎng zǒng bù de suǒ zài dì。 wēi sī mǐn sī tè gōng shì yīng guó yì huì shàng、 xià liǎng yuàn de huó dòng chǎng suǒ， gù yòu chēng wéi yì huì dà tīng。 yì huì guǎng chǎng nán biān de wēi sī mǐn sī tè dà jiào táng，１０６５ nián jiàn chéng hòu yī zhí shì yīng guó guó wáng huò nǚ wáng jiā miǎn jí wáng shì chéng yuán jǔ xíng hūn lǐ de dì fāng。 nèi yòu２０ duō gè yīng guó guó wáng、 zhù míng zhèng zhì jiā、 jūn shì jiā yǐ jí niú dùn、 dá 'ěr wén、 dí gèng sī、 hā dài děng kē xué jiā、 wén xué jiā hé yì shù jiā de mù dì。 bái jīn hàn gōng shì yīng guó wáng gōng， zuò luò zài xī lún dūn de zhōng xīn qū yù， dōng jiē shèng zhān mǔ sī gōng yuán， xī jiē hǎi dé gōng yuán， shì yīng guó wáng shì chéng yuán shēng huó hé gōng zuò de dì fāng， yě shì yīng guó zhòng dà guó shì huó dòng de chǎng suǒ。 yīng guó chéng shì bó míng hàn shì yīng guó wén huà zuì duō yuán huà de chéng shì， yuē 200 wàn zǒng rén kǒu。 gēn jù 2001 nián de tǒng jì， 29.7% de rén kǒu bù shì bái zhǒng rén， yòu xǔ duō cóng jiā lè bǐ dì qū、 nán yà hé 'ài 'ěr lán lái de yí mín， shì yá mǎi jiā yǐ wài yá mǎi jiā hēi rén jī dū jiào tú zuì duō de dì qū， ài 'ěr lán rén qìng zhù“ shèng · pà tè lǐ kè” jié yóu xíng， zài bó míng hàn guī mó jǐn cì yú dū bólín hé niǔ yuē， wéi shì jiè dì sān。 yìn dù rén zài bó míng hàn fā míng de“ bā lā tí” gālí pēng rèn fǎ yǐ jīng liú xíng dào gè dì。 bó míng hàn měi nián jiē dài dà yuē 2 qiān 2 bǎi wàn yóu kè， shāng yè zhōng xīn fán huá chéng dù jǐn cì yú lún dūn xī qū。 bó míng hàn shì zhōng xīn yòu 60 gōng lǐ cháng de hé dào， zài gōng yè gé mìng shí qī， zhè xiē hé dào shì gōng yè de jiāo tōng mìng mài， dàn xiàn zài zhǐ yòu lǚ yóu yòng tú liǎo， rén men jīng cháng shuō bó míng hàn de hé dào bǐ wēi ní sī de hái yào cháng， wēi ní sī zhǐ yòu 43 gōng lǐ， shí jì shàng bó míng hàn yào bǐ wēi ní sī fàn wéi dà duō liǎo， suǒ yǐ hé liú bǐ lì méi yòu wēi ní sī dà。 zài 'èr zhàn qī jiān， bó míng hàn shòu dào měng liè de hōng zhà， wéi duō lì yà shí dài de jiàn zhù yǐ huǐ huài dài jìn， mù qián dōushì 20 shì jì 50 hé 60 nián dài chóngxīn jiàn shè de， suǒ yǐ bó míng hàn chéng wéi yīng guó zuì“ chǒu lòu” de chéng shì， jīng cháng bèi rén men chēng wéi“ hùn níng tǔ sēn lín”。 jìn nián lái， chéng shì zhōng xīn jīng guò dà lì gǎi zào， huī fù liǎo xǔ duō jiù de jiē dào， bìng jiàn liǎo xǔ duō guǎng chǎng。 lì shǐ bó míng hàn yuán lái zhǐ shì yī gè xiǎo cūn zhuāng， 14 shì jì chéng wéi yī gè dà zhèn， gōng yè gé mìng hòu， yóu yú fù jìn fā xiàn méi kuàng， chéng shì xùn sù fā zhǎn qǐ lái， chéng shì rén kǒu 1800 nián wéi 75000 rén， 1900 nián wéi 65 wàn， 1889 nián cái bèi liè rù yīng guó chéng shì míng lù。 guó qìng jié： yīng guó méi yòu chuán tǒng yì yì shàng de guó qìng jié， zhǐ yòu nǚ wáng de“ guān fāng shēng rì”。 yīng guó nǚ wáng yī lì suō bái 'èr shì de zhēn zhèng shēng rì shì 1926 nián 4 yuè 21 rì， ér qí“ guān fāng shēng rì” zé dìng zài měi nián kào jìn 6 yuè 11 rì de nà gè xīng qī liù。 měi nián de zhè gè shí hòu， yī xiàng yòu“ wù dū” zhī chēng de lún dūn tiān qì yě bǐ jiào hǎo。 qí zhù yào huó dòng， shì yóu nǚ wáng qīn zì jiǎn yuè“ jūn qí jìng lǐ fēn liè shì”。 yóu yú xīng qī liù běn lái jiù bù shì gōng zuò rì， yīn 'ér zhè yī tiān yě bù zài jiàrì zhī liè。 guó jiā zhèng yào： guó jiā yuán shǒu wéi nǚ wáng yī lì suō bái 'èr shì； zhèng fǔ shǒu nǎo wéi gōng dǎng lǐng xiù gē dēng · bù lǎng guó huā： méi guī huā guó niǎo： hóng xiōng gē guó shí： zuàn shí dì lǐ huán jìng gài kuàng : yóu dà bù liè diān dǎo shàng de yīng gé lán、 sū gé lán hé wēi 'ěr shì， yǐ jí 'ài 'ěr lán dǎo dōng běi bù de běi 'ài 'ěr lán gòng tóng zǔ chéng de dǎo guó， hái bāo kuò yī xiē yīng guó hǎi wài lǐng dì。 yīng guó běn tǔ wèi yú 'ōu zhōu dà lù xī běi miàn de bù liè diān qún dǎo， bèi běi hǎi、 yīng jí lì hǎi xiá、 kǎi 'ěr tè hǎi、 ài 'ěr lán hǎi hé dà xī yáng bāo wéi。 24.36 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ（ bāo kuò nèi lù shuǐ yù）， yīng gé lán dì qū 13.04 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， sū gé lán 7.88 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， wēi 'ěr shì 2.08 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， běi 'ài 'ěr lán 1.36 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ。 wèi yú 'ōu zhōu xī bù de dǎo guó。 yóu dà bù liè diān dǎo（ bāo kuò yīng gé lán、 sū gé lán、 wēi 'ěr shì）、 ài 'ěr lán dǎo dōng běi bù hé yī xiē xiǎo dǎo zǔ chéng。 gé běi hǎi、 duō fó 'ěr hǎi xiá、 yīng jí lì hǎi xiá yǔ 'ōu zhōu dà lù xiāng wàng。 tā de lù jiè yǔ 'ài 'ěr lán gòng hé guó jiē rǎng。 hǎi 'àn xiàn zǒng cháng 11450 gōng lǐ。 quán jìng fēn wéi sì bù fēn： yīng gé lán dōng nán bù píng yuán、 zhōng xī bù shān qū、 sū gé lán shān qū、 běi 'ài 'ěr lán gāo yuán hé shān qū。 hé liú : sài wén hé（ 354 gōng lǐ） hé tài wù shì hé（ 346 gōng lǐ）。 běi 'ài 'ěr lán de nèi yī hú theloughneagh（ 396 píng fāng gōng lǐ） miàn jī jū quán guó zhī shǒu。 qì hòu : shǔ hǎi yáng xìng wēn dài kuò yè lín qì hòu， zhōng nián wēn hé shī rùn。 tōng cháng zuì gāo qì wēn bù chāo guò 32℃， zuì dī qì wēn bù dī yú － 10℃， píng jūn qì wēn 1 yuè 4 ～ 7℃， 7 yuè 13～ 17℃。 duō yǔ wù， qiū dōng yóu shèn。 nián píng jūn jiàng shuǐ liàng yuē 1000 háo mǐ。 běi bù hé xī bù shān qū de nián jiàng shuǐ liàng chāo guò 2000 háo mǐ， zhōng bù hé dōng bù zé shǎo yú 800 háo mǐ。 měi nián 'èr yuè zhì sān yuè zuì wéi gān zào， shí yuè zhì lái nián yī yuè zuì wéi shī rùn。 quán guó qì hòu lèi xíng wéi wēn dài hǎi yáng xìng qì hòu。 shí chā : jīng guò lún dūn gé lín ní zhì tiān wén tái yuán zhǐ de běn chū zǐ wǔ xiàn de suǒ zài shí qū wéi líng shí qū。 bǐ běi jīng shí jiān wǎn 8 xiǎo shí qì hòu : wēn dài hǎi yáng xìng qì hòu yīng guó shēng huó xí sú shēng huó zhōng de shù zì zài yīng guó， chéng rén píng jūn měi zhōu 22 xiǎo shí cóng shì quán rì gōng zuò huò quán rì jiào yù， bìng yǐ xiāng tóng shù liàng de shí jiān yòng yú jiā wù láo dòng。 ér cóng shì jiā wù láo dòng de rén de xìng bié réng yǐ fù nǚ wéi zuì gāo。 dàn fù nǚ cān jiā gōng zuò de yuè lái yuè duō。 jù guó jiā tǒng jì jú zuì xīn tǒng jì， fù nǚ cān jiā gōng zuò de bǐ lì 45%。 zài fēi tǐ lì gōng zuò bù mén， fù nǚ zhàn yī bàn。 ér zài fú wù hángyè， fù nǚ zé zhàn yī bàn duō， kě wèi " bàn biān tiān "！ zhuī qiú jiǎn dān、 shū shì de shēng huó xī fú réng chēng dé shàng shì yīng guó de guó fú， dàn shì， suī rán shàng bān zú xī zhuāng gé lǚ， shèn zhì zài zhòng yào chǎng hé， nán shì zhe yàn wěi fú， nǚ shì zhe dī xiōng wǎn lǐ fú， dàn shì， hěn duō lǎo bǎi xìng rì cháng xǐ huān chuān xiū xián fú， shì yàng jiǎn dān、 shū fú hé tǐ。 yīng guó rén de yǐn shí xí guàn yì shì yàng jiǎn dān， zhù zhòng yíng yǎng。 zǎo cān tōng cháng shì mài piàn yù chōng niú nǎi huò yī bēi guǒ zhī， tú shàng huáng yóu de kǎo miàn bāo piàn， xūn xián ròu huò jiān xiāng cháng、 jī dàn。 zhōng wǔ， hái zǐ men zài xué xiào chī wǔ cān， dà rén de wǔ cān jiù zài gōng zuò dì diǎn fù jìn mǎi shàng yī fèn sān míng zhì， jiù yī bēi kā fēi， dǎ fā liǎo shì。 zhǐ yòu dào zhōu mò， yīng guó rén de fàn zhuō shàng cái huì fēng shèng yī fān。 tōng cháng zhù cài shì ròu lèi， rú kǎo jī ròu、 kǎo niú ròu、 kǎo yú děng。 shū cài pǐn zhǒng fán duō， xiàng juǎnxīncài、 xīn xiān wān dòu、 tǔ dòu、 hú luóbo děng。 shū cài yī bān dōubù zài jiā gōng， zhuāng zài pán lǐ， jiāo shàng cóng chāo shì mǎi huí de xiàn chéng tiáoliào biàn shí yòng。 zhù cài zhī hòu zǒng yòu yī dào yì xiāo huà de tián shí， rú shāo zhǔ shuǐ guǒ、 guǒ liào bù dīng、 nǎi lào、 bīng jī líng děng。 gōng yuán yǔ lǜ dì yīng guó qì hòu wēn hé、 shī rùn。 yī nián sì jì shì hé gè zhǒng huā cǎo shù mù de shēngzhǎng。 zhèng fǔ zài zhì dìng shì qū guī huá shí， jīhū zài měi yī gè shēng huó xiǎo qū dū zhuān mén guī huá chū yī dà kuài lǜ dì huò gōng yuán， gōng rén men xiū xī huò sàn bù， wéi hái zǐ men xī xì tí gōng kōng jiān。 yóu yú dōng jì yīn yǔ duō wù， shǐ xià tiān de tài yáng duì yīng guó rén lái shuō biàn de tè bié bǎo guì。 zài yáng guāng càn làn de zhōu mò， jiàrì， gōng yuán lǐ， shā tān shàng dào chù tǎng mǎn liǎo xiǎng shòu tài yáng yù de rén men。 gèng yòu yīng guó rén yǐ bǎ zì jǐ de pí fū shài chéng zōng sè fā liàng wéi shí máo。 zì jǐ dòng shǒu zuò yīng guó rén xǐ huān zài zhōu mò jiàrì lǐ zì jǐ dòng shǒu xiū shàn fáng wū， zhì zuò jiā jù， zhuāng xiū fáng jiān， xiū zhěng huā yuán。 shèn zhì zì jǐ zhì zuò táo cí gōng yì pǐn， jīhū wú suǒ bù néng。 zhè bù jǐn jǐn chū yú jīng jì kǎo lǜ， ér shì bǎ cǐ kàn zuò shì péi yǎng gè rén jì néng， táo yě gè rén qíng cāo， yě shì xiū xián de shēng huó fāng shì zhī yī。 tōng guò zì jǐ dòng shǒu zuò， néng shǐ zì jǐ de jū shì gèng jiā shū shì， gèng jù gè xìng huà。 kù 'ài yùn dòng jù yīng guó guó jiā tǒng jì jú zuì xīn tǒng jì， zài 1996 zhì 1997 nián jiān , yòu zhàn zǒng rén kǒu 72% de nán gōng mín hé 57% de nǚ gōng mín， zài 4 zhōu zhī nèi， zhì shǎo cān jiā yī tǐ yù yùn dòng。 qīng shàonián cān jiā xiào wài tǐ yù huó dòng de bǐ lì gèng gāo。 zài zhòng duō de tǐ yù yùn dòng xiàng mù zhōng， qí zì xíng chē、 tī zú qiú、 dǎ sī nuò kè qiú、 dǎ wǎng qiú、 yóu yǒng hé huá hàn bīng xié， shì zhòng duō nán nǚ gòng tóng 'àihào de xiàng mù。 ér měi tiān sàn bù liǎng yīng lǐ huò gèng cháng de jù lí， yī zhí shì liú xíng de yùn dòng。 fēng fù duō cǎi de jiàrì měi nián wài chū lǚ yóu dù jiǎ duì dà duō shù yīng guó bǎi xìng lái shuō， wú lùn shí jiān cháng duǎn， guó nèi huò guó wài， dōushì shēng huó zhōng bì bù kě shǎo de。 jù yīng guó lǚ yóu jī gòu diào chá， 1996 nián， yīng guó jū mín dù guò 4 yè huò 4 yè yǐ shàng jiàqī de rén gòng jì 5,900 wàn， chāo guò liǎo yīng guó rén kǒu de zǒng shù， ér 1997 nián yīng guó jū mín lí jiā dù jiǎ chāo guò yī yè de rén dá 7,080 wàn。 chú lǚ yóu wài， yīng guó rén zài zhōu mò、 yínháng jié、 fù huó jié děng wǔ huā bā mén de jiàrì zhōng de yú lè hé xiāo qiǎn jié mù gèng shì fēng fù duō cǎi： huán jìng yōu yǎ de diàn yǐng yuàn、 yīnyuè tīng、 gē jù yuàn hé xià jì lù tiān yīnyuè huì gèng wéi bù tóng jiē céng、 bù tóng nián líng hé bù tóng kǒu wèi de rén men zhǔn bèi liǎo gè shì gè yàng de jié mù。 shù mù zhòng duō de bó wù guǎn、 míng shèng gǔ jì gèng wéi rén men tí gōng liǎo zuì jiā xiū xián qù chù。 rú jī sì kě de dú zhě zài yīng guó 242,500 píng fāng gōng lǐ de guó tǔ shàng， biàn bù tú shū guǎn hé yuè lǎn shì yuē 5,000 suǒ ( bāo kuò zhuān yè tú shū guǎn、 yuàn xiào tú shū guǎn 300 duō suǒ )。 wú lùn bái tiān huò wǎn shàng， tú shū guǎn nèi cháng cháng shì zuò wú xū xí。 jiè shū、 chá yuè zī liào、 liú lǎn bào zhǐ、 xiě wén zhāng de rén yòu xué shēng、 lǎo rén、 gōng sī gù yuán， nǎi zhì gōng rén。 hěn duō tú shū guǎn hé yuè lǎn shì tí gōng IT。 jìn dài yīng guó lì shǐ zī chǎn jiē jí gé mìng shèng lì hòu , zī běn yuán shǐ jī lěi gèng jiā xùn sù。 yì huì fǎ lìng shǐ juàn dì hé fǎ huà , juàn dì guī mó xùn sù kuò dà。 zài guǎng dà bèi juàn zhàn tǔ dì shàng jiàn lì qǐ zī běn zhù yì nóng chǎng huò mù chǎng， bèi bō duó shēng chǎn zī liào de nóng mín chéng wéi " zì yóu " láo dòng lì。 guó nèi shì chǎng kuò dà。 1689～ 1763 nián jiān， yīng fǎ wéi zhēng duó zhí mín dì lǚ kāi zhàn duān。 fǎ guó zī chǎn jiē jí gé mìng bào fā hòu， yīng guó zhèng fǔ zài 1793～ 1815 nián qī jiān， jī jí zǔ zhì bìng cān jiā fǎn fǎ lián méng。 zài zhěng gè 18 shì jì， yīng guó chéng wéi fàn mài hēi nú de guó jì zhōng xīn。 zài guó nèi， zhèng fǔ shí xíng bǎo hù guān shuì zhèng cè， gāo guān shuì zǔ zhǐ wài guó shāng pǐn shū rù， jiǎng lì běn guó gōng yè pǐn chū kǒu， yǐ dī shuì bǎo hù běn guó gōng shāng yè fā zhǎn。 yǐ shàng zhǒng zhǒng yuán shǐ jī lěi shǒu duàn wéi gōng yè shēng chǎn de biàn gé tí gōng liǎo qián tí。 18 shì jì hòu bàn yè， zài gōng yè shēng chǎn zhōng chū xiàn bìng kāi shǐ shǐ yòng jī qì， zhè biāo zhì zhe gōng yè gé mìng de kāi shǐ。 biàn gé shǒu xiān fā shēng zài mián fǎng zhì yè。 1733 nián zhì jī zhōng kāi shǐ cǎi yòng fēi suō， 60～ 70 nián dài fǎng shā jī pǔ biàn cǎi yòng； 80 nián dài， zhēng qì jī tóu rù shǐ yòng。 suí zhe zhēng qì jī cǎi yòng fàn wéi de kuò dà , tè bié shì jī qì zhì zào yè de chū xiàn , gōng yè gé mìng xùn sù kuò zhǎn dào gè bù mén。 dào 19 shì jì 30～ 40 nián dài， gè zhù yào gōng yè bù mén dū cǎi yòng jī qì， dà jī qì shēng chǎn zài fǎng zhì yè zhōng yǐ zhàn zhù dǎo dì wèi。 yīng guó cóng nóng yè guó fā zhǎn chéng gōng yè guó， gōng yè gé mìng zhì cǐ jī běn wán chéng。 gōng yè gé mìng gǎi biàn liǎo yīng guó de jīng jì dì lǐ miàn mào， xī běi dì qū xīng qǐ yī pī gōng yè dà chéng shì , rén kǒu yě xiàng nà lǐ jí zhōng。 19 shì jì zhōng yè , yīng guó yǐ chéng wéi shì jiè shàng dì 1 gè gōng yè qiáng guó。 gōng yè gé mìng zào jiù liǎo liǎng gè xīn jiē jí héng héng gōng yè zī chǎn jiē jí hé gōng yè wú chǎn jiē jí， tā men zhī jiān de duì lì hé dǒu zhēng chéng wéi yīng guó gōng yè zī běn zhù yì shè huì de jī běn máo dùn。 guó jiā zhèng zhì yīng guó méi yòu chéng wén xiàn fǎ， yīng guó de xiàn fǎ bù tóng yú jué dà duō shù guó jiā de xiàn fǎ， bìng bù shì yī gè dú lì de wén jiàn， tā shì yóu chéng wén fǎ、 xí guàn fǎ、 guàn lì zǔ chéng。 zhù yào yòu dà xiàn zhāng（ 1215 nián）、 rén shēn bǎo hù fǎ（ 1679 nián）、 quán lì fǎ 'àn（ 1689 nián）、 yì huì fǎ（ 1911、 1949 nián） yǐ jí lì cì xiū gǎi de xuǎn jǔ fǎ、 shì zì zhì fǎ、 jùn yì huì fǎ děng。 sū gé lán lìng yòu zì jǐ dú lì de fǎ lǜ tǐ xì。 zhèng tǐ wéi jūn zhù lì xiàn zhì。 guó wáng shì guó jiā yuán shǒu、 zuì gāo sī fǎ zhǎngguān、 wǔ zhuāng bù duì zǒng sī lìng hé yīng guó shèng gōng huì de“ zuì gāo lǐng xiù”， xíng shì shàng yòu quán rèn miǎn shǒuxiàng、 gè bù dà chén、 gāo jí fǎ guān、 jūn guān、 gè shǔ dì de zǒng dū、 wài jiāo guān、 zhù jiào jí yīng guó shèng gōng huì de gāo jí shén zhí rén yuán děng， bìng yòu zhào jí、 tíng zhǐ hé jiě sàn yì huì， pī zhǔn fǎ lǜ， xuān zhàn gòu hé děng quán lì， dàn shí quán zài nèi gé。 yì huì shì zuì gāo sī fǎ hé lì fǎ jī gòu， yóu guó wáng、 shàng yuàn hé xià yuàn zǔ chéng。 shàng yuàn（ guì zú yuàn） bāo kuò wáng shì hòu yì、 shì xí guì zú、 xīn fēng guì zú、 shàng sù fǎ yuàn fǎ guān hé jiào huì dà zhù jiào jí zhù jiào zǔ chéng。 1999 nián 11 yuè， shàng yuàn gǎi gé fǎ 'àn tōng guò， chú 92 míng liú rèn wài， 600 duō míng shì xí guì zú shī qù shàng yuàn yì yuán zī gé， fēi zhèng zhì rèn mìng de shàng yuàn yì yuán jiāng yóu zhuān mén de huáng jiā wěi yuán huì tuī jiàn。 xià yuàn yě jiào píng mín yuàn， yì yuán yóu pǔ xuǎn chǎn shēng， cǎi qǔ zuì duō piào dāng xuǎn de xiǎo xuǎn qū xuǎn jǔ zhì dù， rèn qī 5 nián。 dàn zhèng fǔ kě jué dìng tí qián dà xuǎn。 zhèng fǔ shí xíng nèi gé zhì， yóu nǚ wáng rèn mìng zài yì huì xuǎn jǔ zhōng huò duō shù xí wèi de zhèng dǎng lǐng xiù chū rèn shǒu xiāng bìng zǔ gé， xiàng yì huì fù zé。 yīng guó péi shěn tuán de lì shǐ kě yǐ zhuī sù dào zhōng shì jì， zhì jīn yǐ jīng shì qí xíng shì fǎ zhì gēn shēn dì gù de zǔ chéng bù fēn liǎo。 cóng jià zhí xuǎn zé lái kàn， bù nán fā xiàn， zhè shí jì shàng yě shì rén wéi dì jiāng fǎ lǐ yǔ qíng lǐ jié hé zài yī qǐ de zhì dù shè jì。 fǎ lǜ gù rán shì shè huì guān xì de tiáojié qì， dàn“ fǎ yòu xiàn 'ér qíng wú qióng” de gù yòu máo dùn cóng wèi xiāo shī guò； fǎ guān gù rán shì jīng tōng fǎ lǜ de， dàn cún zài zhe jī xiè zhí fǎ、 wú shì qíng lǐ de kě néng xìng。 lái zì shè huì de péi shěn yuán men suī rán bù dǒng fǎ lǜ， què dǒng shè huì qíng lǐ。 yī gè rén nán yǐ dài biǎo fù zá de shè huì xīn lǐ， dàn lái zì fāng fāng miàn miàn de１２ gè rén yīngdāng shuō chàbù duō liǎo。 zhī xiǎo qíng lǐ de péi shěn tuán hé jīng tōng fǎ lǐ de fǎ guān jié hé zài yī qǐ， zhè bù néng bù shuō shì yī gè qiǎo miào de zǔ hé。 zhè bù děng yú gòu bìng méi yòu péi shěn tuán de sù sòng mó shì， gèng bù děng yú shuō bù shè péi shěn zhì dù jiù bì rán huì chū xiàn qíng yǔ fǎ de chōng tū。 nà me duō dà lù fǎ xì guó jiādōu méi yòu péi shěn tuán， bù zhào yàng hǎohǎo de má？ méi yòu péi shěn tuán， dìng rán yòu bié de jié hé fāng shì， bǐ rú zhì dù céng miàn hé cāo zuò céng miàn。 xíng shì kě yǐ duō zhǒng duō yàng， dàn lǐ niàn yīngshì xiāng jìn de， jí gāng xìng zhī fǎ hé róu xìng zhī lǐ de tǒng chóu jiān gù。 yòu yī diǎn hái xū zhù yì， qíng lǐ shì róu xìng de hé bù jù tǐ de， dàn xī nà qíng lǐ de tú jìng hé fàn wéi yīngshì gāng xìng de hé jù tǐ de， yán fáng qíng duì fǎ de suí yì qīn shí。 zhèng dǎng： （ 1） gōng dǎng（ LabourParty）： zhí zhèng dǎng。 1900 nián chéng lì， yuán míng láo gōng dài biǎo wěi yuán huì， 1906 nián gǎi yòng xiàn míng。 gāi dǎng céng yú 1924， 1929~1931， 1945~1951 nián， 1964~1970 nián， 1974~1979 nián shàng tái zhí zhèng。 1997 nián dà xuǎn huò shèng， 2001 nián 6 yuè dà xuǎn hòu chán lián zhí zhèng。 gōng dǎng jìn nián lái gèng duō qīng xiàng yú zhōng chǎn jiē jí de lì yì， yǔ gōng huì guān xì yòu suǒ shū yuǎn。 bù lāi 'ěr dāng xuǎn gōng dǎng lǐng xiù hòu， zhèng zhì shàng tí chū“ xīn gōng dǎng、 xīn yīng guó” de kǒu hào， qǔ xiāo dǎng zhāng zhōng yòu guān gōng yòu zhì de dì sì tiáo kuǎn， jīng jì shàng zhù zhāng jiǎn shǎo zhèng fǔ gān yù， yán gé kòng zhì gōng gòng kāi zhī， bǎo chí hóng guān jīng jì wěn dìng zēngzhǎng， jiàn lì xiàn dài fú lì zhì dù。 duì wài zhù zhāng jī jí cānyù guó jì hé zuò， duì 'ōu zhōu yī tǐ huà chí jī jí tài dù， zhù zhāng jiā rù 'ōu yuán， zhù zhāng tóng měi guó bǎo chí tè shū guān xì。 xiàn yòu dǎng yuán jìn 40 wàn míng， shì yīng guó dì yī dà dǎng。 （ 2） bǎo shǒu dǎng（ ConservativeParty): zhù yào fǎn duì dǎng。 qián shēn wéi 1679 nián chéng lì de tuō lì dǎng， 1833 nián gǎi chēng xiàn míng。 gāi dǎng cóng 1979 zhì 1997 nián 4 cì lián xù zhí zhèng， chéng wéi 20 shì jì zài yīng guó zhàn zhù dǎo dì wèi de zhèng dǎng。 zài 1997 nián 5 yuè hé 2001 nián 6 yuè liǎng cì dà xuǎn zhōng cǎn bài yú gōng dǎng。 bǎo shǒu dǎng de zhī chí zhě yī bān lái zì qǐ yè jiè hé fù yù jiē céng， zhù zhāng zì yóu shì chǎng jīng jì。 tōng guò yán gé kòng zhì huò bì gōng yìng liàng hé jiǎn shǎo gōng gòng kāi zhī děng cuò shī lái yā dī tōng huò péng zhàng。 zhù zhāng xiàn zhì gōng huì quán lì， jiā qiáng“ fǎ lǜ” hé“ zhì xù”。 jìn nián lái， tí chū shí xíng“ fù yòu tóng qíng xīn de bǎo shǒu zhù yì”， guān zhù jiào yù、 yī liáo、 pín kùn děng shè huì wèn tí。 qiáng diào wéi hù yīng guó zhù quán， fǎn duì“ lián bāng 'ōu zhōu”， fǎn duì jiā rù 'ōu yuán， zhù zhāng jiàn lì“ dà xī yáng gòng tóng tǐ” yǐ jiā qiáng yīng měi tè shū guān xì。 qiáng diào běi yuē réng shì yīng guó 'ān quán yǔ fáng wù de jī shí。 xiàn yòu dǎng yuán 30 duō wàn míng。 （ 3） zì yóu mín zhù dǎng (TheLiberalDemocratParty)： 1988 nián 3 yuè yóu yuán zì yóu dǎng hé shè huì mín zhù dǎng nèi zhī chí tóng zì yóu dǎng hé bìng de duō shù pài zǔ chéng。 zhù zhāng jì xù wéi chí yǔ gōng dǎng de hé zuò guān xì， tuī dòng gōng dǎng zài dì fāng xuǎn jǔ jí xià yuàn xuǎn jǔ zhōng shí xíng bǐ lì dài biǎo zhì， zài gōng gòng fú wù、 shè huì gōng zhèng、 huán jìng bǎo hù děng wèn tí shàng cǎi qǔ bǐ gōng dǎng gèng“ jìn bù” de zhèng cè。 xiàn yòu dǎng yuán yuē 10 wàn míng， shì yīng guó dì sān dà dǎng。 yīng guó yì huì yī、 lì fǎ lì fǎ shì yīng guó yì huì de dì yī xiàng zhí zé。 suǒ wèi yì huì de zhì zūn dì wèi jiù shì zhǐ yì huì de lì fǎ quán。 cóng lǐ lùn shàng jiǎng， yì huì yòu quán zhì dìng hé fèi chú xiàn fǎ yǐ xià de rèn hé yī xiàng fǎ lǜ； cǐ wài， yīng guó fǎ lǜ bǔ chéng rèn rèn hé rén hé dān wèi yòu quán tuī fān huò fèi qì yì huì suǒ tōng guò de fǎ lǜ。 cóng zhè gè yì yì shàng shuō， yì huì shì yīng guó“ quán lì de jī chǔ”， yīng guó zhōng yāng de yī qiē xiàn zhèng quán lì jiē yóu xuǎn mín fù yú liǎo yì huì， rán hòu yì huì zài jiāng xíng zhèng quán shòu yú zhèng fǔ， jiāng sī fǎ quán shòu yú fǎ yuàn， ér zì jǐ zhí jiē xíng shǐ lì fǎ quán。 yì huì jí sān quán yú yī shēn， gāo yú zhèng fǔ hé fǎ yuàn。 tā tōng guò zhǎng wò lì fǎ quán lái tǐ xiàn zì jǐ de dì wèi， tóng shí yě shì jiè zhù yú lì fǎ lái shí xiàn duì zhèng fǔ hé fǎ yuàn de yuē shù。 bù guò shí jiàn zhōng， zhèng fǔ shì yì huì lì fǎ gōng zuò de zǔ zhì zhě hé lǐng dǎo zhě， yì huì zài lì fǎ guò chéng zhōng méi yòu zhù dòng quán， yǐ zhì yú yóu xué zhě zhǐ chū： xiàn dài yīng guó yì huì de lì fǎ gōng zuò bù guò shì duì zhèng fǔ tí chū yì 'àn yú yǐ“ shěn yì、 pī píng、 pī zhǔn”。 yīng guó de lì fǎ guò chéng dà tǐ yòu sān gè huán jié： zhǔn bèi bìng tí chū yì 'àn； shěn yì bìng tōng guò yì 'àn； pī zhǔn yì 'àn shǐ zhī chéng wéi fǎ lǜ。 yì huì shěn yì de yì 'àn fēn sān zhǒng： gōng yì 'àn、 sī yì 'àn hé hùn hé yì 'àn。 gōng yì 'àn kě yǐ tí jiāo gěi liǎng yuàn zhōng de rèn hé yī gè， sī yì 'àn tōng cháng yóu jīng shòu quán de dāng shì rén de dài lǐ rén tí chū， hùn hé yì 'àn yóu yī gè tè bié wěi yuán huì chǔlǐ。 suǒ yòu zhè xiē yì 'àn zài jīng guò liǎo yì huì liǎng yuàn de gè gè jiē duàn hòu， jí chéng sòng guó wáng pī zhǔn， yóu guó wáng bān fā tè xǔ zhèng shū， zài jiāo yóu yì cháng zài liǎng yuàn xuān bù。 （ yī） zhèng fǔ yì 'àn jué dà duō shù gōng yì 'àn dōushì zhèng fǔ yì 'àn。 zhèng fǔ yì 'àn zài yì huì shěn yì shí yòu yōu xiān dì wèi。 yóu yú zhí zhèng dǎng tōng cháng zài xià yuàn zhōng zhàn yòu duō shù yì xí， suǒ yǐ zhèng fǔ yì 'àn yī bān néng gòu tōng guò。 zhè shí， yì huì suǒ qǐ de zuò yòng shí jì shàng bìng bù shì“ lì fǎ” ér shì jiāng zhèng fǔ fǎ 'àn xuān bù wéi hé fǎ。 dàn shì， méi yòu xià yuàn de tóng yì， rèn hé yì 'àn dōubù néng chéng wéi fǎ lǜ。 nèi gé duì fǎ 'àn qǐ cǎo gōng zuò shí xíng tǒng yī kòng zhì。 qǐ cǎo gōng zuò yóu zhuān mén de fǎ 'àn qǐ cǎo shì wán chéng， qǐ cǎo shì shè zài cái zhèng bù nèi。 zhèng fǔ lì fǎ jìhuà nèi de zhòng yào yì 'àn， yóu guó wáng zài 11 yuè fèn yì huì kāi mù shì de jiǎng huà zhōng gōng bù， suí hòu sòng dào liǎng yuàn zhōng de rèn hé yī gè shěn yì， tōng cháng qíng kuàng xià shì xiàn sòng dào xià yuàn。 zhèng cháng qíng kuàng xià， zhèng fǔ yì 'àn yào jīng liǎng yuàn tōng guò； dàn zhù yào shì shè jí cái zhèng shì wù de yì 'àn yǒng héng yóu xià yuàn shěn yì tōng guò。 yì huì fǎ hái guī dìng， zài tè dìng huán jìng xià， xià yuàn kě bù jīng guò shàng yuàn 'ér tōng guò yì 'àn。 liǎng yuàn tōng guò fǎ 'àn de guò chéng xiāng sì。 （ èr） pǔ tōng yì yuán yì 'àn pǔ tōng yì yuán yì 'àn zhàn yīng guó yì huì xià yuàn měi nián shěn yì yì 'àn de 10％。 ér qiě zhè zhǒng yì 'àn de tōng guò shuài yě bǐ jiào dī， dàn réng yòu qí zhòng yào jià zhí。 zhè zhǒng yì 'àn qǐ dào liǎo duì zhèng fǔ yì 'àn shí yí bǔ quē de zuò yòng。 cǐ wài hái tǐ xiàn liǎo mín zhù xiàn zhèng jīng shén， qǐ dào liǎo tiáojié zhèng fǔ yǔ yì huì zhī jiān xiàn zhèng guān xì de zuò yòng。 pǔ tōng yì yuán yì 'àn zài xià yuàn shěn yì shí shòu dào yī dìng chéng dù de qí shì， tā men zhí néng zài yì huì kāi huì shí jiān de měi xīng qī wǔ（ chōu qiān jué dìng） bèi tǎo lùn。 pǔ tōng yì yuán yì 'àn yě kě yǐ lì yòng“ 10 fēn zhōng guī zé” hé“ pǔ tōng tí jiāo fǎ” tí chū。 zài shěn yì pǔ tōng yì yuán yì 'àn de guò chéng zhōng， tí 'àn zhě bù néng zhǐ wàng dǎng jì bǎo jiá， zhǐ néng yǐ kào yì yuán gè rén nǔ lì lái shuō fú quán yuàn jiē shòu。 （ sān） sī yì 'àn sī yì 'àn yóu yì huì wài de gè rén、 tuán tǐ、 dì fāng zhèng fǔ tí chū， tōng cháng shì yóu dì fāng zhèng fǔ tí chū。 jù tǐ cāo zuò shì yóu tí chū sī yì 'àn de dài lǐ rén lái jìn xíng， dài lǐ rén yào jiāng yì 'àn tí jiāo xià yuàn sī yì 'àn bàn gōng shì。 sī yì 'àn dà bù fēn zhuǎn gěi shàng yuàn chǔlǐ， qí shěn yì chéng xù yǔ gōng yì 'àn xiāng jìn， zhǐ bù guò duō shù gōng zuò yóu wěi yuán huì wán chéng。 （ sì） hùn hé fǎ 'àn hùn hé fǎ 'àn yán gé lái shuō shì gōng yì 'àn， zhǐ bù guò qí zhōng mǒu xiē tiáo kuǎn yǐng xiǎng liǎo sī rén de quán lì， bāo hán zhe yī xiē sī yì 'àn de xìng zhì。 yī xiàng yì 'àn shì fǒu shǔ yú hùn hé yì 'àn， yóu xià yuàn sī yì 'àn bàn gōng shì cái jué huò yóu yì cháng cái jué。 hùn hé yì 'àn yī bān tí jiāo gěi yī gè tè bié wěi yuán huì chǔlǐ， qí chéng xù yǔ shěn yì sī yì 'àn dà tóng xiǎo yì。 （ wǔ） wěi tuō lì fǎ zhè zhǒng zhì dù jiù shì， yì huì tōng guò de fǎ 'àn zhǐ guī dìng yī bān de yuán zé， ér shòu quán gěi nèi gé dà chén huò dé fàng xíng zhèng bù mén qù guī dìng xì zé 'ér chéng wéi fǎ lìng。 shí xíng zhè zhǒng zhì dù zhù yào shì wèile jiǎn shǎo yì huì de yā lì， yě shì yìng liǎo nèi gé quán lì bù duàn kuò dà de jìn chéng。 yì huì tōng cháng jiāng quán lì wěi tuō gěi nà xiē zhí jiē xiàng yì huì fù zé de bù mén， qiě bǎo liú què rèn huò xuān bù wěi tuō lì fǎ wú xiào de jī huì。 liǎng yuàn shè lì yī gè lián hé wěi yuán huì lái bào gào zhì dìng zhōng de fǎ lìng de jìn dù qíng kuàng。 wèile jié shěng quán yuàn dà huì de shí jiān， xià yuàn lì yòng cháng wù wěi yuán huì lái biàn lùn fǎ lìng de jià zhí， píng pàn jué dìng shí jì shàng shì zài quán yuàn wěi yuán huì shàng zuò chū。 zài shàng yuàn， duì fǎ lìng de biàn lùn shì zài quán yuàn dà huì shàng jìn xíng de。 shàng yuàn shòu quán gěi yī gè shěn chá wěi yuán huì lái kǎo chá bèi shòu quán de jī gòu shì fǒu zhèng què xíng shǐ liǎo quán lì。 èr、 jiān kòng cái zhèng yīng guó yì huì de lì shǐ yǔ zhēng duó kòng zhì cái zhèng quán fēn bù kāi。 yì huì jiù shì tōng guò zhǎng wò cái zhèng lái kòng zhì zhèng fǔ de zhèng cè hé gōng zuò de。 1911 nián de yì huì fǎ bān bù hòu， yì huì duì zhèng fǔ cái zhèng de jiān kòng quán wán quán zhuǎn yí dào liǎo xià yuàn， shàng yuàn wú quán tōng guò hé fǒu jué cái zhèng yì 'àn， zhǐ néng duì xià yuàn de jué dìng biǎo shì tóng yì。 bù guò yì huì duì cái zhèng dà quán de kòng zhì zhǐ shì lǐ lùn shàng de。 yì huì duì zhèng fǔ cái zhèng kòng zhì de xiào guǒ lìng yì yuán men shī wàng， fǎn dǎo shì zhèng fǔ zhēn zhèng kòng zhì liǎo cái zhèng dà quán。 rèn hé cái zhèng yì 'àn bì xū yóu zhèng fǔ tí chū， xià yuàn fāng kě shòu lǐ。 jiāng cái zhèng tí yì quán shòu yú zhèng fǔ shì yǔ yīng guó xiàn zhèng zhì dù de tè diǎn mìqiè xiāng guān。 zé rèn nèi gé zhì yào qiú nèi gé yōng yòu jué cè quán， ér cái zhèng jué cè shì gè zhǒng guó shì jué cè zhōng zuì shǒu yào de jué cè， zhè jiù jué dìng liǎo bì xū yóu zhèng fǔ zhǎng wò cái zhèng jué cè quán， ér yì huì yīnggāi wéi hù zhèng fǔ zuò chū de cái zhèng jué cè。 dàn zhè bìng bù děng yú yì huì zài cái zhèng wèn tí shàng wú suǒ zuò wéi。 yì huì réng kě yǐ duì zhèng fǔ de cái zhèng shì wù jìn xíng jiān kòng， zhù yào tǐ xiàn zài： dì yī， rèn hé cái zhèng tí 'àn bì xū shǒu xiān xiàng yì huì xià yuàn tí chū， yóu xià yuàn shěn yì、 biǎo jué； dì 'èr， rèn hé cái zhèng yì 'àn bì xū zhuǎn huà wéi lì fǎ， cái jù yòu fǎ lǜ xiào lì。 yì huì jiān kòng cái zhèng de jī gòu fēn liǎng gè céng cì， jí quán yuàn dà huì hé wěi yuán huì。 quán yuàn dà huì jiān kòng shǒu duàn yòu sān： biàn lùn、 zhì xún hé lì fǎ。 wěi yuán huì de jiān kòng zhù yào cè zhòng yú gēn zōng xiāng yìng de zhèng fǔ bù mén de gōng zuò hé zhèng cè， bìng tōng guò lián luò wěi yuán huì xiàng quán yuàn dà huì bào gào suǒ huò dé de qíng kuàng。 zài wěi yuán huì zhōng， qǐ zuò yòng zuì dà de shì guó jiā zhàng mù wěi yuán huì。 yì huì jiān kòng cái zhèng de qú dào zhù yào yòu liǎng tiáo： yī shì jiān kòng cái zhèng shōu rù， ér shì jiān kòng cái zhèng zhī chū。 yīng guó xiàn fǎ yīng guó xiàn fǎ yǔ jué dà duō shù guó jiā xiàn fǎ bù tóng， bù shì yī gè dú lì de wén jiàn， tā yóu chéng wén fǎ、 xí guàn fǎ、 guàn lì zǔ chéng。 zhù yào yòu dà xiàn zhāng（ 1215 nián）、 rén shēn bǎo hù fǎ（ 1679 nián）、 quán lì fǎ 'àn（ 1689 nián）、 yì huì fǎ（ 1911、 1949 nián） yǐ jí lì cì xiū gǎi de xuǎn jǔ fǎ、 shì zì zhì fǎ、 jùn yì huì fǎ děng。 zhèng tǐ wéi jūn zhù lì xiàn zhì。 jūn zhù shì guó jiā yuán shǒu、 zuì gāo sī fǎ zhǎngguān、 wǔ zhuāng bù duì zǒng sī lìng hé yīng guó shèng gōng huì de“ zuì gāo lǐng xiù”， xíng shì shàng yòu quán rèn miǎn shǒuxiàng、 gè bù dà chén、 gāo jí fǎ guān、 jūn guān、 gè shǔ dì de zǒng dū、 wài jiāo guān、 zhù jiào jí yīng guó shèng gōng huì de gāo jí shén zhí rén yuán děng， bìng yòu zhào jí、 tíng zhǐ hé jiě sàn yì huì， pī zhǔn fǎ lǜ， xuān zhàn gòu hé děng quán lì， dàn shí quán zài nèi gé。 sū gé lán yòu zì jǐ dú lì de fǎ lǜ tǐ xì。 quán shì jiè dì yī gè chéng wén xiàn fǎ chū zì měi guó， rán 'ér qí fǎ zhì jīng shén què lái zì yīng guó mǔ tǐ。 dà xiàn zhāng gòng 65 tiáo， qí nèi róng fēn sān bù fēn： dì yī bù fēn wèiguó wáng yǔ lǐng zhù guān xì guī dìng； dì 'èr bù fēn wèiguó wáng shī zhèng fāng zhēn yǔ chéng xù guī dìng； dì sān bù fēn wèiguó wáng yǔ lǐng zhù zhēng duān chǔlǐ guī dìng。 àn zhào dà xiàn zhāng de guī dìng， guó wáng yào bǎo zhàng guì zú hé qí shì de fēng jiàn jì chéng quán， bù dé wéi lì xiàng fēng jiàn zhù zhēng shōu gāo 'é juān shuì， bù dé rèn yì dài bǔ、 jiān jìn、 fàng zhú zì yóu rén huò mòshōu tā men de cái chǎn， chéng rèn lún dūn děng chéng shì de zì zhì quán。 wèile bǎo zhèng xiàn zhāng bù luò kōng， yóu 25 míng nán jué zǔ chéng yī gè wěi yuán huì， duì guó wáng jìn xíng jiān dū， rú guǒ xiàn zhāng zāo dào pò huài， fēng jiàn lǐng zhù yòu quán yǐ jūn shì shǒu duàn qiǎngpò guó wáng lǚ yuē。 yīng guó yǐ hòu de xiàn zhèng， zhuī gēn sù yuán jí lái zì dà xiàn zhāng， qí jī běn jīng shén jí wáng quán yòu xiàn hé gè rén zì yóu。 yòu de xué zhě rú sī tuō bù sī jiù rèn wéi， zhěng gè yīng guó xiàn zhèng shǐ， shí jì shàng shì dà xiàn zhāng de zhù shì shǐ。 sī fǎ： yòu sān zhǒng bù tóng de fǎ lǜ tǐ xì： yīng gé lán hé wēi 'ěr shì shí xíng pǔ tōng fǎ xì， sū gé lán shí xíng mín fǎ fǎ xì， běi 'ài 'ěr lán shí xíng yǔ yīng gé lán xiāng sì de fǎ lǜ zhì dù。 sī fǎ jī gòu fēn mín shì fǎ tíng hé xíng shì fǎ tíng liǎng gè xì tǒng。 zài yīng gé lán hé wēi 'ěr shì， mín shì shěn lǐ jī gòu 'àn jí fēn wéi jùn fǎ yuàn、 gāo děng fǎ yuàn、 shàng sù fǎ yuàn mín shì tíng、 shàng yuàn。 xíng shì shěn lǐ jī gòu 'àn jí fēn wéi dì fāng fǎ yuàn、 xíng shì fǎ yuàn、 shàng sù fǎ yuàn xíng shì tíng、 shàng yuàn。 yīng guó zuì gāo sī fǎ jī guān wéi shàng yuàn， tā shì mín、 xíng 'àn jiàn de zuì zhōng shàng sù jī guān。 1986 nián chéng lì huáng jiā jiǎn chá yuàn， lì shǔ yú guó jiā zhèng fǔ jī guān， fù zé shòu lǐ suǒ yòu de yóu yīng gé lán hé wēi 'ěr shì jǐng chá jī guān tí jiāo de xíng shì sù sòng 'àn。 zǒng jiǎn chá cháng hé fù zǒng jiǎn chá cháng shì yīng zhèng fǔ de zhù yào fǎ lǜ gù wèn bìng zài mǒu xiē guó nèi hé guó jì 'àn jiàn zhōng dài biǎo wáng shì。 yīng guó péi shěn tuán de lì shǐ kě yǐ zhuī sù dào zhōng shì jì， zhì jīn yǐ jīng shì qí xíng shì fǎ zhì gēn shēn dì gù de zǔ chéng bù fēn liǎo。 cóng jià zhí xuǎn zé lái kàn， bù nán fā xiàn， zhè shí jì shàng yě shì rén wéi dì jiāng fǎ lǐ yǔ qíng lǐ jié hé zài yī qǐ de zhì dù shè jì。 fǎ lǜ gù rán shì shè huì guān xì de tiáojié qì， dàn“ fǎ yòu xiàn 'ér qíng wú qióng” de gù yòu máo dùn cóng wèi xiāo shī guò； fǎ guān gù rán shì jīng tōng fǎ lǜ de， dàn cún zài zhe jī xiè zhí fǎ、 wú shì qíng lǐ de kě néng xìng。 lái zì shè huì de péi shěn yuán men suī rán bù dǒng fǎ lǜ， què dǒng shè huì qíng lǐ。 yī gè rén nán yǐ dài biǎo fù zá de shè huì xīn lǐ， dàn lái zì fāng fāng miàn miàn de１２ gè rén yīngdāng shuō chàbù duō liǎo。 zhī xiǎo qíng lǐ de péi shěn tuán hé jīng tōng fǎ lǐ de fǎ guān jié hé zài yī qǐ， zhè bù néng bù shuō shì yī gè qiǎo miào de zǔ hé。 zhè bù děng yú gòu bìng méi yòu péi shěn tuán de sù sòng mó shì， gèng bù děng yú shuō bù shè péi shěn zhì dù jiù bì rán huì chū xiàn qíng yǔ fǎ de chōng tū。 nà me duō dà lù fǎ xì guó jiādōu méi yòu péi shěn tuán， bù zhào yàng hǎohǎo de má？ méi yòu péi shěn tuán， dìng rán yòu bié de jié hé fāng shì， bǐ rú zhì dù céng miàn hé cāo zuò céng miàn。 xíng shì kě yǐ duō zhǒng duō yàng， dàn lǐ niàn yīngshì xiāng jìn de， jí gāng xìng zhī fǎ hé róu xìng zhī lǐ de tǒng chóu jiān gù。 yòu yī diǎn hái xū zhù yì， qíng lǐ shì róu xìng de hé bù jù tǐ de， dàn xī nà qíng lǐ de tú jìng hé fàn wéi yīngshì gāng xìng de hé jù tǐ de， yán fáng qíng duì fǎ de suí yì qīn shí。 guó jiā jīng jì yīng guó shì shì jiè jīng jì qiáng guó zhī yī， qí 2007 nián guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí wèi jū shì jiè dì wǔ。 yīng guó zhì zào yè zài guó mín jīng jì zhōng de bǐ zhòng yòu suǒ xià jiàng； fú wù yè hé néng yuán suǒ zhàn de bǐ zhòng bù duàn zēng dà， qí zhōng shāng yè、 jīn róng yè hé bǎo xiǎn yè fā zhǎn jiào kuài。 lǚ yóu yè shì yīng zuì zhòng yào de jīng jì bù mén zhī yī。 nián chǎn zhí 700 duō yì yīng bàng， lǚ yóu shōu rù zhàn shì jiè lǚ yóu shōu rù de 5％ zuǒ yòu。 yǔ yǐ fēng guāng lǚ yóu wéi zhù de guó jiā bù tóng， yīng guó de wáng shì wén huà hé bó wù guǎn wén huà shì lǚ yóu yè de zuì dà kàn diǎn。 zhù yào lǚ yóu diǎn yòu lún dūn、 ài dīng bǎo、 jiā de fū、 bù lài dùn、 gé lín wēi zhì、 sī tè lā fú、 niú jīn、 jiàn qiáo děng。 yīng guó shì shì jiè dì sì dà mào yì guó， mào yì 'é zhàn shì jiè mào yì zǒng 'é de 5％ yǐ shàng， shāng pǐn hé láo wù chū kǒu yuē zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 25％。 yīng zhù yào chū kǒu jī xiè、 qì chē、 háng kōng shè bèi、 diàn qì hé diàn zǐ chǎn pǐn、 huà gōng chǎn pǐn hé shí yóu， zhù yào jìn kǒu yuán cái liào hé shí pǐn。 yīng guó hái shì shì jiè dì liù dà hǎi wài tóu zī guó hé dì liù dà duì wài yuán zhù guó。 lún dūn shì shì jiè xìng jīn róng hé mào yì zhōng xīn。 lǚ yóu yè shì yīng zuì zhòng yào de jīng jì bù mén zhī yī。 2001 nián， lǚ yóu yè chǎn zhí dá 728 yì yīng bàng； cóng lǚ yóu shōu rù shàng jì suàn， 2001 nián， yīng guó shì shì jiè dì qī dà lǚ yóu guó， shōu rù zhàn shì jiè lǚ yóu shōu rù de 3.4％。 2002 nián 3 yuè， cóng yè rén yuán 205.6 wàn， qí zhōng zì yóu zhí yè zhě yuē wéi 14.8 wàn rén。 2001 nián yīng guó guó nèi lǚ yóu chǎn zhí yuē 595 yì yīng bàng。 2001 nián， dào yīng guó de wài guó yóu kè dá 2280 wàn， bǐ 2000 nián jiǎn shǎo 9％。 qí zhōng xī 'ōu yóu kè bǐ shàng nián jiǎn shǎo 8%， wéi 1287 wàn rén， běi měi yóu kè bǐ shàng nián jiǎn shǎo 13％， dá 423 wàn rén， qí tā dì qū yóu kè jiǎn shǎo 9%， dá 375 wàn， hǎi wài lǚ yóu zǒng shōu rù wéi 113 yì yīng bàng。 shāng wù lǚ yóu shōu rù 34 yì yīng bàng， zhàn hǎi wài lǚ yóu zǒng shōu rù de 30％， bìng yòu jì xù fā zhǎn qū shì。 2001 nián， guó nèi yóu kè shōu rù 595 yì yīng bàng。 2000 nián， quán yīng jiǔ diàn yè zǒng yíng yè 'é wéi 566 yì yīng bàng， bǐ 2000 nián zēngzhǎng 7.2%。 2001 nián， quán yīng yòu gè lèi lǚ guǎn 6 wàn duō jiā； zhù cè cān yǐn yè qǐ yè yòu 51500 jiā， zǒng yíng yè 'é wéi 182 yì yīng bàng， bǐ 2000 nián zēngzhǎng 12.1%； gè lèi jiǔ guǎn gòng yòu yuē 49500 jiā， zì 1990 nián yǐ lái jiǎn shǎo 8%。 2001 nián 2 yuè fēng niú bìng de bào fā hé“ 9·11 shì jiàn” yán zhòng yǐng xiǎng yīng guó lǚ yóu yè， sǔn shī dá 150 yì yīng bàng。 zhù yào lǚ yóu dì qū yòu： lún dūn、 ài dīng bǎo、 jiā de fū、 bù lài dùn、 gé lín wēi zhì、 sī tè lā fú、 niú jīn、 jiàn qiáo děng。 zhù yào guān guāng jǐng diǎn yòu： gē jù yuàn、 bó wù guǎn、 měi shù guǎn、 gǔ jiàn zhù wù、 zhù tí gōng yuán hé shāng diàn děng。 yuē 50% de hǎi wài yóu kè zhù yào zài lún dūn cān guān yóu lǎn。 fú wù yè bāo kuò jīn róng bǎo xiǎn yè、 líng shòu yè、 lǚ yóu yè hé shāng yè fú wù（ tí gōng fǎ lǜ jí zī xún fú wù děng）。 jìn nián lái fā zhǎn xùn sù， dào 2001 nián dǐ cóng yè rén yuán dá 2280 wàn， zhàn zǒng jiù yè rén kǒu de 77.5％。 2001 nián zǒng chǎn zhí bǐ 2000 nián zēng jiā 1%， qí zēng jiā zhí zhàn guó nèi zǒng chǎn zhí zēng jiā zhí de 71.4％。 lún dūn shì shì jiè zhù míng jīn róng zhōng xīn， cóng shì kuà guó yínháng jiè dài、 wài huì jiāo yì、 guó jì zhài quàn fā xíng、 jī jīn tóu zī děng yè wù， tóng shí yě shì shì jiè zuì dà bǎo xiǎn shì chǎng， zuì dà huáng jīn xiàn huò jiāo yì shì chǎng jí chuán dài shì chǎng yǐ jí zhòng yào fēi guì zhòng jīn shǔ jiāo yì zhōng xīn。 jīn róng yè shì yīng guó mào yì píng héng de zhù lì， chǎn zhí zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 5％ yǐ shàng， cóng yè rén yuán 100 duō wàn， dá dào chuàng jì lù de 132 yì yīng bàng。 gōng dǎng zhèng fǔ zhí zhèng hòu shǒu cì jìn xíng jīn róng jiān guǎn gǎi gé， bìng yú 1998 nián 6 yuè chéng lì liǎo jīn róng fú wù guǎn lǐ jú， qǔ dài yuán xiān yīng gé lán yínháng de jiān guǎn zhí néng。 yīng guó zhèng fǔ gǔ lì wài guó xiàng yīng guó tóu zī， bìng jiāng qí shì wéi yǐn jìn xīn jì shù、 xīn chǎn pǐn、 xīn de guǎn lǐ fāng fǎ hé tí gāo jiù yè、 zēng jiā chū kǒu de yòu xiào tú jìng。 jìn nián lái， yīng guó chéng wéi wài shāng zài 'ōu zhōu tóu zī de shǒu xuǎn dì。 2001 nián， yīng guó xī yǐn wài guó tóu zī zǒng 'é 538 yì měi yuán， jū shì jiè dì sān wèi。 měi guó shì yīng guó de zuì dà tóu zī guó， tóu zī 'é zhàn 48.4%， qí cì shì dé guó、 jiā ná dà hé rì běn， fēn bié zhàn 8.2%、 6.4% hé 5.9%。 tóu zī lǐng yù bāo kuò qì chē、 tōng xùn、 xìn xī、 diàn zǐ、 yī liáo shè bèi、 jīn róng fú wù、 shí pǐn、 yǐn liào děng。 tóu zī xíng shì wéi shōu gòu、 jiān bìng xiàn yòu qǐ yè、 kuò jiàn yǐ yòu shēng chǎn chǎng、 jiàn lì kē yán jī dì huò kuà guó gōng sī qū yù zǒng bù děng。 2000 nián， wài guó zài yīng zhí jiē tóu zī 862 yì yīng bàng， zhèng quàn tóu zī 1746 yì yīng bàng， qí tā tóu zī 2818 yì yīng bàng。 jié zhǐ dào 2000 nián dǐ， wài guó zài yīng lěi jī zhí jiē tóu zī 'é wéi 3235 yì yīng bàng， zhèng quàn tóu zī zǒng 'é 10321 yì yīng bàng， qí tā tóu zī 'é 16853 yì yīng bàng， zǒng 'é 30408 yì yīng bàng。 yīng guó pǐn pái GiorgioArmani bā bǎo lì zūn ní huò jiā dì duǒ dēng xǐ lù zhī huá shì 555 xiāng yān huì fēng yīng guó gōng gòng jiāo tōng jiāo tōng jī chǔ shè shī jiào qí quán。 lù lù、 tiě lù、 shuǐ lù、 háng kōng yùn shū jūn jiào fā dá。 lún dūn yòu shí fēn fā dá de dì tiě wǎng。 1994 nián yīng fǎ hǎi dǐ suì dào guàn tōng， jiāng yīng guó de tiě lù xì tǒng yǔ 'ōu zhōu dà lù de tiě lù xì tǒng lián jiē qǐ lái。 gōng dǎng zhèng fǔ mù qián zhèng tàn tǎo zhì dìng zōng hé jiāo tōng zhèng cè， yǐ jiě jué jiāo tōng yōng jǐ hé wū rǎn wèn tí。 jìn nián lái de jiāo tōng yùn shū qíng kuàng： tiě lù： 1997 nián wán chéng sī yòu huà。 tiě lù zǒng cháng 3.2 wàn gōng lǐ。 2000 nián tiě lù yùn shū zēngzhǎng 2.0%， qīng guǐ tiě lù yùn shū yě chéng shàng shēng qū shì。 2000-2001 nián kè yùn liàng wéi 470 yì rén gōng lǐ。 2002 nián 1 yuè， yīng zhèng fǔ xuān bù xīn de zhàn lüè xìng tiě lù 10 nián gǎi gé jìhuà， yǐ huǎn jiě yùn shū yā lì， tí gāo yùn yíng zhì liàng。 zhèng fǔ tóu rù 335 yì yīng bàng， qí yú suǒ xū 635 yì yīng bàng jiāng xiàng sī rén tóu zī zhě chóu jí。 gōng lù： dào 2000 nián， gōng lù zǒng cháng dá 39.2 wàn gōng lǐ， qí zhōng 3500 gōng lǐ wéi gāo sù gōng lù。 2001 nián， gōng lù zǒng yùn shū liàng yuē 6790 yì rén gōng lǐ。 dào 2001 nián dǐ zhǐ， zhù cè de jī dòng chē liàng zǒng shù wéi 2974.7 wàn liàng， qí zhōng xiǎo qì chē 2389.9 wàn liàng（ 240 wàn liàng wéi gōng sī suǒ yòu）， huò chē 422 wàn liàng , gè lèi mó tuō chē 88.2 wàn liàng， gōng gòng qì chē 8.9 wàn liàng。 shuǐ yùn： nèi hé háng yùn xiàn zǒng cháng 3200 gōng lǐ， zhù yào yòng yú yóu lǎn jí gǎi shàn zì rán huán jìng， bù fēn yòng yú huò yùn。 jié zhǐ 2001 nián dǐ， gòng yòu 100 dūn yǐ shàng shāng chuán 594 sōu， zǒng dūn wèi wéi 1200 wàn dūn。 hǎi yùn chéng dān liǎo 95%（ zài zhòng） de duì wài mào yì yùn shū。 2001 nián， yīng guó háng chuán yè shōu rù 37 yì yīng bàng， qí zhōng huò yùn shōu rù 28 yì yīng bàng。 yīng guó yòu dà xiǎo gǎng kǒu 300 duō gè， qí zhōng 70 gè wéi zhòng yào shāng yè gǎng kǒu。 2001 nián yīng guó gǎng kǒu chū kǒu 2.36 yì dūn， jìn kǒu 3.29 yì dūn , qí zhōng 52 gè zhù yào gǎng kǒu zǒng tūn tù liàng dá 5.48 yì dūn，， qí yú měi nián tūn tù liàng 100 wàn dūn yǐ xià de xiǎo gǎng tūn tù zǒng liàng wéi 1600 wàn dūn。 tūn tù liàng chāo guò 1000 wàn dūn de gǎng kǒu yòu： lún dūn、 dì sī－ hā tè pǔ 'ěr、 gé lǐ mǔ sī bǐ - yīn míng hàn、 fú sī、 nán 'ān pǔ dùn、 sà lún wò、 lì wù pǔ、 fěi lì kè sī tuō、 mǐ 'ěr fú dé - hēi wén、 duō fó děng。 kōng yùn： yīng guó de suǒ yòu háng kōng gōng sī hé xǔ duō jī chǎng dōushì sī yíng qǐ yè。 2000 nián yòu háng kōng fēi jī yuē 889 jià（ bù bāo kuò zhí shēng jī）， 2001 nián cóng yè rén yuán 93000 yú rén。 guó jì háng xiàn zǒng cháng 4.6 yì gōng lǐ。 2000 nián， yīng guó gè háng bān gòng fēi xíng 15.12 yì gōng lǐ， wéi lì lái zuì cháng， bǐ 1990 nián gāo chū 78.8%。 2001 nián mín háng bān jī kè yùn liàng 1.04 yì rén cì， huò yùn liàng 92.5 wàn dūn。 gòng yòu 150 duō gè zhù cè mín yòng jī chǎng， nián kè liú liàng zài 10 wàn rén cì yǐ shàng de zhàn 1/4， zhù yào yòu： xī sī luó（ shì jiè zuì fán máng jī chǎng zhī yī）、 gài tè wēi kè、 màn chè sī tè、 gé lā sī gē、 bó míng hàn、 ài dīng bǎo děng。 yīng guó háng kōng gōng sī (BritishAirways) shì yīng guó zuì dà de háng kōng gōng sī， yě shì shì jiè zuì dà háng kōng gōng sī zhī yī。 2001-2002 nián gāi gōng sī yíng yè 'é wéi 83 yì yīng bàng。 2001 nián“ 9.11” shì jiàn yǐ lái， yīng guó mín háng shòu míng xiǎn chōng jī， wéi yù fáng jié jī shì jiàn fā shēng， zhèng fǔ jiā qiáng liǎo mín háng 'ān quán bǎo zhàng gōng zuò。 huò bì： yīng bàng（ Pound） gōng yè : háng kōng háng tiān、 diàn zǐ、 shí huà、 hé néng、 qì chē、 fǎng zhì、 yě jīn、 jī xiè、 zào chuán děng nóng yè : dà mài、 xiǎo mài、 yàn mài、 tián cài、 mǎ líng shǔ děng kuàng chǎn : méi、 tiě、 shí yóu、 tiān rán qì děng guó jiā jūn shì jiàn jūn shí jiān yuē zài 17 shì jì zhōng qī。 nǚ wáng wéi yīng jūn míng yì shàng de zuì gāo tǒng shuài。 zuì gāo jūn shì jué cè jī gòu shì“ guó fáng yǔ hǎi wài zhèng cè wěi yuán huì”， shǒuxiàng rèn zhù xí， chéng yuán yòu guó fáng dà chén、 wài jiāo dà chén、 nèi zhèng dà chén、 cái zhèng dà chén děng； bì yào shí guó fáng cān móu cháng hé sān jūn cān móu cháng liè xí huì yì。 guó fáng bù wèiguó fáng zhí xíng jī gòu， jì shì zhèng fǔ xíng zhèng bù mén， yòu shì jūn shì zuì gāo sī lìng bù。 yīng guó shì běi yuē jí tuán de chuàng shǐ guó hé zhù yào chéng yuán guó， yōng yòu dú lì de hé lì liàng， guó jiā zhàn lüè de hé xīn shì： jī jí cānyù shì jiè shì wù， wéi hù yīng guó de guó jì dì wèi； yǐ kào hé jiè zhù běi yuē jí tǐ fáng wù lì liàng lái bǎo wèi 'ōu zhōu hé yīng guó běn tǔ de 'ān quán， bìng kuò dà yīng guó zài 'ōu zhōu de yǐng xiǎng； jī jí jiā qiáng yǔ yīng lián bāng guó jiā de lián xì， bǎo hù qí guǎng fàn de hǎi wài lì yì。 2004 nián 7 yuè， yīng guó zhèng fǔ gōng bù liǎo jìn shí jǐ nián lái guī mó zuì dà de yī cì jūn shì tiáozhěng jìhuà， duì lù、 hǎi、 kōng sān jūn bīng zhǒng jié gòu jí jūn shì zhuāng bèi jìn xíng tiáozhěng， yǐ zēng jiā bù duì zài yuǎn chéng zuò zhàn zhōng de líng huó jī dòng néng lì， cóng 'ér gèng hǎo shì yìng xiàn dài zhàn zhēng de xū yào jí yòu xiào yìng duì 21 shì jì de quán qiú xìng wēi xié。 jù yīng guó fáng bù tí gōng de shù zì， yīng jūn xiàn yòu zǒng bīng lì yuē wéi 20 ． 56 wàn rén， qí zhōng lù jūn 10． 95 wàn， hǎi jūn 4． 24 wàn， kōng jūn 5． 37 wàn。 2004~2005 cái zhèng nián dù de guó fáng yù suàn yuē wéi 297 yì yīng bàng， 2007~2008 cái zhèng nián dù yòu wàng zēng cháng dào 334 yì yīng bàng。 wén huà jiào yù jiào yù： shí xíng 5~16 suì yì wù jiào yù zhì dù。 1998 ／ 1999 cái zhèng nián dù jiào yù jīng fèi zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 4． 9％。 gōng lì xué xiào xué shēng miǎn jiāo xué fèi。 sī lì xué xiào shī zī tiáo jiàn yǔ jiào xué shè bèi dū jiào hǎo， dàn shōu fèi gāo， xué shēng duō wéi fù jiā zǐ dì。 zhù míng de gāo děng xué xiào yòu niú jīn dà xué、 jiàn qiáo dà xué、 lún dūn zhèng zhì jīng jì xué yuàn、 ài dīng bǎo dà xué。 shì jiè shǒu gè guó jiā bó wù guǎn héng héng dà yīng bó wù guǎn yīng guó bó wù guǎn： wén huà tǐ yàn“ bù mǎi piào” yīng guó guó lì bó wù guǎn miǎn fèi kāi fàng yòu zhāo shù。 xīn wén chū bǎn： yīng guó bào zhǐ de rén jūn xiāo liàng bǐ rèn hé fā dá guó jiā dedōu duō。 quán guó gòng yòu yuē 1350 zhǒng bào zhǐ， 7000 zhǒng zhōu kān hé zá zhì：《 měi rì kuài bào》、《 měi rì yóu bào》、《 měi rì jìng bào》、《 měi rì xīng bào》、《 tài yáng bào》、《 jīn róng shí bào》、《 měi rì diàn xùn bào》、《 wèi bào》、《 dú lì bào》、《 tài wù shì bào》、《 shì jiè xīn wén》、《 xīng qī rì kuài bào》、《 xīng qī rì jìng bào》、《 xīng qī rì yóu bào》、《 rén mín bào》、《 xīng qī rì diàn xùn bào》、《 guān chá jiā bào》 hé《 xīng qī rì tài wù shì bào》。 tōng xùn shè zhù yào yòu 3 jiā：（ 1） lù tòu shè： 1850 nián chéng lì， jí tǐ hé yíng， shì jiè zhòng yào tōng xùn shè zhī yī， zǒng bù shè zài lún dūn。（ 2） xīn wén lián hé shè： 1868 nián chuàng bàn， yóu PA xīn wén、 PA tǐ yù、 PA jiǎn suǒ hé PA shù jù shè jì 4 jiā gōng sī lián hé jīng yíng， zhuān mén wéi yīng guó hé jiā ná dà de qǐ yè tí gōng gōng guān hé tóu zī xìn xī。（ 3） AFX xīn wén yòu xiàn gōng sī： yóu fǎ xīn shè yǔ jīn róng shí bào lián hé jīng yíng， xiàng 'ōu zhōu de jīn róng jí qǐ yè jiè tí gōng xìn xī hé fú wù， zài 'ōu zhōu 12 gè guó jiā、 měi guó jí rì běn shè lì fēn zhī jī gòu， zǒng bù zài lún dūn。 yīng guó guǎng bō gōng sī（ wú xiàn diàn guǎng bō wǎng）（ BBCNetworkRadio） yú 1922 nián chuàng bàn。 jié rì： 1、 shèng dàn jié： yīng guó de shèng dàn jié shì zuì zhòng yào de jiā tíng jié rì。 12 yuè 25 rì hé 26 rì liǎng tiān shì guó jiā fǎ dìng jié rì。 2、 xīn nián： 1 yuè 1 rì yě shì gōng gòng jié rì。 zài xīn nián qián yè rén men tōng cháng huì 'áo dào shēn yè， yíng jiē xīn nián de dào lái。 zài sū gé lán， xīn nián qián yè bèi kàn zuò shì dà nián yè， shèn zhì shì bǐ shèng dàn jié gèng yòu jié rì qì fēn de shí hòu。 3、 fù huó jié： fù huó jié méi yòu gù dìng de rì qī， shì zài 3 yuè mò hé 4 yuè zhōng xún zhī jiān。 gōng gòng jiàqī cóng xīng qī wǔ yī zhí dào fù huó jié hòu de xīng qī yī， zhè shí hòu yòu yòu tè bié de zōng jiào huó dòng， hái zǐ men huì shōu dào qiǎo kè lì cǎi dàn。 zài fù huó jié dāng tiān， chéng zhèn yòu fù huó jié yóu xíng。 zài fù huó jié qián de xīng qī sì， nǚ wáng měi nián huì fǎng wèn yī zuò bù tóng de dà jiào táng， sòng dāng dì jū mín yī xiē jīn qián， bèi chēng wéi zhuó zú jié jiù jì jīn， zuò wéi xiàng zhēng xìng de lǐ wù。 tǐ yù： 1. yīng guó shì xiàn dài zú qiú de fā xiáng dì , shì xiàn dài wǎng qiú , yǔ máo qiú , pīng pāng qiú de dàn shēng dì ( bù shì fā yuán dì 'ò ) 2.1966 nián jǔ bàn shì jiè bēi， yīng gé lán duì běn tǔ duóguàn。 3.1996 nián chéng gōng jǔ bàn 'ōu zhōu bēi 4. lún dūn yú 2006 nián 7 yuè 6 rì chéng gōng shēn bàn jiāng yú 2012 nián jǔ bàn de xià jì 'ào yùn huì 5. měi nián 7 yuè fèn jiāng zài lún dūn nán bù de wēn bù 'ěr dùn jǔ xíng wēn bù 'ěr dùn wǎng qiú gōng kāi sài， zhè shì wǎng qiú sì dà mǎn guàn sài shì zhōng de yī xiàng。 duì wài guān xì yīng guó wéi lián hé guó 'ān lǐ huì cháng rèn lǐ shì guó， shì shì jiè wǔ gè hé dà guó zhī yī， shì 'ōu méng、 běi yuē、 yīng lián bāng、 xī 'ōu lián méng děng 120 gè guó jì zǔ zhì de zhòng yào chéng yuán guó。 zhù zhāng tóng měi guó jiā qiáng guān xì， zhòng shì fā zhǎn yǔ qí tā dà guó de guān xì， nǔ lì gǎi shàn tóng zhōng、 é、 yìn、 rì děng dà guó de guān xì。 nǔ lì wéi xì tóng yīng lián bāng guó jiā de chuán tǒng lián xì， bǎo chí hé kuò dà zài fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā de yǐng xiǎng。 jī jí cānyù quán qiú shì wù， bǎo chí qiáng dà de guó fáng lì liàng、 qiáng diào zì yóu mào yì。 jiā qiáng zài huán jìng bǎo hù、 rén quán、 kě chí xù fā zhǎn děng wèn tí shàng de guó jì hé zuò。 jiāng rén quán wèn tí zuò wéi qí wài jiāo zhèng cè de hé xīn。 yǔ zhōng guó guān xì 1997 nián 7 yuè 1 rì， zhōng yīng shùn lì wán chéng xiāng gǎng huí guī de zhèng quán jiāo jiē。 1998 nián， liǎng guó zhèng fǔ shǒu nǎo chéng gōng hù fǎng， bìng jiàn lì liǎo quán miàn huǒ bàn guān xì。 1999 nián 10 yuè， jiāng zé mín zhù xí duì yīng guó jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn， zhè shì zhōng guó guó jiā zhù xí shǒu cì fǎng wèn yīng guó。 2004 nián 5 yuè， wēn jiā bǎo zǒng lǐ duì yīng guó jìn xíng zhèng shì fǎng wèn， liǎng guó fā biǎo lián hé shēng míng。 2005 nián 9 yuè， bù lāi 'ěr shǒuxiàng fǎng wèn zhōng guó。 2005 nián 11 yuè， guó jiā zhù xí hú jǐn tāo duì yīng guó jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn。 zhōng yīng lián hé shēng míng zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó wù yuàn zǒng lǐ wēn jiā bǎo gé xià yú 2004 nián 5 yuè 10 rì zhèng shì fǎng wèn yīng guó qī jiān， yǔ dà bù liè diān jí běi 'ài 'ěr lán lián hé wáng guó shǒuxiàng tuō ní · bù lāi 'ěr zài lún dūn jǔ xíng huì wù。 wēn jiā bǎo zǒng lǐ hé tuō ní · bù lāi 'ěr shǒuxiàng jīn tiān duì zhōng yīng jiàn lì quán miàn zhàn lüè huǒ bàn guān xì biǎo shì huān yíng。 shuāng fāng chéng nuò gòng tóng zhì lì yú fā zhǎn zhè yī huǒ bàn guān xì， shǐ qí zào fú yú liǎng guó， bìng tuī dòng jiàn lì yī gè gèng jiā 'ān quán、 fán róng hé kāi fàng de shì jiè。 zhōng yīng zài shuāng biān、 duō biān hé quán qiú wèn tí shàng kāi zhǎn hé zuò fú hé shuāng fāng lì yì。 wǒ men jūn bǎ liǎng guó guān xì shì wéi gè zì duì wài guān xì de zhòng diǎn zhī yī。 zhōng guó jīng jì de chí xù zēngzhǎng hé fā zhǎn， jí qí rì yì shàng shēng de quán qiú jīng jì dà guó dì wèi， shǐ zhōng yīng huǒ bàn guān xì jìn nián qǔ dé liǎo cháng zú fā zhǎn。 shuāng fāng zài huán jìng、 jiào yù、 fā zhǎn、 kē jì děng zhòng duō lǐng yù de guān xì péng bó fā zhǎn。 wǒ men yī zhì rèn wéi， zì cóng wǒ men 2003 nián 7 yuè huì wù yǐ lái， zhōng yīng hé zuò qǔ dé liǎo zhòng yào jìn zhǎn。 yīng guó jiāng yú 2005 nián dān rèn 'ōu méng zhù xí guó。 wǒ men qī dài zài 2004 nián hé 2005 nián zhōng guó - ōu méng lǐng dǎo rén nián dù huì wù yǐ jí wǒ men yè yǐ tóng yì jiàn lì de liǎng guó zhèng fǔ lǐng dǎo rén nián dù huì wù qī jiān， jì xù zhè zhǒng gāo céng duì huà。 bù lāi 'ěr shǒuxiàng qù nián fǎng huá hòu， wǒ men jué dìng chéng lì shuāng biān guān xì hù dòng xiǎo zǔ， yǐ cù jìn liǎng guó guān xì kuài sù fā zhǎn。 gāi xiǎo zǔ huì jù liǎo shè huì gè jiè de zhì huì， zài mào yì yǔ tóu zī、 jīn róng、 néng yuán、 jiào yù wén huà、 kē xué jì shù、 huán jìng bāo kuò qì hòu biàn huà hé kě chí xù fā zhǎn děng lǐng yù tí chū liǎo xīn de jiàn yì（ jiàn fù jiàn）。 wǒ men duì shuāng fāng xiǎo zǔ zhù xí yuē hàn · pǔ léi sī kē tè fù shǒu xiāng hé táng jiā xuán guó wù wěi yuán yǐ jí xiǎo zǔ chéng yuán suǒ zuò gōng zuò biǎo shì gǎn xiè。 shuāng fāng xiǎo zǔ de jiàn yì， yǐ jí liǎng guó zài bāo kuò huán jìng zhì lǐ hé bǎo hù、 néng yuán、 fáng kuò sàn、 fǎn kǒng、 dǎ jī yòu zǔ zhì fàn zuì děng yī xì liè guó jì wèn tí shàng rì yì zēng qiáng de hé zuò， tǐ xiàn liǎo zhōng yīng guān xì de guǎng dù hé shēn dù。 wǒ men tóng yì jiā qiáng liǎng guó zài yǐ xià shuāng biān hé duō biān lǐng yù de hé zuò： yī、 gǒng gù hé jiā qiáng shuāng biān guān xì。 （ yī） wǒ men tóng yì zēng jiā gāo céng hù fǎng。 liǎng guó zhèng fǔ lǐng dǎo rén hé wài cháng jiāng jìn xíng nián dù hù fǎng， yǐ jiā qiáng bìng kuò dà shuāng fāng zài zhàn lüè 'ān quán、 fáng kuò sàn děng lǐng yù de shuāng biān zhèng zhì hé zuò。 （ èr） liǎng guó tóng yì gēn jù shuāng biān guān xì hù dòng xiǎo zǔ de yòu guān jiàn yì（ jiàn fù jiàn）， tōng guò jīng mào lián wěi huì jiā qiáng zài mào yì hé tóu zī lǐng yù de guǎng fàn hé zuò。 （ sān） shuāng fāng hái jiāng gēn jù shuāng biān guān xì hù dòng xiǎo zǔ de jiàn yì， jiā qiáng zài kē xué、 jì shù、 jiào yù、 wén huà hé huán bǎo lǐng yù de hé zuò。 zài wēn zǒng lǐ fǎng wèn qī jiān， shuāng fāng qiān shǔ liǎo yī xì liè liàng jiě bèi wàng lù， yǐ tuī dòng shàng shù gè lǐng yù de hé zuò。 （ sì） wǒ men zhù yì dào“ zhōng yīng lùn tán” zài shuāng biān guān xì zhōng fā huī de zhòng yào zuò yòng。 jiàn yì“ lùn tán” cān zhào shuāng biān guān xì hù dòng xiǎo zǔ de jiàn yì， jiù wèi lái tā zài gōng yè、 jīn róng fú wù、 kē xué jì shù hé huán jìng lǐng yù yìng fā huī de zuò yòng jìn xíng yán jiū。 wǒ men jiù yòu guān xiāng gǎng de wèn tí yǒu hǎo、 tǎn chéng dì jiāo huàn liǎo yì jiàn。 wǒ men chóngshēn liǎng guó zhèng fǔ gòng tóng zhì lì yú guàn chè《 zhōng yīng guān yú xiāng gǎng wèn tí de lián hé shēng míng》， rèn wéi 'àn zhào“ yī guó liǎng zhì” yuán zé hé jī běn fǎ wéi hù hé cù jìn xiāng gǎng de fán róng yǔ wěn dìng fú hé shuāng fāng de lì yì。 wǒ men tóng yì jì xù jiù zhè xiē wèn tí jiāo huàn yì jiàn。 yīng guó chóngshēn 1972 nián zhōng yīng hù huàn dà shǐ lián hé gōng bào zhōng guān yú tái wān wèn tí de yī guàn lì chǎng， jí： chéng rèn zhōng guó zhèng fǔ guān yú tái wān shì zhōng guó yī gè shěng de lì chǎng， chéng rèn zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó zhèng fǔ shì zhōng guó de wéi yī hé fǎ zhèng fǔ。 wǒ men gāo dù zhòng shì zhōng yīng rén quán duì huà， jiāng jì xù zài píng děng hé xiāng hù zūn zhòng de jī chǔ shàng kāi zhǎn zhè yī jiāo liú。 shuāng fāng yī zhì rèn wéi， suǒ yòu guó jiā dū yìng zūn zhòng hé bǎo hù rén quán。 yīng fāng huān yíng zhōng fāng zuì jìn jiāng zūn zhòng hé bǎo hù rén quán xiě rù xiàn fǎ。 xià yī lún zhōng yīng rén quán duì huà jiāng yú 2004 nián 5 yuè jǔ xíng， zhè jiāng wéi liǎng guó kāi zhǎn rén quán lǐng yù de jù tǐ hé zuò tí gōng liáng jī。 èr、 gǒng gù hé jiā qiáng liǎng guó zài duō biān jī zhì nèi jiù shuāng fāng hé guó jì guān zhù de wèn tí kāi zhǎn de hé zuò。 liǎng guó jiāng jiā qiáng zài lián hé guó de xié diào， tuī dòng lián hé guó gǎi gé， shǐ qí néng gòu yìng duì 21 shì jì de tiǎo zhàn， bìng què bǎo《 lián hé guó xiàn zhāng》 hé guó jì fǎ jìn yī bù dé dào zūn zhòng。 shuāng fāng jiāng kuò dà zài lián hé guó wéi hé kuàng jià nèi de hé zuò。 zhōng guó yuàn yǔ yīng guó jiù zhōng dōng hé yī lā kè děng wèn tí jiā qiáng cuō shāng。 wǒ men chóngshēn dǎ jī kǒng bù zhù yì de jué xīn。 liǎng guó zhèng fǔ jiāng qǐ dòng zhōng yīng fǎn kǒng duì huà jī zhì， jiā qiáng zài fǎn kǒng lǐng yù de jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò。 wǒ men chóngshēn zài tuī dòng fáng kuò sàn wèn tí shàng de jué xīn。 yīng guó huān yíng zhōng guó zài fáng kuò sàn wèn tí shàng suǒ zuò de chéng nuò hé wéi cǐ cǎi qǔ de xíng dòng， tè bié huān yíng zhōng guó wéi jiā qiáng yǔ fáng kuò sàn chū kǒu kòng zhì jī zhì de guān xì suǒ cǎi qǔ de cuò shī。 zhōng guó zàn shǎng yīng guó zài guó jì yuán zǐ néng jī gòu kuàng jià nèi wéi tuī dòng yī lǎng zhí xíng《 bù kuò sàn hé wǔ qì tiáo yuē》 bǎo zhàng jiān dū xié yì、 yǐ jí shuō fú lì bǐ yà fàng qì dà guī mó shā shāng xìng wǔ qì jìhuà suǒ zuò de nǔ lì。 yīng guó huān yíng zhōng guó zài cháo xiān bàn dǎo hé wèn tí liù fāng huì tán zhōng fā huī de lǐng dǎo zuò yòng。 shuāng fāng jiāng jiā qiáng zài 'ān quán、 jūn kòng、 cái jūn hé fáng kuò sàn lǐng yù de jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò。 wǒ men chóngshēn jiāng hé zuò dǎ jī fēi fǎ yí mín。 liǎng guó zhèng fǔ qiān shǔ liǎo《 guān yú biàn lì rén yuán hé fǎ wǎng lái hé dǎ jī fēi fǎ yí mín huó dòng liàng jiě bèi wàng lù》。 shuāng fāng jué dìng mìqiè jǐng wù hé zuò， tóng yì gēn jù《 lián hé guó dǎ jī kuà guó yòu zǔ zhì fàn zuì gōng yuē》 děng guó jì fǎ lǜ wén shū， jiā qiáng xìn xī jiāo liú hé zhí fǎ hé zuò， gòng tóng hé zuò dǎ jī kuà guó fàn zuì。 shuāng fāng gāo dù píng jià yà 'ōu huì yì zài cù jìn yà 'ōu píng děng huǒ bàn guān xì fāng miàn qǔ dé de jī jí chéng jiù， biǎo shì yuàn jìn yī bù jiā qiáng zài yà 'ōu huì yì shàng de hé zuò。 sān、 zhōng yīng liǎng guó chéng nuò zēng jìn zài guó jì jīng jì wèn tí shàng de hé zuò， cù jìn kě chí xù fā zhǎn。 shuāng fāng jiāng gòng tóng nǔ lì shí xiàn“ lián hé guó qiān nián fā zhǎn mù biāo”， bāo kuò xiāo chú pín kùn、 jī 'è、 jí bìng、 huán jìng 'è huà、 wén máng hé qí shì fù nǚ。 tōng guò kě chí xù fā zhǎn wěi yuán huì， zài gè céng cì shí xiàn lián hé guó kě chí xù fā zhǎn shì jiè shǒu nǎo huì yì suǒ zuò de chéng nuò。 shuāng fāng dū zhì lì yú guó jì mào yì zì yóu huà， jiāng jì xù tuī dòng duō hā fā zhǎn yì chéng de tán pàn。 shuāng fāng yī zhì rèn wéi， néng fǒu shí xiàn fā zhǎn mù biāo shì“ duō hā huí hé” tán pàn chéng gōng yǔ fǒu de guān jiàn。 shuāng fāng tóng yì，“ duō hā huí hé” zǎo rì jié shù bìng qǔ dé jūn héng jiēguǒ fú hé shì jiè mào yì zǔ zhì suǒ yòu chéng yuán de lì yì。 shuāng fāng jiāng nǔ lì zhēng qǔ tán pàn zài 2004 nián dá chéng kuàng jià xié yì。 zhōng yīng tóng yì jiù cǐ bǎo chí duì huà。 shuāng fāng dū rèn shí dào yòu xiào bǎo hù zhī shí chǎn quán de zhòng yào xìng， yǐ jí bǎo hù zhī shí chǎn quán zài cù jìn wài guó tóu zī hé yíng zào liáng hǎo shāng yè huán jìng fāng miàn de zhòng yào zuò yòng。 shuāng fāng tóng yì zài bǎo hù zhī shí chǎn quán fāng miàn jiā qiáng shuāng biān hé zuò。 zhōng guó jiāng zūn shǒu jiā rù de guó jì zhī shí chǎn quán gōng yuē huò xié yì de chéng nuò， bìng gēn jù yòu guān guó nèi fǎ bǎo hù zhī shí chǎn quán suǒ yòu zhě de quán yì。 zhōng yīng chóngshēn zhī chí《 lián hé guó qì hòu biàn huà kuàng jià gōng yuē》， dūn cù shàng wèi pī zhǔn《 jīng dū yì dìng shū》 de gè fāng jìn zǎo pī zhǔn gāi yì dìng shū。 shuāng fāng tóng shí dūn cù suǒ yòu guó jiā zuì yòu xiào dì lì yòng néng yuán， hūyù suǒ yòu qiān shǔ gōng yuē fù jiàn yī de guó jiā dài tóu cǎi qǔ yī zhì xíng dòng， jiǎn shǎo wēn shì qì tǐ de pái fàng， shí xiàn gāi gōng yuē zhì dìng de mù biāo。 zhōng yīng rèn shí dào《 lǐ yuē huán jìng hé fā zhǎn xuān yán》 yuán zé shí suǒ qiáng diào de gè xiàng guī dìng de zhòng yào xìng， rú： xìn xī gōng kāi、 gōng zhòng cānyù jué cè hé huán jìng wèn tí sī fǎ gōng zhèng。 shuāng fāng tóng yì fēn xiǎng kē xué hé jīng jì fāng miàn de jīng yàn， yǐ lì yú shuāng fāng gòng tóng nǔ lì shí xiàn dī tàn jīng jì hé kě chí xù fā zhǎn， tōng guò“ kě zài shēng néng yuán hé yòu xiào lì yòng néng yuán huǒ bàn guān xì” děng， jiā sù kāi fā duì qì hòu yòu yì jì shù de quán qiú shì chǎng。 shuāng fāng chóngshēn yuàn yì jiù bāo kuò qì hòu biàn huà、 zì rán zī yuán kě chí xù guǎn lǐ、 sēn lín zhí fǎ ( zhì zhǐ fēi fǎ cǎi fá )、 shuǐ zī yuán bǎo hù、 kōng qì zhì liàng gǎi shàn hé wū rǎn kòng zhì děng huán jìng wèn tí suǒ cǎi qǔ de cuò shī jiā qiáng jiāo liú， zài huán jìng lì fǎ、 jiān dū hé rén yuán péi xùn fāng miàn hù xiāng xué xí。 shuāng fāng jiāng gòng tóng nǔ lì bāng zhù fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā jiě jué pín kùn hé qí tā yǔ fā zhǎn yòu guān de wèn tí， gèng hǎo dì yìng duì quán qiú huà dài lái de tiǎo zhàn。 shuāng fāng tè bié qiáng tiáohé píng yǔ 'ān quán yǐ jí fēi zhōu fáng zhì 'ài zī bìng hé shí xiàn kě chí xù fā zhǎn wèn tí， bìng jiāng jìn quán lì zhī chí fēi zhōu guó jiā wéi shí xiàn“ qiān nián fā zhǎn mù biāo” suǒ zuò de nǔ lì。 zhōng yīng lián hé shēng míng fù jiàn shuāng biān guān xì hù dòng xiǎo zǔ guān yú fā zhǎn shuāng biān hé zuò de jiàn yì : mào yì yǔ tóu zī ● wǒ men jiāng zài néng yuán、 jīn róng fú wù、 xìn xī tōng xìn jì shù、 wèi shēng bǎo jiàn hé shuǐ zī yuán děng wǔ gè fāng miàn kāi zhǎn shuāng biān hé zuò， bìng jiāng cǐ zuò wéi shuāng fāng zài mào yì yǔ tóu zī lǐng yù kāi zhǎn guǎng fàn hé zuò de zhòng diǎn。 shàng shù gè fāng miàn de hé zuò jìhuà jiāng yǔ chǎn yè xiāng jié hé， míng què shāng yè chéng guǒ。 jīng mào lián wěi huì de zuò yòng jiāng tōng guò liǎng guó lún liú jǔ bàn bù jí nián huì de fāng shì dé yǐ jiā qiáng。 shàng shù nián huì jiāng shè jí mào yì yǔ tóu zī zhèng cè wèn tí。● yīng guó duì huá mào yì yǔ tóu zī zhàn lüè。 yīng guó mào yì yǔ tóu zī jú jiāng zài xiàn yòu mào yì cù jìn、 zhòng diǎn lǐng yù yǐ jí biàn bù yīng guó hé zhōng guó gè dì shāng yè fú wù wǎng luò de jī chǔ shàng， zhì dìng yī gè xīn de duì huá mào yì yǔ tóu zī zhàn lüè。 ● shuāng fāng jiāng gǔ lì yīng guó qǐ yè dào zhōng guó tóu zī， tóng shí gǔ lì zhōng guó qǐ yè dào yīng guó tóu zī。 ● shuāng fāng jiāng cù jìn liǎng guó zhōng xiǎo qǐ yè kāi zhǎn jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò。 jīn róng ● shuāng fāng qī dài zhe“ zhōng yīng cái zhèng jīn róng duì huà” jī zhì xià yī lún bù cháng jí cuō shāng， cǐ cì cuō shāng jiāng zài běi jīng jǔ xíng， bìng tí shēng wéi zhèng bù jí。 cái jīn duì huà wéi shuāng fāng jì xù jiā qiáng hé zhòng diǎn kāi zhǎn jīn róng lǐng yù de jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò tí gōng liǎo kuàng jià， tè bié shì zài hóng guān jīng jì zhèng cè、 chǎn yè jié gòu tiáozhěng、 gōng gòng cái zhèng guǎn lǐ、 chuàng zào jiù yè、 jìng zhēng hé jiān guǎn zhèng cè、 huán jìng zhì lǐ hé huán jìng bǎo hù děng wèn tí shàng de jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò。 shuāng fāng gǔ lì yīng guó yínháng yè cānyù zhōng guó yínháng yè de gǎi gé。 xìn xī tōng xùn jì shù ● shuāng fāng huān yíng yòu guān 2004 nián 9 yuè zài zhōng guó jǔ xíng“ xìn xī tōng xùn jì shù zhōu” de jiàn yì。 néng yuán shuāng fāng zhòng shì néng yuán lǐng yù de hé zuò， yuàn tōng guò gè zhǒng fāng shì zài néng yuán zhèng cè、 néng yuán gǎi gé hé fā zhǎn děng lǐng yù jìn xíng jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò。 tóng shí， shuāng fāng yuàn yì zài néng yuán guǎn lǐ、 néng yuán xiàolǜ hé kě zài shēng néng yuán de lì yòng děng lǐng yù gòng xiǎng xìn xī， lián hé kāi zhǎn huó dòng。 zhōng yīng zhòng shì kě chí xù de quán qiú néng yuán 'ān quán， zhòng shì jiǎn qīng bìng zài kě néng qíng kuàng xià gǎi biàn qì hòu biàn huà de yǐng xiǎng。 shuāng fāng gāo xīng dì zhù yì dào， cǐ fǎng qī jiān， zhōng yīng qiān dìng liǎo duō xiàng yǔ néng yuán yòu guān de shāng yè hé tóng。 jiào yù ● zhōng yīng lún liú jǔ xíng liǎng guó jiào yù bù nián dù bù jí huì wù。● zhōng guó jiào yù bù yǔ yīng guó jiào yù hé jì néng bù tóng yì gòng tóng nǔ lì， tí gōng jiǎng xué jīn jī huì， zī zhù zhōng yīng yán jiū shēng jìn xíng jiāo liú， dào duì fāng dà xué kāi zhǎn yán jiū。 ● yīng guó jiāng yǔ zhōng guó gòng tóng nǔ lì， zēng jìn yīng guó duì dāng dài zhōng guó de lǐ jiě。 zài cǐ fāng miàn， xiào jì jiāo liú xiàng mù jiāng fā huī yòu xiào zuò yòng。 ● kāi zhǎn shāng yè xìng xiàng mù， gǔ lì jiào yù yǔ chǎn yè xiāng jié hé， wéi gōng chéng jì shù děng rén yuán tí gōng shāng yè jīng yàn hé shí jiàn zhī shí。 kē jì ● 2005 nián 1 yuè jiāng zài zhōng guó jǔ bàn“ yīng guó kē jì nián” huó dòng， zēng jìn zhōng guó duì yīng guó kē xué yán jiū yǔ kē jì zhèng cè de liǎo jiě。 ● shuāng fāng yuàn jiù rú hé zài zhī shí chǎn quán lǐng yù yòu xiào gōng zuò zǔ zhì yī xì liè jiāo liú huó dòng。 jiàn lì yòu xiào de zhī shí chǎn quán bǎo hù jī zhì kě yǐ wéi kē xué jì shù fā zhǎn tí gōng yòu lì zhī chí。 yīng guó yuàn zài bāng zhù zhōng guó jiàn lì yī gè fú hé shì jiè mào yì zǔ zhì hé qí tā yào qiú de zhī shí chǎn quán bǎo hù jī zhì fāng miàn yǔ zhōng guó fēn xiǎng jīng yàn， tóng shí yuàn yì liǎo jiě zhōng guó zài zhè fāng miàn de gōng zuò zhòng diǎn。 wéi bǎo zhèng shuāng fāng de cháng yuǎn shōu yì， kě kǎo lǜ zài kē jì gè lǐng yù jiàn lì yán jiū huǒ bàn guān xì。 ● jiàn lì zhōng yīng kē jì chuàng yè yuán zhǐ dǎo wěi yuán huì， zhǐ dǎo hé zhī chí kē jì fū huà qì de gōng zuò。 shuāng fāng tóng yì zài chuán rǎn bìng jí liú xíng bìng yán jiū yǔ fáng zhì lǐng yù kāi zhǎn hé zuò， jiā qiáng xìn xī gòng xiǎng hé jiāo liú。 huán jìng yǔ kě chí xù fā zhǎn ● jiàn lì zhōng yīng qì hòu biàn huà gōng zuò zǔ。 ● kāi zhǎn yòu zhēn duì xìng de xiàng mù， zhī chí zhōng guó jiàn lì huán jìng yǐng xiǎng píng gū xì tǒng hé zhàn lüè huán jìng píng gū xì tǒng。 ● jiàn lì kě chí xù fā zhǎn duì huà jī zhì。 zhōng yīng shì fā zhǎn wèn tí de huǒ bàn guó， shuāng fāng tóng yì tōng guò kāi zhǎn yòu fēi zhèng fǔ lì yì xiāng guān zǔ zhì guǎng fàn cānyù de kě chí xù fā zhǎn gāo céng duì huà， jiāo liú jīng yàn。 wén huà ● shuāng fāng tóng yì jiā qiáng wén huà jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò， zhī chí 2004 nián zài yīng guó jǔ bàn zhōng guó wén huà jié。 ● shuāng fāng huān yíng jìn qī zài nǔ lì dá chéng guān yú wén huà zhōng xīn de xié yì fāng miàn suǒ qǔ dé de jìn zhǎn， chóngshēn duì zǎo rì chéng gōng qiān shǔ gāi xié yì de jué xīn。 zhōng yīng zài zhàn lüè 'ān quán、 wài jiāo zhèng cè、 rén quán、 jūn kòng、 huán bǎo děng guǎng fàn lǐng yù jiàn lì bìng bǎo chí liǎo cuō shāng jí duì huà jī zhì。 mù qián， wǒ 3 gè shěng hé 35 gè chéng shì fēn bié yǔ yīng guó de 3 gè jùn hé 35 gè chéng shì jiàn lì liǎo 38 duì yǒu chéng（ shěng、 jùn、 qū） guān xì。 England became a unified state in the year 927 and takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled there during the 5th and 6th centuries. The capital of England is London, the largest urban area in Great Britain, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most, but not all, measures. England ranks amongst the world's most influential and far-reaching centres of cultural development. It is the place of origin of the English language and the Church of England, and English law forms the basis of the legal systems of many countries; in addition, London was the centre of the British Empire, and the country was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. England was the first country in the world to become industrialised. England is home to the Royal Society, which laid the foundations of modern experimental science. England was the world's first modern parliamentary democracy and consequently many constitutional, governmental and legal innovations that had their origin in England have been widely adopted by other nations. The Kingdom of England was a separate state, including the Principality of Wales, until 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union resulted in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. Etymology and usage England is named after the Angles, the largest of the Germanic tribes who settled in England in the 5th and 6th centuries, and who are believed to have originated in the peninsula of Angeln, in what is now Denmark and northern Germany. (The further etymology of this tribe's name remains uncertain, although a popular theory holds that it need be sought no further than the word angle itself, and refers to a fish-hook-shaped region of Holstein. The Angles' name has had various spellings. The earliest known reference to these people is under the Latinised version Anglii used by Tacitus in chapter 40 of his Germania, written around 98 AD. He gives no precise indication of their geographical position within Germania, but states that, with six other tribes, they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary was situated on "an island in the Ocean". The early 8th century historian Bede, in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People), refers to the English people as Angelfolc (in English) or Angli (in Latin). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known usage of "England" referring to the southern part of the island of Great Britain was in 897, with the modern spelling first used in 1538, The word "England" is often used colloquially—and incorrectly—to refer to Great Britain or the United Kingdom as a whole. There are many instances of this usage in history, where references to England are actually intended to include Scotland and Wales as well. The term is used throughout the world and even by English people; the usage is problematic and causes offence in many parts of Britain. England is officially defined as "subject to any alteration of boundaries under Part IV of the Local Government Act 1972, the area consisting of the counties established by section 1 of that Act, Greater London and the Isles of Scilly." History Prehistory Stonehenge, a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument in Wiltshire, thought to have been erected c. 2000–2500 BCBones and flint tools found in Norfolk and Suffolk show that Homo erectus lived in what is now England about 700,000 years ago. At this time, England was joined to mainland Europe by a large land bridge. The current position of the English Channel was a large river flowing westwards and fed by tributaries that would later become the Thames and the Seine. This area was greatly depopulated during the period of the last major ice age, as were other regions of the British Isles. In the subsequent recolonisation, after the thawing of the ice, genetic research shows that present-day England was the last area of the British Isles to be repopulated, about 13,000 years ago. The migrants arriving during this period contrast with the other of the inhabitants of the British Isles, coming across lands from the south east of Europe, whereas earlier arriving inhabitants came north along a coastal route from Iberia. These migrants would later adopt the Celtic culture that came to dominate much of western Europe. Roman conquest of Britain By AD 43, the time of the main Roman invasion, Britain had already been the target of frequent invasions, planned and actual, by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. It was first invaded by the Roman dictator Julius Caesar in 55 BC, but it was conquered more fully by the Emperor Claudius in 43 AD. Like other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans, and their economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, especially in the south. With the fall of the Roman Empire 400 years later, the Romans left England. Anglo-Saxons An Anglo-Saxon helmet found at Sutton HooThe History of Anglo-Saxon England covers the history of early mediaeval England from the end of Roman Britain and the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the 5th century until the Conquest by the Normans in 1066. Fragmentary knowledge of Anglo-Saxon England in the 5th and 6th centuries comes from the British writer Gildas (6th century) the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (a history of the English people begun in the 9th century), saints' lives, poetry, archaeological findings, and place-name studies. The dominant themes of the seventh to tenth centuries were the spread of Christianity and the political unification of England. Christianity is thought to have come from three directions—from Rome to the south, and Scotland and Ireland to the north and west. From about 500, England was divided (it is believed) into seven petty kingdoms, known as the Heptarchy: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms tended to coalesce by means of warfare. As early as the time of Ethelbert of Kent, one king could be recognised as Bretwalda ("Lord of Britain"). Generally speaking, the title fell in the 7th century to the kings of Northumbria, in the 8th to those of Mercia, and in the 9th, to Egbert of Wessex, who in 825 defeated the Mercians at the Battle of Ellendun. In the next century his family came to rule all England. Kingdom of England Statue of Alfred the Great at WinchesterOriginally, England (or Englaland) was a geographical term to describe the part of Britain occupied by the Anglo-Saxons, rather than a name of an individual nation-state. It became politically united through the expansion of the kingdom of Wessex, whose king Athelstan brought the whole of England under one ruler for the first time in 927, although unification did not become permanent until 954, when Edred defeated Eric Bloodaxe and became King of England. In 1016 England was conquered by the Danish king Canute the Great, and became the centre of government for his short-lived empire which included Denmark and Norway. In 1042 England became a separate kingdom again with the accession of Edward the Confessor, heir of the native English dynasty. The Kingdom of England (including Wales) continued to exist as an independent nation-state right through to the Acts of Union. However the political ties and direction of England were changed forever by the Norman Conquest in 1066. Middle Ages The signing of the Magna Carta in 1215. It was one of the first steps towards the idea of modern democracy. Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the Battle of Agincourt.The next few hundred years saw England as a major part of expanding and dwindling empires based in France, with the "Kings of England" using England as a source of troops to enlarge their personal holdings in France for many years (Hundred Years' War) ; in fact the English crown did not relinquish its last foothold on mainland France until Calais was lost during the reign of Mary Tudor (the Channel Islands are still crown dependencies, though not part of the UK). In the 13th century, through conquest Wales (the remaining Romano-Celts) was brought under the control of English monarchs. This was formalised in the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, by which Wales became part of the Kingdom of England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542. Wales shared a legal identity with England as the joint entity originally called England and later England and Wales. An epidemic of catastrophic proportions, the Black Death first reached England in the summer of 1348. The Black Death is estimated to have killed between a third and two-thirds of Europe's population. England alone lost as much as 70% of its population, which passed from seven million to two million in 1400. The plague repeatedly returned to haunt England throughout the 14th to 17th centuries. The Great Plague of London in 1665–1666 was the last plague outbreak. Reformation Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I made to commemorate the English victory over the Spanish Armada (1588)During the English Reformation in the 16th century, the external authority of the Roman Catholic Church in England was abolished and replaced with Royal Supremacy and ultimately describes the establishment of a Church of England, outside the Roman Catholic Church, under the Supreme Governance of the English monarch. The English Reformation differed from its European counterparts in that it was a political, rather than purely theological, dispute at root. The break with Rome started in the reign of Henry VIII. The English Reformation paved the way for the spread of Anglicanism in the church and other institutions. Civil War Cromwell at Dunbar. Oliver Cromwell united the whole of the British Isles by force and created the Commonwealth of England.The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651. The first (1642–1645) and second (1648–1649) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (1649–1651) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son Charles II and the replacement of the English monarchy with the Commonwealth of England (1649–1653) and then with a Protectorate (1653–1659) : the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell. After a brief return to Commonwealth rule, in 1660 The Crown was restored and Charles II accepted Convention Parliament's invitation to return to England. During the interregnum the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England came to an end, and the victors consolidated the already-established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established a precedent that British monarchs could not govern without the consent of Parliament although this would not be cemented until the Glorious Revolution later in the century. Great Britain and the United Kingdom England United Kingdom Although embattled for centuries, the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland had been drawing increasingly together since the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century and after 1603, when the two countries became linked by a personal union, being ruled by the same Stuart dynasty. Following a number of attempts to unite the Kingdoms, on 1 May 1707, the Acts of Union resulted in a political union between the states creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Kingdom of Ireland later joined this union to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927 to reflect its reduced territory following the secession of southern Ireland as the Irish Free State in 1922. Throughout these changes, England (including Wales) retained a separate legal identity from its partners, with a separate legal system (English law) from those in Northern Ireland (Northern Ireland law) and Scotland (Scots law). (See subdivisions of the United Kingdom) Wales had already been made part of the Kingdom of England by the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, and it was legally incorporated into England by the Wales and Berwick Act 1746, making laws passed in England automatically applicable to Wales. This was reversed by the Welsh Language Act 1967, which thus effectively gave Wales a separate identity from England. Since then, legal and political terminology refers to "England and Wales". The county of Monmouthshire has long been an ambiguous area, its legal identity passing between England and Wales at various periods. In the Local Government Act 1972 it was made part of Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act 1746 also referred to the formerly Scottish burgh of Berwick-upon-Tweed. The border town changed hands several times and was last conquered by England in 1482, but was not officially incorporated into England. Contention about whether Berwick was in England or Scotland was ended by the union of the two in 1707. Berwick remains within the English legal system and so is regarded today as part of England though there has been some suggestion in Scotland that Berwick should be invited to 'return to the fold'. The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are Crown dependencies and are not part of England or of the United Kingdom. Government and politics A Mediaeval manuscript, showing the Parliament of England in front of the king c. 1300Main articles: Government of England and Politics of England There has not been a Government of England since 1707, when the Kingdom of England merged with the Kingdom of Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, although both kingdoms have been ruled by a single monarch since 1603. Before the Acts of Union of 1707, England was ruled by a monarch and the Parliament of England. Following the establishment of devolved government for Scotland and Wales in 1999, England was left as the only country within the United Kingdom still governed in all matters by the UK government and the UK parliament in London. (Those, like Mebyon Kernow, who claim that Cornwall should be viewed as having a distinct national identity and who campaign for a Cornish assembly along Welsh lines may dispute this claim.) The Palace of Westminster, Parliament of the United KingdomSince Westminster is the UK parliament but also legislates on matters that affect England alone, devolution of national matters to parliament/assemblies in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland has refocused attention on the anomaly called the West Lothian question. The "Question" is that Scottish and Welsh MPs continue to be able to vote on legislation relating only to England in the post devolution era while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters. (Of course, Scottish and Welsh MPs are also unable to vote on devolved issues affecting their own constituencies.) This 'problem' is exacerbated by an over-representation of Scottish MPs in the government, sometimes referred to as the Scottish mafia; as of September 2006, seven of the twenty-three Cabinet members represent Scottish constituencies, including the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Home Secretary and Defence Secretary. In addition, Scotland traditionally benefited from moderate malapportionment in its favour, increasing its representation to a degree disproportionate to its population. In 2004 the Scottish Parliament (Constituencies) Act 2004 was passed which rectified this to a degree, reducing the number of MPs representing Scottish constituencies from 73 to 59 and brought the number of voters per constituency closer to that in England. This change was implemented in the 2005 General Election. There are calls for a devolved English Parliament, and certain English parties go further by calling for the dissolution of the Union entirely. However, the approach favoured by the current Labour government was (on the basis that England is too large to be governed as a single sub-state entity) to propose the devolution of power to the Regions of England. Lord Falconer claimed a devolved English parliament would dwarf the rest of the United Kingdom. In terms of national administration, therefore, England's affairs are managed by a combination of the UK government, the UK parliament and England-specific quangos such as English Heritage. Subdivisions and local government The top tier of local administration within England are the Regions of England. London voted for a London Assembly and the plan was to hold further referenda in other regions to determine whether people wanted directly elected regional assemblies to watch over the work of the non-elected Regional Development Agencies. A referendum on a proposed directly elected North East Assembly was held in November 2004. During the campaign, a common criticism of the proposals was that England did not need "another tier of bureaucracy". On the other hand, many said that they were not decentralising enough, and amounted not to devolution, but to little more than local government reorganisation, with no real power being removed from central government, and no real power given to the regions, which would not even gain the limited powers of the Welsh Assembly, much less the tax-varying and legislative powers of the Scottish Parliament (but Welsh powers are now being expanded). They said that power was simply re-allocated within the region, with little new resource allocation and no real prospects of Assemblies being able to change the pattern of regional aid. Late in the process, responsibility for regional transport was added to the proposals. This was perhaps crucial in the North East, where resentment at the Barnett Formula, which delivers greater public spending per head to adjacent Scotland, was a significant impetus for the North East devolution campaign. The voters rejected the proposal, and plans for referendums in other Regions were shelved. Historically, the highest level of local government in England was the county. These have their origin in the shires, the subdivisions of the kingdom of Wessex, which were extended over the rest of England as Wessex expanded to unite the country in the ninth and tenth centuries. Some of these new shires, particularly in the south-east of England, retained the extent and names of the kingdoms or subdivisions of kingdoms that had existed there before, such as Sussex and Kent, but most were new creations, named after their principal town with the suffix "-shire" added, for example Warwickshire from Warwick. In the far north of England, the system took longer to become regularised and County Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland emerged after the Norman Conquest. The counties each had a county town. Since these historical county lines were drawn up before the Industrial Revolution and the mass urbanisation of England, the changes in the distribution of population and the demands on local administration resulting from those developments have led to a series of local government reorganisations since the latter part of the 19th century. The solution to the emergence of large urban areas was the creation of large metropolitan counties centred on cities (an example being Greater Manchester). The creation of unitary authorities, where districts gained the administrative status of a county, began with the 1990s reform of local government. Today, some confusion exists between the ceremonial counties (which do not necessarily form an administrative unit) and the metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties. Non-metropolitan counties (or "shire counties") are divided into one or more districts. At the lowest level, England is divided into parishes, although these are not found everywhere (many urban areas for example are unparished). Parishes are prohibited from existing in Greater London. Geography Until 1998, the Humber Bridge was the longest suspension bridge in the world.Main articles: Geography of the United Kingdom and Geography of England England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus offshore islands of which the largest is the Isle of Wight. It is bordered to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. It is closer to continental Europe than any other part of Britain, divided from France only by a 24-statute mile (52 km or 21 nautical mile) sea gap. The Channel Tunnel, near Folkestone, directly links England to the European mainland. The English/French border is halfway along the tunnel. Much of England consists of rolling hills, but it is generally more mountainous in the north with a chain of low mountains, the Pennines, dividing east and west. Other hilly areas in the north and Midlands are the Lake District, the North York Moors, and the Peak District. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by the Tees-Exe line. To the south of that line, there are larger areas of flatter land, including East Anglia and the Fens, although hilly areas include the Cotswolds, the Chilterns, the North and South Downs, Dartmoor and Exmoor. The largest natural harbour in England is at Poole, on the south-central coast. Some regard it as the second largest harbour in the world, after Sydney, Australia, although this fact is disputed (see harbours for a list of other large natural harbour). Climate England has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round, although the seasons are quite variable in temperature. However, temperatures rarely fall below −5 °C (23 °F) or rise above 30 °C (86 °F). The prevailing wind is from the south-west, bringing mild and wet weather to England regularly from the Atlantic Ocean. It is driest in the east and warmest in the south, which is closest to the European mainland. Snowfall can occur in winter and early spring, although it is not that common away from high ground. The highest temperature recorded in England is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on August 10, 2003 at Brogdale, near Faversham, in Kent. The lowest temperature recorded in England is −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on January 10, 1982 at Edgmond, near Newport, in Shropshire. Major rivers The River Severn viewed from Shrewsbury Castle in ShropshireMain article: Waterways in the United Kingdom Severn (the longest river and largest river basin in Great Britain) Tees Thames Trent Humber Tyne Wear Ribble Ouse Mersey Dee Aire Avon Medway Major conurbations London is the largest urban area in England, the United Kingdom, and the European Union.Main article: List of English cities by population London is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the largest and busiest cities in the world. Other cities, mainly in central and northern England, are of substantial size and influence. The list of England's largest cities or urban areas is open to debate because, although the normal meaning of city is "a continuously built-up urban area", this can be hard to define, particularly because administrative areas in England often do not correspond with the limits of urban development, and many towns and cities have, over the centuries, grown to form complex urban agglomerations. Various definitions of cities can be used. For the official definition of a UK (and therefore English) city, see City status in the United Kingdom. Birmingham Manchester Liverpool's skyline Leeds - Bridgewater Place According to the ONS urban area populations for continuous built-up areas, these are the 15 largest conurbations (population figures from the 2001 census): Rank Urban Area Population (2001 Census) Localities Major localities 1 Greater London Urban Area 8,278,251 67 Croydon, Barnet, Ealing, Bromley 2 West Midlands Urban Area 2,284,093 22 Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Dudley, Walsall 3 Greater Manchester Urban Area 2,240,230 57 Manchester, Salford, Bolton, Stockport, Oldham 4 West Yorkshire Urban Area 1,499,465 26 Leeds, Bradford, Huddersfield, Wakefield 5 Tyneside 879,996 25 Newcastle upon Tyne, North Shields, South Shields, Gateshead, Jarrow 6 Liverpool Urban Area 816,216 8 Liverpool, St Helens, Bootle, Huyton-with-Roby 7 Nottingham Urban Area 666,358 15 Nottingham, Beeston and Stapleford, Carlton, Long Eaton 8 Sheffield Urban Area 640,720 7 Sheffield, Rotherham, Chapeltown, Mosborough/Highlane 9 Bristol Urban Area 551,066 7 Bristol, Kingswood, Mangotsfield, Stoke Gifford 10 Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton 461,181 10 Brighton, Worthing, Hove, Littlehampton, Shoreham, Lancing 11 Portsmouth Urban Area 442,252 7 Portsmouth, Gosport, Waterlooville, Fareham 12 Leicester Urban Area 441,213 12 Leicester, Wigston, Oadby, Birstall 13 Bournemouth Urban Area 383,713 5 Bournemouth, Poole, Christchurch, New Milton 14 Reading/Wokingham Urban Area 369,804 5 Reading, Bracknell, Wokingham, Crowthorne 15 Teesside 365,323 7 Middlesbrough, Stockton-on-Tees, Redcar, Billingham Economics The City of London is a major business and commercial centre, ranking alongside New York City and Tokyo as the leading centre of global finance.Main article: Economy of England England's economy is the second largest in Europe and the fifth largest in the world. It follows the Anglo-Saxon economic model. England's economy is the largest of the four economies of the United Kingdom, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations based in London. As part of the United Kingdom, England is a major centre of world economics. One of the world's most highly industrialised countries, England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry and the manufacturing side of the software industry. The Bullring shopping complex in Birmingham city centre attracted 36.5 million visitors in its début year upon opening in 2003.London exports mainly manufactured goods and imports materials such as petroleum, tea, wool, raw sugar, timber, butter, metals, and meat. England exported more than 30,000 tons of beef last year, worth around £75,000,000, with France, Italy, Greece, the Netherlands, Belgium and Spain being the largest importers of beef from England. The central bank of the United Kingdom, which sets interest rates and implements monetary policy, is the Bank of England in London. London is also home to the London Stock Exchange, the main stock exchange in the UK and the largest in Europe. London is one of the international leaders in finance and the largest financial centre in Europe. Traditional heavy and manufacturing industries have declined sharply in England in recent decades, as they have in the United Kingdom as a whole. At the same time, service industries have grown in importance. For example, tourism is the sixth largest industry in the UK, contributing 76 billion pounds to the economy. It employs 1,800,000 full-time equivalent people—6.1% of the working population (2002 figures). The largest centre for tourism is London, which attracts millions of international tourists every year. As part of the United Kingdom, England's official currency is the Pound Sterling (also known as the British pound or GBP). Demography This section may stray from the topic of the article into the topic of another article, United Kingdom. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (help) Demography of EnglandWith 50,431,700 inhabitants, or 84% of the UK's total, England is the most populous nation in the United Kingdom; as well as being the most ethnically diverse. England would have the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population if it were a sovereign state. The country's population is 'ageing', with a declining percentage of the population under age 16 and a rising one of over 65. Population continues to rise and in every year since 1901, with the exception of 1976, there have been more births than deaths. England is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe, with 383 people per square kilometre (992/sq mi) , making it second only to the Netherlands. The generally accepted view is that the ethnic background of the English populace, before 19th- and 20th century immigration, was a mixed European one deriving from historical waves of Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Norman invasions, along with the possible survival of pre-Celtic ancestry. Genetic studies have shown that the modern-day English gene pool contains more than 50% Germanic Y-chromosomes. The economic prosperity of England has also made it a destination for economic migrants from Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. This was particularly true during the Industrial Revolution. Since the fall of the British Empire, many denizens of former colonies have migrated to Britain including the Indian sub-continent and the British Caribbean. A BBC-published report of the 2001 census, by the Institute for Public Policy Research stated that the vast majority of immigrants settled in London and the South East of England. The largest groups of residents born in other countries were from the Republic of Ireland, India, Pakistan, Germany, and the Caribbean. Although Germany was high on the list, this was mainly the result of children being born to British forces personnel stationed in that country. About half the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to foreign-born immigration. In 2004 the number of people who became British citizens rose to a record 140,795—a rise of 12% on the previous year. The number had risen dramatically since 2000. The overwhelming majority of new citizens come from Africa (32%) and Asia (40%), the largest two groups being people from India and Pakistan. One in five babies in the UK are born to immigrant mothers, according to official statistics released in 2007. 21.9% of all births in the UK in 2006 were to mothers born outside the United Kingdom compared with just 12.8% in 1995. In 2006, an estimated 591,000 migrants arrived to live in the UK for at least a year, while 400,000 people emigrated from the UK for a year or more, with Australia, Spain, France, New Zealand and the U.S. most popular destinations. Largest group of arrivals were people from the Indian subcontinent who accounted for two-thirds of net immigration, mainly fuelled by family reunion. One in six were from Eastern European countries. They were outnumbered by immigrants from New Commonwealth countries. The European Union allows free movement between the member states. While France and Germany put in place controls to curb Eastern European migration, the UK and Ireland did not impose restrictions. Following Poland's entry into the EU in May 2004 it is estimated that by the start of 2007 about 375,000 Poles have registered to work in the UK, although the total Polish population in the UK is believed to be 750,000. Many Poles work in seasonal occupations and a large number is likely to move back and forth including between Ireland and other EU Western nations. A quarter of Eastern European migrants, often young and well-educated, plan to stay in Britain permanently. Most of them had originally intended to go home but have changed their minds after living there. Culture England has a vast and influential culture that encompasses elements both old and new. The modern culture of England is sometimes difficult to identify and separate clearly from the culture of the wider United Kingdom, so intertwined are its composite nations. However, the traditional and historic culture of England is more clearly defined. English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. London's British Museum, British Library and National Gallery contain some of the finest collections in the world. The English have played a significant role in the development of the arts and sciences. Many of the most important figures in the history of modern western scientific and philosophical thought were either born in, or at one time or other resided in, England. Major English thinkers of international significance include scientists such as Sir Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, Charles Darwin and New Zealand-born Ernest Rutherford, philosophers such as John Locke, John Stuart Mill, Bertrand Russell and Thomas Hobbes, and economists such as David Ricardo, and John Maynard Keynes. Karl Marx wrote most of his important works, including Das Kapital, while in exile in Manchester, and the team that developed the first atomic bomb began their work in England, under the wartime codename tube alloys. Architecture The dome of St. Paul's Cathedral designed by Sir Christopher WrenEngland has played a significant part in the advancement of Western architecture. It is home to some of the finest mediaeval castles and forts in the world, including Warwick Castle, the Tower of London and Windsor Castle (the largest inhabited castle in the world and the oldest in continuous occupation). It is known for its numerous grand country houses, and for its many mediaeval and later churches and cathedrals. English architects have contributed to many styles over the centuries, including Tudor architecture, English Baroque, the Georgian style and Victorian movements such as Gothic Revival. Among the best-known contemporary English architects are Norman Foster and Richard Rogers. Cuisine Main article: English cuisine Although highly regarded in the Middle Ages, English cuisine later became a source of fun among Britain's French and European neighbours, being viewed until the late 20th century as crude and unsophisticated by comparison with continental tastes. However, with the influx of non-European immigrants (particularly those of south and east Asian origins) from the 1950s onwards, the English diet was transformed. Indian and Chinese cuisine in particular were absorbed into British culinary life, with restaurants and takeaways appearing in almost every town in Britain, and 'going for an Indian' becoming a regular part of British social life. A distinct hybrid food style composed of dishes of Asian origin, but adapted to British tastes, emerged and was subsequently exported to other parts of the world. Many of the well-known Indian dishes in the western world, such as Tikka Masala and Balti, are in fact dishes of this sort. Dishes forming part of the old tradition of English food include: Apple pie Bangers and mash Bedfordshire clanger Bubble and Squeak Cornish pasty Cottage pie Devonshire Cream Tea Faggot and peas Fish and chips Full English breakfast Gravy Jellied eels Lancashire hotpot Lincolnshire sausage Mince pies Pie and mash Ploughman's lunch Pork pie Scouse Shepherd's pie Spotted Dick Steak and kidney pie Sunday roast Toad in the hole Yorkshire pudding Engineering and innovation As birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th century. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering. Other notable English figures in the fields of engineering and innovation include: Richard Arkwright – inventor of the first industrial spinning machine Charles Babbage – inventor of the first computer (in the 19th century) Tim Berners-Lee – inventor of the World Wide Web, http, html, and many of the other technologies on which the Web is based James Blundell – who performed the first blood transfusion Hubert Cecil Booth – inventor of the Vacuum cleaner Edwin Beard Budding – inventor of the lawnmower George Cayley – inventor of the seat belt Christopher Cockerell – inventor of the hovercraft John Dalton – pioneer of atomic theory James Dyson – inventor of the Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner Michael Faraday – inventor of the electric motor Thomas Fowler – inventor of the thermosiphon Robert Hooke – Hooke's law of elasticity E. Purnell Hooley – inventor of tarmac Thomas Newcomen – inventor of the first practical steam engine Isaac Newton – defining Universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, Infinitesimal calculus Stephen Perry – inventor of the rubber band Thomas Savery – inventor of the steam engine Percy Shaw – inventor of the "cat's eye" road safety device George Stephenson and Robert Stephenson – railway pioneers (father and son) Joseph Swan – developer of the light bulb Richard Trevithick – builder of the earliest steam locomotive Jethro Tull – inventor of the seed drill Alan Turing and Tommy Flowers – inventors of the modern computer and its associated concepts and technologies Frank Whittle – inventor of the jet engine Joseph Whitworth – inventor of many of the modern techniques and technologies of precision engineering Folklore English folklore is rich and diverse. Many of the land's oldest legends share themes and sources with the Celtic folklore of Wales, Scotland and Ireland, a typical example being the legend of Herne the Hunter, which shares many similarities with the traditional Welsh legend of Gwyn ap Nudd. Successive waves of pre-Norman invaders and settlers, from the Romans onwards, via Saxons, Jutes, Angles, Norse to the Norman Conquest have all influenced the myth and legend of England. Some tales, such as that of The Lambton Wyrm show a distinct Norse influence, while others, particularly some of the events and characters associated with the Arthurian legends show a distinct Romano-Gaulic slant. Among the most famous English folk-tales are the legends of King Arthur, although it would be wrong to regard these stories as purely English in origin as they also concern Wales and, to a lesser extent, Ireland and Scotland. They should therefore be considered as part of the folklore of the British Isles as a whole. Post-Norman stories include the tales of Robin Hood, which exists in many forms, and stories of other folk heroes such as Hereward the Wake and Fulk FitzWarin who, although being based on historical characters, have grown to become legends in their own right. Literature William Shakespeare; an English poet and playwright widely regarded as the greatest writer of the English language, as well as one of the greatest in Western literature.Main article: English literature The English language has a rich and prominent literary heritage. England has produced a wealth of significant literary figures including playwrights William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, John Webster, as well as writers Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding, Jane Austen, William Makepeace Thackeray, Charlotte Brontë, Emily Brontë, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Dickens, Mary Shelley, H. G. Wells, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, D. H. Lawrence, E. M. Forster, Virginia Woolf, George Orwell and Harold Pinter. Others, such as J. K. Rowling, Enid Blyton and Agatha Christie have been among the best-selling novelists of the last century. Among the poets, Geoffrey Chaucer, Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, Andrew Marvell, Alexander Pope, William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, John Keats, John Milton, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, T. S. Eliot (American-born, but a British subject from 1927) and many others remain read and studied around the world. Among men of letters, Samuel Johnson, William Hazlitt and George Orwell are some of the most famous. England continues to produce writers working in all branches of literature, and in a wide range of styles; contemporary English literary writers attracting international attention include Martin Amis, Julian Barnes and Zadie Smith. Music The composer Sir Edward Elgar is primarily remembered for his orchestral music, some of which develops patriotic themes.Composers from England have not achieved recognition as broad as that earned by their literary counterparts, and, particularly during the 19th century, were overshadowed in international reputation by other European composers; however, many works of earlier composers such as Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, and Henry Purcell are still frequently performed throughout the world today. A revival of England's musical status began during the 20th century with the prominence of composers such as Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, William Walton, Eric Coates, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Frederick Delius and Benjamin Britten. In popular music, however, English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling in the world. England is also credited with being the birthplace of many musical genres and movements such as hard rock, British invasion, heavy metal, britpop, glam rock, drum and bass, progressive rock, punk rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, UK garage, trip hop and dubstep. Science and philosophy Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, J. J. Thomson, Charles Babbage, Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren, Alan Turing, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Tim Berners-Lee, Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a Metric system was invented by John Wilkins, first secretary of the Royal Society in 1668. England played a major role in the development of Western philosophy, particularly during the Enlightenment. Jeremy Bentham, leader of the Philosophical Radicals, and his school are recognised as the men who unknowingly laid down the doctrines for Socialism. Bentham's impact on English law is also considerable. Aside from Bentham, major English philosophers include Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, and Bernard Williams. Sport Several modern sports were codified in England during the 19th century, among them cricket, rugby union and rugby league, football, tennis and badminton. Of these, association football, rugby and cricket remain the country's most popular spectator sports. England contains more UEFA 5 star and 4 star rated stadia than any other country, and is home to some of the sport's top clubs. Among these, Aston Villa, Liverpool FC, Manchester United and Nottingham Forest have won the European Cup. The England national football team are considered one of the game's superpowers (currently ranked 11th by FIFA and 8th by Elo), having won the World Cup in 1966 when it was hosted in England. Since then, however, they have failed to reach a final of a major international tournament, although they reached the semi-finals of the World Cup in 1990 and the quarter-finals in 2002 and 2006 and Euro 2004. More recently, England failed to qualify for the Euro 2008 championships when it lost 2–3 to Croatia on November 21, 2007 in its final qualifying match. England, playing at home at Wembley Stadium, needed just a draw to ensure qualification. This is the first time since the 1994 World Cup that England has failed to qualify for a major football championship and first time since 1984 that the team will miss the Euros. On November 22, 2007, the day after the defeat to Croatia, England fired its football coach, Steve McClaren and his assistant Terry Venables, ostensibly as a direct consequence of its failure to qualify for Euro 2008. The England national rugby union team and England cricket team are often among the best performing in the world, with the rugby union team winning the 2003 Rugby World Cup (and finishing as runners-up in 2007), and the cricket team winning The Ashes in 2005, and being ranked the second best Test nation in the world. Rugby union clubs such as Leicester Tigers, London Wasps and the Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup. At rugby league, the England national rugby league team are to compete more regularly after 2006, when England will become a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, when that team is retired after the 2006 Rugby League Tri-Nations. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England. The 2012 Summer Olympics are to be hosted by London, England. It will run from 26 July to 12 August 2012. London will become the first city to have hosted the modern Olympic Games three times, having previously done so in 1908 and 1948. Language Places in the world where English language is spoken. Countries are dark blue where English is an official language, de facto official language, or national language. Countries are light blue where it is an official, non-primary language or non-official primary language. Beowulf is one of the oldest surviving epic poems in what is identifiable as a form of the English language.As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue today (although not officially designated as such). An Indo-European language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family, it is closely related to Scots and the Frisian languages. As the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms merged into England, "Old English" emerged; some of its literature and poetry has survived. Used by aristocracy and commoners alike before the Norman Conquest (1066), English was displaced in cultured contexts under the new regime by the Norman French language of the new Anglo-Norman aristocracy. Its use was confined primarily to the lower social classes while official business was conducted in a mixture of Latin and French. Over the following centuries, however, English gradually came back into fashion among all classes and for all official business except certain traditional ceremonies, some of which survive to this day. Although, Middle English, as it had by now become, showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins; and more recent years, Modern English has extended this custom, willing to incorporate foreign-influenced words. It is most commonly accepted that—thanks in large part to the British Empire, and now the United States—the English language is now the world's unofficial lingua franca, while English common law is also the foundation of many legal systems throughout the English-speaking countries of the world. English language learning and teaching is an important economic sector, including language schools, tourism spending, and publishing houses. Additional languages UK legislation does not recognise any language as being official, but English is the only language used in England for general official business. The other national languages of the UK (Welsh, Irish, Scots and Scottish Gaelic) are confined to their respective nations, except Welsh to some degree. The only non-Anglic native spoken language in England is the Cornish language, a Celtic language spoken in Cornwall, which became extinct in the 19th century but has been revived and is spoken in various degrees of fluency, currently by about 2,000 people. This has no official status (unlike Welsh) and is not required for official use, but is nonetheless supported by national and local government under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Cornwall County Council has produced a draft strategy to develop these plans. There is, however, no programme as yet for public bodies to actively promote the language. Scots is spoken by some adjacent to the Anglo-Scottish Border, and Welsh is still spoken by some natives around Oswestry, Shropshire, on the Welsh border. Most deaf people within England speak British sign language (BSL), a sign language native to Britain. The British Deaf Association estimates that 250,000 people throughout the UK speak BSL as their first or preferred language, but does not give statistics specific to England. BSL is not an official language of the UK and most British government departments and hospitals have limited facilities for deaf people. The BBC broadcasts several of its programmes with BSL interpreters. Different languages from around the world, especially from the former British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations, have been brought to England by immigrants. Many of these are widely spoken within ethnic minority communities, with Bengali, Hindi, Sinhala, Tamil, Punjabi, Urdu, Gujarati, Polish, Greek, Turkish and Cantonese being the most common languages that people living in Britain consider their first language. These are often used by official bodies to communicate with the relevant sections of the community, particularly in large cities, but this occurs on an "as needed" basis rather than as the result of specific legislative ordinances. Other languages have also traditionally been spoken by minority populations in England, including Romany. Despite the relatively small size of the nation, there are many distinct English regional accents. Those with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood elsewhere in the country. Use of foreign non-standard varieties of English (such as Caribbean English) is also increasingly widespread, mainly because of the effects of immigration. Religion Due to immigration in the past decades, there is an enormous diversity of religious belief in England, as well as a growing percentage that have no religious affiliation. Levels of attendance in various denominations have begun to decline[citation needed]. England is classed largely as a secular country even allowing for the following affiliation percentages : Christianity: 71.6%, Islam: 3.1%, Hindu: 1.1%, Sikh: 0.7%, Jewish: 0.5%, and Buddhist: 0.3%, No Faith: 22.3%. The EU Eurobarometer poll of 2005 shows that only 38% of people in the UK believe in a god, while 40% believe in "some sort of spirit or life force" and 20% do not believe in either. Christianity Stained glass from Rochester Cathedral in Kent, England, incorporating the Flag of EnglandChristianity reached England through missionaries from Scotland and from Continental Europe; the era of St. Augustine (the first Archbishop of Canterbury) and the Celtic Christian missionaries in the north (notably St. Aidan and St. Cuthbert). The Synod of Whitby in 664 ultimately led to the English Church being fully part of Roman Catholicism. Early English Christian documents surviving from this time include the 7th century illuminated Lindisfarne Gospels and the historical accounts written by the Venerable Bede. England has many early cathedrals, most notably York Minster (1080), Durham Cathedral (1093) and Salisbury Cathedral (1220), In 1536, the Church was split from Rome over the issue of the divorce of King Henry VIII from Catherine of Aragon. The split led to the emergence of a separate ecclesiastical authority, and later the influence of the Reformation, resulting in the Church of England and Anglicanism. Unlike the other three constituent countries of the UK, the Church of England is an established church (although the Church of Scotland is a 'national church' recognised in law). Canterbury Cathedral is the mother church of the Church of England, a significant worldwide Christian denomination.The 16th century break with Rome under the reign of King Henry VIII and the Dissolution of the Monasteries had major consequences for the Church (as well as for politics). The Church of England remains the largest Christian church in England; it is part of the Anglican Communion. Many of the Church of England's cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance. Other major Christian Protestant denominations in England include the Methodist Church, the Baptist Church and the United Reformed Church. Smaller denominations, but not insignificant, include the Religious Society of Friends (the "Quakers") and the Salvation Army—both founded in England. There are also Afro-Caribbean Churches, especially in the London area. The Roman Catholic Church re-established a hierarchy in England in the 19th century. Attendances were considerably boosted by immigration, especially from Ireland and more recently Poland. The Church of England is still the official state church. Other religions Throughout the second half of the 20th century, immigration from many colonial countries, often from South Asia and the Middle East have resulted in a considerable growth in Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism in England. Cities and towns with large Muslim communities include Birmingham, Blackburn, Coventry, Bolton, Bradford, Leicester, London, Luton, Manchester, Oldham and Sheffield. Cities and towns with large Sikh communities include London, Slough, Staines, Hounslow, Southall, Reading, Ilford, Barking, Dagenham, Leicester, Leeds, Birmingham, Wolverhampton and others. The Jewish community in England is mainly in the Greater London area, particularly the north west suburbs such as Golders Green; although Manchester, Leeds and Gateshead also have significant Jewish communities. Education The chapel of King's College, Cambridge UniversityMain article: Education in England There is a long history of the promotion of education in England in schools, colleges and universities. England is home to the oldest existing schools in the English speaking world: The King's School, Canterbury and The King's School, Rochester, believed to be founded in the 6th and 7th century respectively. At least eight existing schools in England were founded in the first millennium. Most of these ancient institutions are fee-paying schools, however some state schools are also very old, most notably Beverley Grammar School founded in 700. Other notable English schools include Winchester College (founded 1382), Eton College (1440), St Paul's School (London) (1509), Tonbridge School (1553), Rugby School (1567), Harrow School (1572), Charterhouse School (1611), and Sherborne School, which was granted an official charter in 1550, but due to its attachment to Sherborne Abbey, which has been a place of scholarship since 705, it stakes a good claim to being among the oldest educational establishments in the country, and Radley College (1847). The oldest surviving girls' school in England is Red Maids' School founded in 1634. England is also home to the two oldest universities in the English speaking world: Oxford University (12th century) and Cambridge University (early 13th century). More than 90 universities are in England and many of these (most notably the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London) consist of autonomous colleges, many of which are world famous in their own right, for example University College, Oxford (founded 1249), Peterhouse, Cambridge (1284) Imperial College London and the London School of Economics (1895). The education system in England is run by the Department for Children, Schools and Families. The education is split into two main types; State schools funded through taxation and free to all, and private schools, which provide a paid-for education on top of taxes (also confusingly known as "Public" or "Independent" schools). The level of education in England is maintained by regular Government inspections of State run schools, and Ofsted inspections of private schools. Healthcare The NHS Logo for EnglandThe National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for provided the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS provides most services free at the point of use for the patient though there are charges associated with eye tests, dental care, prescriptions, and many aspects of personal care. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. (The Act originally set up the NHS in England and Wales but Wales was split off in the 1960s – see NHS Wales.)Private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, but it is used by less than 8% of the population, and generally as a top-up to NHS services. Recently the private sector has been increasingly used to increase NHS capacity despite a large proportion of the public opposing such involvement. The NHS is largely funded from general taxation (including a proportion from National Insurance payments). The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health (Health Secretary), who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of The Department of Health (£98.6 billion in 2008-9) is spent on the NHS. Transport Heathrow Airport is the world's busiest airport in terms of numbers of international passengersLondon Heathrow Airport is England's largest airport, the largest airport by traffic volume in Europe and one of the world's busiest airports, and London Gatwick Airport is England's second largest, followed by Manchester Airport. Other major airports include London Stansted Airport in Essex, about 50 kilometres (30 mi) north of London, Coventry Airport and Birmingham International Airport. The growth in private car ownership in the latter half of the 20th century led to major road-building programmes. Important trunk roads built include the A1 Great North Road from London to Newcastle and Edinburgh, and the A580 "East Lancs." road between Liverpool and Manchester. The M6 motorway is the country's longest motorway running from Rugby through North West England to the Scottish border. Other major roads include the M1 motorway from London to Leeds up the east of the country, the M25 motorway which encircles London, the M60 motorway which encircles Manchester, the M4 motorway from London to South Wales, the M62 motorway from Liverpool to Manchester and Yorkshire, and the M5 motorway from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West. Most of the British National Rail network of 16,116 route km (10,072 route miles) lies in England. Urban rail networks are also well developed in London and several other cities, including the Manchester Metrolink and the London Underground. The London Underground is the oldest and most extensive underground railway in the world, and as of 2007 consists of 407 km (253 mi) of line and serves 275 stations. There are around 7,100 km (4,400 mi) of navigable waterways in England, of which roughly half is owned by British Waterways. An estimated 165 million journeys are made by people on Britain's waterways annually. The Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at Tilbury, one of the three major ports in the UK. Ports in the UK handled over 560 million tonnes of domestic and international freight in 2005. The government department overseeing transport is the Department for Transport. People The ancestry of the English, considered as an ethnic group, is mixed; it can be traced to the mostly Celtic Romano-Britons, to the eponymous Anglo-Saxons, the Danish-Vikings that formed the Danelaw during the time of Alfred the Great and the Normans, among others. The 19th and 20th centuries, furthermore, brought much new immigration to England. Ethnicity aside, the simplest view is that an English person is someone who was born in England and holds British nationality, regardless of his or her racial origin. It has, however, been a notoriously complicated, emotive and controversial identity to delimit. Centuries of English dominance within the United Kingdom has created a situation where to be English is, as a linguist would put it, an "unmarked" state. The English frequently include themselves and their neighbours in the wider term of "British", while the Scots and Welsh tend to be more forward about referring to themselves by one of those more specific terms. This reflects a more subtle form of English-specific patriotism in England; St George's Day, the country's national day, is barely celebrated. The celebrations have increased year on year over the past five years. Modern celebration of English identity is often found around its sports, one field in which the British Home Nations often compete individually. The English Association football team, rugby union team and cricket team often cause increases in the popularity of celebrating Englishness. Nomenclature The country is named after the Angles, one of several Germanic tribes who settled the country in the fifth and sixth centuries. There are two distinct linguistic patterns for the name of the country. Most European languages use names similar to "England": "Anglie" (Czech) "Anglicko" (Slovak) "England" (Danish, German, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Luxembourgish) "Engeland" (Dutch) "Inglismaa" (Estonian) "Angleterre" (French) "Англия" (Angliya) (Russian, Bulgarian) "Anglaterra" (Catalan) "Inghilterra" (Italian) "Ingilterra" (Maltese, Egyptian) "Inglaterra" (Spanish, Portuguese, Galician) "İngiltere" (Turkish) "Anglia" (Latin, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Albanian) "Anglija" (Slovene, Lithuanian, Latvian, Ukrainian) "Engleska" (Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian) "Αγγλία" ("Aglía") (Greek) "Englanti" (Finnish) "Ingalaterra" (Basque) "ინგლისი" ("inglisi") (Georgian) The Celtic names are quite different, referring to the Saxons, another family of Germanic tribes that arrived at about the same time as the Angles. "Bro-Saoz" (Breton) "Pow Sows" (Cornish) "Sasana" (Irish) "Sostyn" (Manx) "Sasainn" (Scottish Gaelic) "Lloegr" (Welsh), an ancient geographic term and not Saxon-related; but the inhabitants are referred to as "Saeson". The names in Asian languages: "إنجلترا" (Ingiltra) or "إنكلترا" (Inkiltra) (Arabic) "ইংল্যান্ড" (Ingland) (Bangla) "انگلستان" (Inglistan) (Hindi, Persian) "אנגליה" (Anglia) (Hebrew) "イングランド" (Ingurando) (Japanese) "Engalaantha" (Sri Lankans (Sinhalese)) "இங்கிலாந்து" (In-gi-laan-dhu) (Tamil) "Anh Quôc" (Vietnamese) "Inggris" (Indonesian) "อังกฤษ" (Ang-grit) (Thai) "英格蘭" (Yīnggélán) (Chinese) "잉글랜드" (Ing-geul-laen-deu) (Korean) "eng-ge-re-ji" ( Punjabi languages ) "英倫" (Ying-lun)(Cantonese) Names in other languages: "Uingereza"(Ou-I-ng'e-re-za) (Swahili) Alternative names include: The slang "Blighty", from the Hindustani "bila yati" meaning "foreign" (which coincidentally resembles "Britain") "Albion", an ancient name, supposedly referring to the white (Latin alba) cliffs of Dover. Although it refers to the whole island of Great Britain, it is occasionally, and incorrectly, used for England. Following the Roman conquest of Britain, the term contracted to mean only the area north of Roman control and is today a relative of Alba, the Celtic languages name for Scotland. More poetically, England has been called "this sceptred isle...this other Eden" and "this green and pleasant land", quotations respectively from the poetry of William Shakespeare (in Richard II) and William Blake (And did those feet in ancient time). Slang terms sometimes used for the people of England include "Sassenachs" or "Sasanachs" (from the Scots Gaelic and Irish Gaelic respectively, both originally meaning "Saxon", and originally a Scottish Highland term for Lowland Scots), "Limeys" (in reference to the citrus fruits carried aboard English sailing vessels to prevent scurvy) and "Pom/Pommy" (used in Australian English and New Zealand English), but these may be perceived as offensive. Also see alternative words for British. National symbols, insignia and anthems The two main traditional symbols of England are the St George's Cross (the English flag), and the Three Lions coat of arms. Other national symbols exist, but have varying degrees of official usage, such as the oak tree and the rose. England's National Day is St George's Day (Saint George being the patron saint), which is on 23 April. A one-pound coin with an English oak tree A one-pound coin with the three lions of England Saint George and the Dragon, Paolo Uccello, c. 1470. This small dragon has the look of a griffin or a wyvern. The English rose at the border of Wales and England St George's Cross The St George's Cross is a red cross on a white background and is the national flag of England. It is believed to have been adopted for the uniform of English soldiers during the Crusades of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. From about 1277 it became the national flag of England. St George's Cross was originally the flag of Genoa and was adopted by England and the City of London in 1190 for their ships entering the Mediterranean to benefit from the protection of the powerful Genoese fleet. The maritime Republic of Genoa was rising and going to become, with its rival Venice, one of the most important powers in the world. The English Monarch paid an annual tribute to the Doge of Genoa for this privilege. The cross of St George would become the official Flag of England. A red cross acted as a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with St George and England, along with other countries and cities (such as Georgia, Milan and the Republic of Genoa), which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner. It remained in national use until 1707, when the Union Flag (also known as the Union Jack, especially at sea) which English and Scottish ships had used at sea since 1606, was adopted for all purposes to unite the whole of Great Britain under a common flag. The flag of England no longer has much of an official role, but it is widely flown by Church of England properties and at sporting events. Until recently, the flag was not commonly flown in England with the British Union Flag being used instead. This was certainly evident at the 1966 football World Cup when English fans predominantly flew the latter. However, since devolution in the United Kingdom, the St George Cross has experienced a growth in popularity and is now the predominant flag used in English sporting events. Three Lions The arms of England are gules, three lions passant guardant or; the earliest surviving record of their use was by Richard I (Richard the Lionheart) in the late 12th century. Since union with Scotland and Northern Ireland, the arms of England are no longer used on their own; instead they form a part of the conjoined Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. However, both the Football Association and the England and Wales Cricket Board use logos based on the three lions. In recent years, it has been common to see banners of the arms flown at English football matches, in the same way the Lion Rampant is flown in Scotland. In 1996, Three Lions was the official song of the England football team for the 1996 European Football Championship, which were held in England. Rose The Tudor rose is the national floral emblem of England, and was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses. The rose is used in a variety of contexts in its use for England's representation. The Rose of England is a Royal Badge, and is a Tudor, or half-red-half-white rose, symbolising the end of the Wars of the Roses and the subsequent marriage between the House of Lancaster and the House of York. This symbolism is reflected in the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom and the crest of the FA. However, the rose of England is often displayed as a red rose (which also symbolises Lancashire), such as the badge of the England national rugby union team. A white rose (which also symbolises Yorkshire) is also used on different occasions. Anthem England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has "God Save the Queen". However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems: "I Vow to Thee, My Country" "Land of Hope and Glory" "Nimrod" "Jerusalem" "Heart of Oak" "God Save the Queen" is usually played for English sporting events, such as football matches, against teams from outside the UK, although "Land of Hope and Glory" was used as the English anthem for the 2002 Commonwealth Games. Since 2004, "Jerusalem" has been sung before England cricket matches, and "Rule Britannia" (Britannia being the Roman name for Great Britain, a personification of the United Kingdom) was often used in the past for the English national football team when they played against another of the home nations but more recently "God Save the Queen" has been used by the rugby union and football teams. Gallery Durham Cathedral Tower of London, London. The Palace of Westminster – the political centre of the United Kingdom. Stonehenge – a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument in Wiltshire. Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol. |
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