歐洲:
英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| 瑞典 Sweden 首都:斯德哥爾摩 國家代碼: se |
 瑞典國名釋義：來自瑞典語，“親屬”的意思。 國土面積 - 總計 449964平方公裏 - 水域 第54位 8.67% 人口 - 總計 897.7萬人 - 密度 第82位 獨立日：6月6日（１８０９年６月６日，瑞典通過第一部現代憲法。１９８３年，議會正式宣佈６月６日為瑞典國慶節。） 國旗：為藍色，黃色十字略嚮左側。藍、黃顔色來自瑞典皇徽的顔色。 國徽：大國徽為鬥篷式，飾有王冠的藍盾被黃十字一分為四：左上和右下部繪有３頂王冠；右上和左下部繪有戴王冠的金獅。大盾中有一小盾，左面由藍、銀白、紅三色斜紋和一個金瓶組成；右面繪有一個城堡式的鐘樓和一隻金鷹。藍盾兩旁是金獅，下端為勳章。小國徽為一帶王冠的藍盾，盾面上３頂金冠是瑞典王國的象徵，也象徵着當年組成卡爾馬聯盟的丹麥、瑞典和挪威。 國歌：《你古老的光榮的北國山鄉》 （Du gamla, Du fria） 民族：90%為日耳曼族瑞典人，還有部分芬蘭人。 宗教：基督教路德宗 國花：白菊、睡蓮 國鳥：烏鶇（百舌） 國石： 小（水）晶 別稱：歐洲鋸木場 民俗：禁酒之國（在傢飲酒須持特許證去指定地購買並交納一定的稅款） 統一: 900~1200年 貨幣：瑞典剋朗（Svensk krona） 1瑞典剋朗可以換1.1269 元人民幣 時區：UTC +1 比北京時間晚７小時（每年３月底到１０月底北歐實行夏時製，與北京時間差距縮短１小時）。 互聯網國傢域名 .SE 國際電話區號 46 政府網址 瑞典王室：http://www.royalcourt.se 議會：http://www.riksdagen.se 首相府：http://www.regeringen.se 外交部：http://www.ud.se 瑞典國際開發署：http://www.sida.se 瑞典學會：http://www.si.se 國傢政要：國王卡爾十六世·古斯塔夫 (Carl XVI Gustaf) ，１９７３年９月繼承王位；首相弗雷德裏剋·賴因費爾特 ，２００６年１０月出任首相。 自然地理 位於北歐斯堪的納維亞半島東部。東北部與芬蘭接壤，西部和西北部與挪威為鄰，東瀕波羅的海和卡特加特海峽，西南臨北海，並與丹麥隔海相望。領土面積為４４．９９萬平方公裏（不包括領海面積）。海岸綫長約２１８１公裏。地勢自西北嚮東南傾斜。北部為諾爾蘭高原，全國最高峰剋布訥凱塞峰海拔２１２３米，南部及沿海多為平原或丘陵。主要河流有約塔河、達爾河、翁厄曼河。湖泊衆多，約９．２萬個。最大的維納恩湖面積５５８５平方公裏，居歐洲第三。約１５％的土地在北極圈內，但受大西洋暖流影響，鼕季不太寒冷，大部分地區屬溫帶針葉林氣候，最南部屬溫帶闊葉林氣候。 人口 有９１２萬（２００７年２月）。９０％為瑞典人（日耳曼族後裔），外國移民及其後裔超過１００萬（其中５２．６％為外籍僑民）。北部薩米族是唯一的少數民族，約１萬人。官方語言為瑞典語。９０％的國民信奉基督教路德宗。 瑞典的人均壽命高，出生率低。二次大戰後大量移民涌入，情況與戰前相反。現該國12%的人口出生地不在瑞典，五分之一人口是移民或移民的後代。移民多數來自芬蘭、前南斯拉夫、伊朗、挪威、丹麥、波蘭，反映了北歐人口流動性高、早期勞工移民及後期的難民潮等現象。 最早的移民是芬蘭人。第二次世界大戰時約70,000芬蘭兒童放逐到瑞典，其中15,000戰後居留瑞典。1950~60年代，戰後的芬蘭經濟陷入睏境，大量的芬蘭失業者走到經濟起飛的瑞典。高峰時期瑞典有400,000芬蘭人。1973年能源危機，瑞典失業人數上升，芬蘭從與鄰國蘇聯的貿易中得益，留瑞芬人漸降至200,000人。 瑞典語屬日耳曼語係，與丹麥語及挪威語有關係，但發音與寫法均相異。英語是最普遍的第二語言，尤其是50歲以下的人。瑞典語無疑是最普遍的語言，所以官方語言似乎是多餘的政治議題。 這是個名副其實的“女權國傢”。2000年，瑞典與它的北歐鄰國芬蘭一起被聯合國評為世界上男女平等的“模範國傢”。瑞典的議會中，女議員的比例約占40%，在1986年，瑞典的32個部長中一度由女性占據了其中的16席。而瑞典婦女在社會活動中比男人更活躍，據統計，在瑞典的對外貿易活動，女人創造的價值占了近60%。 首都 斯德哥爾摩（Stockholm），市區人口７８．３萬（２００６年１２月）。 行政區劃 瑞典有21個行政區域。地方行政局由政府任命。行政區有區議會，議員為市代表。行政區由市組成，2002年全國共有市289個。 全國共分為21個省：布萊金厄省，達拉納省耶夫勒堡省，哥得蘭省，哈蘭省，耶姆特蘭省，延雪平省，卡爾馬省，剋魯努貝裏省，北博滕省，厄勒布魯省，東約特蘭省，斯科耐省，南曼蘭省，斯德哥爾摩省，烏普薩拉省，韋姆蘭省，西博滕省，西諾爾蘭省，西曼蘭省，西約特蘭省。 簡史 根據考古學家的研究，隨着冰河時期內陸積雪漸漸溶解，瑞典一帶地區石器時代已有人聚居。他們居住在波羅的海附近，主要以打獵、蒐集、捕魚為生。 貿易活動的遺跡顯示瑞典南部青銅時代人口已頗為稠密。 九至十世紀時，瑞典地區發展出維京文化，以貿易、侵略、殖民等方式嚮東發展，影響的地區包括波羅的海、俄羅斯及黑海。 公元１１００年前後開始形成國傢。１１５７年兼併芬蘭。１３９７年與丹麥、挪威組成卡爾馬(Kalmar)聯盟，受丹統治。１５２３年脫離聯盟獨立。同年，古斯塔夫·瓦薩(Gustav Eriksson Vasa)被推舉為國王。１６５４至１７１９年為瑞典的強盛時期，領土包括現芬蘭、愛沙尼亞、拉脫維亞、立陶宛以及俄國、波蘭和德國的波羅的海沿岸地區。 17世紀時瑞典在三十年戰爭(1618~1648年)中躍升成為歐洲強國。18世紀大北方戰爭(1700~1721年)後俄國取代瑞典在歐洲的地位。１７１８年對俄國、丹麥和波蘭作戰失敗後逐步走嚮衰落。１８０５年參加拿破侖戰爭，１８０９年敗於俄國後被迫割讓芬蘭，１８１４年從丹麥取得挪威，並與挪結成瑞挪聯盟。１９０５年挪威脫離聯盟獨立。瑞典在兩次世界大戰中均守中立。 瑞典的近代史比較平靜。最近期的一次是1814年與挪威的戰事。該戰後兩國組成由瑞典主導的聯盟，1905年解散。瑞典在兩次世界大戰中均保持中立。冷戰時期沒有嚮兩大陣營靠攏。瑞典不是軍事組織的成員，但會參與北約的軍事訓練。 1901年，第一屆諾貝爾奬頒奬禮在瑞典斯德哥爾摩皇傢音樂學院舉行。1902年開始諾貝爾奬由瑞典國王頒授。 瑞典在第一次世界大戰和第二次世界大戰都維持中立。可是，1995年放棄中立主義，加入歐盟。 20世紀，瑞典在國際中保持中立，本土相對和平穏定，瑞典實行的資本主義制度不同於美國，有完善的福利保障制度，具有“高工資、高稅收、高福利”的特點，在20世紀60年代到90年代，瑞典經濟飛速發展，人民生活水平得以大大提高。 政治 現行憲法由政府法典（１８０９年製定，１９７４年修訂）、王位繼承法（１８１０年製定，１９７９年修訂）和新聞自由法（１９４９年製定）三個基本法組成，此外還有議會組織法（１８６６年製定，１９７４年修訂）。憲法規定瑞典實行君主立憲製。國王是國傢元首和武裝部隊統帥，作為國傢象徵僅履行代表性或禮儀性職責，不能幹預議會和政府工作。議會是國傢唯一的立法機構，由普選産生。政府是國傢最高行政機構，對議會負責。國王的最年長子女是法定王位繼承人。議會為一院製。 經濟 瑞典實行發達的私營工商業與比較完善的國營公共服務部門相結合的"混合經濟"，以高工資、高稅收、高福利著稱。 森林、鐵礦和水力是瑞典的三大自然資源，在此基礎上發展並形成了采礦冶金、林業造紙、電力和機械製造四大傳統工業體係。 作為一個具有豐富的木材、鐵礦、水力資源的國傢，瑞典着重發展以出口為導嚮的工業化經濟。工業在國民經濟中占有十分重要的地位，８２％的工業品出口到國外。 ２０世紀70年代中期以後，瑞典工業結構發生了顯著變化。瑞典加大科研與發展的力度和投入，高科技産業迅速發展，交通、通訊、醫藥保健、信息、環保領域在世界上具有較強的競爭力，一度作為瑞典主要出口部門的鋼鐵，木材加工業已逐漸被機械製造，電子精密儀器和汽車等工業部門所代替。造船、紡織等工業日益衰落，政府提供了大量資金進行補貼，改組或收歸國有。 金屬加工和機器製造業是瑞典最重要的工業部門。瑞典的機械産品具有精密，耐用和工藝水平高的特點。滾珠軸承、冷凍設備等傳統産品在國際市場上都享有很高的聲譽。鋼鐵工業是歷史悠久的工業部門之一。 化學工業是瑞典主要工業部門之一。在化學工業內部，尤以石油化學，石油精煉最為突出，塑料、化纖、藥品和化肥也有較大發展。汽車工業戰後發展迅速，除生産小汽車外，還生産各種卡車。小汽車産量的三分之一銷往美國。能源工業在瑞典經濟中居於十分重要的地位。瑞典工業發達，能源密集企業居多，加上鼕季漫長和交通綫很長，是一個能源高消費國傢，僅電力消耗每人年均達1.3萬度左右。瑞典的農業和服務業也較為發達。瑞典經濟主要依賴對外貿易，主張市場開放和自由貿易。 瑞典主要出口産品有：汽車及運輸設備、機械和儀器、電子産品、木漿紙張、醫藥化工和鋼鐵及金屬製品。瑞典進口貨物的６０％以上為製造業的部件和原材料，主要有：電子産品、機械和儀器、汽車和運輸設備、食品、紡織品和鞋類等。 瑞典人口稀少，不足九百萬，從宏觀經濟的角度看是一個微不足道的市場，這一特點决定了對外貿易對瑞典尤其重要，主要天然資源有森林、水力發電、鐵礦等。 私有企業占工業生産九成，其中50%是輸出或輸入的工程項目。農業衹占2%的國內生産總值；全國亦衹有2%的就業人口從事農業生産。因政府着力緊縮開支，2001年有大額盈餘；但2002年的盈餘因全球經濟衰退而大幅下降一半。 通信、機械製造、建築工程及運輸業是瑞典重要的基礎産業。 瑞典有很多國際知名的品牌，沃爾沃汽車、薩博汽車和武器、愛立信通信、伊萊剋斯電器、ABB、哈蘇相機、宜傢傢具和H&M服裝等等。按人口比例計算，瑞典是世界上擁有跨國公司最多的國傢。 愛立信公司１８７６年成立於斯德哥爾摩的愛立信公司（Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson）是瑞典最大的一傢從事電子、通信等業務的公司，是世界著名的電信生産企業，其固定和移動通信網、移動電話及信息通信係統等方面的技術，在國際電信業中居領先地位。愛立信的業務體係包括：通信網絡係統，專業電信服務，技術授權，企業係統和移動終端業務（擁有索尼愛立信移動通信公司５０％的股份）。截至１９９９年７月，擁有職工約１０萬多，分佈在世界１４０多個國傢和地區。愛立信公司同中國在電子和通訊領域進行了長期的友好合作。它在中國的業務集中在３個領域：公共網絡的程控交換機、移動電話係統和辦公交換係統。１９８５年，愛立信在北京開設了第一傢辦事處。１９９４年４月，愛立信（中國）有限公司成立，它完全歸屬瑞典愛立信公司，是愛立信的中國協調人，總部在北京。截至２０００年底，愛立信公司在華已擁有４０００多名員工，２４傢辦事處和１０傢合資企業。 沃爾沃集團（AB volvo，又譯“富豪集團”）創建於１９２７年的是世界最大的卡車、客車及建築設備的生産商之一，在海洋及工業能源係統方面和飛機發動機元件領域占有領先地位。該集團是北歐最大的企業，也是世界６０傢大公司之一。其業務包括沃爾沃卡車、邁剋卡車、雷諾卡車、沃爾沃客車、沃爾沃建築設備、沃爾沃發動機、沃爾沃航天航空和沃爾沃金融服務。此外，還有多個商業機構在工程、研發、IT、零部件和物流等領域提供全集團範圍內的支持。集團總部設在哥德堡，在全球２５個國傢擁有生産基地，産品銷往１３０多個市場。約有員工共７．６萬人。沃爾沃集團２００３年的淨銷售額達１９１．５１億歐元。集團的下屬公司有：沃爾沃轎車公司 (volvo cars)、沃爾沃卡車公司 (volvo truck corp.)、沃爾沃大客車公司 (volvo bus croup)、沃爾沃施工設備公司、沃爾沃發動機製造公司 (volvo penta)、沃爾沃飛機（航天）發動機製造公司等。 文化 實行９年一貫製義務免費教育。著名高校有斯德哥爾摩大學、烏普薩拉大學、隆德大學、皇傢工學院、斯德哥爾摩商學院等。瑞典人文化素質較高、熱情好客、純樸誠實、談吐文明、行為規矩、重諾守時，瑞典人十分重視環境保護，愛花、愛鳥和其他野生物，熱愛大自然。雇員每年享受５周的法定有薪假期，每周工作５天，全年纍计工作１，５０００小時。人們喜歡利用閑暇時間到野外活動，到森林和田野遠足，采摘野果和蘑菇，到海湖去遊泳、泛舟、垂釣；在晝長夜短的夏季，大傢紛紛到國內外去旅遊。瑞典已成為世界上外出旅遊人數最多的國傢之一。體育活動更是瑞典人的愛好。 據瑞典哥德堡大學２００２年６月２４日公佈的一項調查顯示，因特網在瑞典已經超過傳統的報紙，成為更受人們歡迎的傳媒。根據抽樣調查，平均每個瑞典人每晝夜上網瀏覽的時間達２３分鐘，而瑞典人用於閱讀日報的時間是２１分鐘，用於閱讀晚報的時間衹剩下８分鐘，收聽廣播和收看電視的時間分別高達２小時和４５分鐘。調查顯示，女性比較喜歡收聽廣播和讀書；男性則較傾嚮於收看文字電視新聞，看錄像和閱讀晚報。受過高等教育的人比較願意上網，讀書和閱讀專業雜志；而受教育程度較低的人則樂意看電視，聽廣播和閱讀晚報。 瑞典的假期主要是天主教節日及傳統節日如仲夏節（Midsummer）及沃爾帕吉斯夜（Walpurgis Night）。各大的節日同時也是國旗日，傢傢戶戶會挂起國旗。瑞典人亦會根據名字日日曆挂起國旗。6月6日是瑞典的國慶日，但仍未是正式的假期。 瑞典通訊社 (Tidningarnas Telegrambyra -- TT) 是瑞典最大的通訊社，創建於１９２１年。它是瑞典各報紙和廣播電臺合作所有的一個股份公司，其任務是嚮瑞典１４０多傢報紙以及廣播電臺和 電視臺提供國內外新聞。總社設在斯德哥爾摩，在馬爾默、哥德堡、鬆茲瓦爾、呂勒歐和延雪平５個城市設有分社。瑞通社設有國內、國際、攝影、體育、議會、經濟和勞工市場編輯部。總社有雇員近１８０人，其中記者約１５０人，在其它地方工作的記者共約４００人。瑞通社的國內新聞約占２／３，國際新聞一部分是由該社駐外記者提供，大部分則是轉播路透社、法新社和德新社等大通訊社的消息，每日約接收上述通訊社１２萬字的新聞。該社與包括新華社在內的２０多傢通訊社有合作關係。瑞通社在通訊技術方面比較先進。１９５４年，它作為第一傢歐洲通訊社開始使用電傳機發稿。瑞通社還以錄音方式播送電話新聞，衹要撥固定的電話號碼，隨時都可以收聽到該社的最新簡明消息。 烏普薩拉大學 (http://www.uu.se) 隆德大學 (http://www.lu.se) 哥德堡大學 (http://www.gu.se) 斯德哥爾摩大學 (http://www.su.se) 於默奧大學 (http://www.uu.se) 林雪平大學 (http://www.liu.se) 瑞典蘭德大學 皇傢工學院 (http://www.kth.se) 查爾姆斯工學院 (http://www.chalmers.se) 卡洛林斯卡醫學院 (http://www.ki.se) 斯德哥爾摩經濟學院 (http://www.sse.se) 軍事 瑞典現有總兵力約６．５萬人、文職人員約２萬人，戰時可動員８５萬人。２００４年９月，瑞典國防大臣比約剋隆德發表聲明說，瑞典過去把防範來自前蘇聯集團的入侵當作國傢防務的重點，而這一威脅現在已經不復存在。現在的重點是對付國際危機和捍衛國傢領土完整。 名勝 諾貝爾故居 (Nobel's House)坐落在瑞典中部卡爾斯庫加市的白樺山莊，離斯德哥爾摩２００多公裏。這是一座乳白色的二層樓房，樓房前的緑草坪和四周的白樺林交相輝映，環境清幽。１８９４年阿爾弗雷德·諾貝爾結束了海外飄泊生涯回到祖國定居，在這裏度過了他生命最後兩年中的大部分時光。由於他當年在斯德哥爾摩出生的舊居如今已經矗立起高樓大廈，白樺山莊就成了今天惟一保存完整的諾貝爾故居。 自１９７５年建立起紀念館以來，這裏已成為一遊覽勝地和諾貝爾學術活動的中心。每年一度在這裏舉行諾貝爾學術討論會，來自世界各地的著名科學家濟濟一堂，共同探討科學領域新課題和諾貝爾“造福於人類”的學術思想。紀念館裏保留着諾貝爾生前活動的照片、他獲得的各種技術發明專利證書、金質奬章和遺囑。諾貝爾的臥室陳設十分簡單，衹有床、桌和衣櫃等幾件最必要的傢具，而他實驗室裏的各種儀器和設備，則琳琅滿目。諾貝爾１８３３年１０月２１日生。他因發明銷化甘油引爆劑、雷管、硝化甘油固體炸藥和膠狀炸藥等，榮膺“炸藥大王”的名聲。１８９６年１２月１０日與世長辭。終年６３歲。根據他的遺囑，把折合為９２０萬美元的部分遺産，作為奬勵造福人類的科學工作者的基金。以這筆基金的利息，分設物理、化學、生理或醫藥、文學、和平５種奬金，每年在諾貝爾的逝世日頒發一次，稱諾貝爾奬金。 瑞典皇宮是國王辦公和舉行慶典的地方，斯德哥爾摩主要旅遊景點。坐落在斯德哥爾摩市中心。建於１７世紀，是瑞典著名建築學家特裏亞爾的作品。正門由兩衹石雕獅子分立兩旁，兩名頭戴紅纓軍帽、身穿中世紀服裝的衛士持槍而立，顯得十分威武森嚴。皇宮四壁有許多精美的浮雕，中間是一個很大的場院。南半闕的王宮教堂和國傢廳以及北半闕的宴會廳至今保持着原有陳設，對公衆開放。皇宮華麗的大廳裏，壁上挂着大幅的歷代國王和皇后的肖像畫，穹頂飾有磁埋和雕刻和絢麗的繪畫。據說大多出自１７世紀德國美術傢之手。有的室內還陳設着古代的戰車兵器、珠寶飾物、金銀器皿和手持長矛、全身披挂着銅盔鐵甲的中世紀騎士的實體模型。王宮衛隊每天中午按古老傳統舉行隆重的換崗儀式，吸引大批遊客。 歷史名人 阿爾弗雷德·貝恩哈德·諾貝爾 (Alfred Bernhard Nobel,1833.10.21~1896.12.10)，瑞典著名化學家、硝化甘油炸藥發明人。１８３３年生於瑞典的斯德哥爾摩，他一生致力於炸藥的研究，在硝化甘油的研究方面取得了重大成就。１８９６年１２月１０日，諾貝爾在意大利逝世。逝世的前一年，他在遺囑中他提出：將其部分遺産（９２０萬美元）作為基金，以其利息分設物理、化學、生理或醫學、文學及和平５種奬金，授予世界各國在這些領域對人類作出重大貢獻的學者。１９００年６月瑞典政府批準成立諾貝爾基金會，並於次年諾貝爾逝世５周年紀念日，即１９０１年１２月１０日首次頒發諾貝爾奬。１９６８年瑞典中央銀行於建行３００周年之際，提供資金增設諾貝爾經濟奬（全稱為"瑞典中央銀行紀念阿爾弗雷德·伯恩德·諾貝爾經濟科學奬金"，亦稱"紀念諾貝爾經濟學奬"），並於１９６９年開始與其他５項奬同時頒發。 諾貝爾奬>>> 奧洛夫·帕爾梅（Olof Palme，1927.1.30~1986.2.28)，瑞典已故首相。１９２７年１月３０日生於斯德哥爾摩。早年斯德哥爾摩附近的錫格蒂納學校學習，畢業後服兵役。第二次世界大戰後，入美國俄亥俄州凱尼恩學院，１９４８年獲文學士學位。回國後入斯德哥爾摩大學，１９５１年獲法學士學位。１９５０參加社會民主黨。１９５３年任瑞典首相特別顧問。１９５８年當選為議員。１９６３年起在政府中任職。１９６９年任社會民主黨主席。１９６９年、１９８２年兩度出任首相。１９７６年１１月當選為社會黨國際副主席。１９８０年９月，在他倡議下成立了“關於裁軍和安全問題獨立委員會”（也稱“帕爾梅委員會”），任主席。１９８０年１１月作為聯合國秘書長的特使調停兩伊戰爭。１９８６年２月２８日在斯德哥爾摩遇刺身亡。 外交 奉行“和平時期軍事不結盟，以求鄰近地區發生戰爭時守中立”的外交政策。在鄰近地區、歐洲和世界事務三個層面積極參與國際合作。認為合作即安全，鄰近地區是自身的安全基礎，歐盟在歐安事務中發揮着越來越重要的作用，承認北約在歐安事務中的主導地位，視參與聯合國事務為外交基石之一。１９９４年６月，加入北約“和平夥伴關係”。１９９５年１月１日成為歐盟正式成員國。瑞典還主張發揮聯合國作用，積極促進緩和與裁軍。瑞典是歐洲委員會、北歐理事會、歐洲自由貿易聯盟成員國。 與中國關係：瑞典於１９５０年１月１４日承認新中國，１９５０年５月９日，瑞典與中國建交，是第一個與中國建交的西方國傢。２００６年７月，卡爾十六世國王對中國進行國事訪問。２００７年６月，鬍錦濤主席對瑞典進行國事訪問，鬍錦濤在斯德哥爾摩出席瑞中貿易委員會舉行的歡迎晚宴並發表重要講話。 瑞典主要港口概況 一、斯德哥爾摩 港口名稱(中文)：斯德哥爾摩 港口名稱(英文)：STOCKHOLM 航綫：北歐 國傢：瑞典 時區： 港口情況描述 港口性質：湖海港，自由港 經緯度，59度20分N，018度03分E 航綫：北歐 位於瑞典（全稱，瑞典王國THE KINGDOM Or SWEDEN）東南沿海梅拉倫（MALAREN）湖的出海口處，瀕臨波羅的（BALTIC）海的西北側，是瑞典第二大港，也是波羅的海的主要港之一。它是瑞典的首都，全國政治、經濟、文化和交通的中心，又是一座有名的國際城市，很多世界性會議都在此召開。市區由大小14個島嶼和70多座橋梁組成，故有“北方威尼斯”之稱。主要工業有鋼鐵、造船、機器製造、食品、化學、煉油及紡織等，港口距芬蘭的赫爾辛基。(HELSINKI）港約240nmi1e。距機場約40km，有正規航班。 該港屬北溫帶大陸性氣候，盛行南一西風，年平均氣溫最高約29℃，最低一16℃。每年結冰期14天，有破冰船協助開航。全年平均降雨量60Omm。潮差不顯著。 裝卸設備有各種岸吊、可移式吊、汽車吊、浮吊、捲揚機、卡車、拖車及滾裝設施等，其中浮吊最大起重能力達260噸，還有直徑為152.4～508mm的輸油管供裝卸石油使用。油碼頭可靠6.5萬載重噸的油船。裝卸效率：吸糧機每小時為120噸。糧庫容積達7萬噸。大船錨地水深在60m以上。本港自由港區有3個長碼頭，2個短碼頭，港區面積達38萬平方米,貨場面積約9萬平方米，糧庫容積為1.6萬噸，港。口主要出口貨物為木材、紙張、鋼鐵、機械、紙漿及食品等，進口貨物主要有煤炭、石油、金屬及化工品等。1992年集裝箱吞吐量為2.4萬TEU，年貨物吞吐能力約2500萬噸。在節假日中，如需加班，收費加倍。 二、赫爾辛堡 港口名稱(中文)：赫爾辛堡 港口名稱(英文)：Helsinborg 航綫：北歐 國傢：瑞典 時區：-7 港口情況描述 港口性質：海灣港、設有自由貿易區、基本港（M） 經緯度：60度10分N，024度57分E 航綫：北歐 位於芬蘭（全稱：芬蘭共和國THE REPUBLIC OF FINLAND）南部沿海芬蘭（FINLAND）灣的北岸，是芬蘭最大的港口。始建於1640年，到1812年成為芬蘭的首都，現為全國政治、文化、經濟和交通中心。也是全國最大的工業中心，它不僅是全國機器製造工業和造船工業中心，還是印刷工業和服裝工業的中心。此外，還有冶金、化學、食品及紡織等工業。赫爾辛基又是全國最大的外貿口岸，它擔負着芬蘭對外貿易貨運量的50%左右。赫港的夏季特別長，一天中，陽光普照的時間達20個小時，因此，人們把赫爾辛基叫做“太陽不落的都城”。港口距機場約25km，每天有定期航班飛往世界各地。距俄羅斯聖彼德堡（ST.PETERSBURG)港約170nmile。 該港北溫帶大陸性氣候，盛行南—東南風。年平均氣溫鼕季約-7攝氏度，最低曾達-24攝氏度，夏季約22攝氏度，最高曾達29攝氏度。每年12月下旬至次年的4月中旬為冰凍期，但有破冰船協助開航。全年平均降雨量約600mm。平均潮差甚小。本港港外有小島作屏障，是天然良港。 裝卸設備有各種岸吊、門吊、集裝箱吊、多功能吊、𠔌物吸揚機、專用橋式起重機及滾裝設施等。雜貨碼頭有最大起重能力達150噸的固定起重機；油碼頭有蓄電池；集裝箱碼頭約占20萬平方米。港口倉庫總面積達52萬平方米，露天堆場面積達120萬平方米。該港以西港區為最大，它負責來往於瑞典、挪威、丹麥、德國、波蘭、法國和英國的集裝箱和挂車班輪的裝卸，也為航程更遠的雜貨班輪進行裝卸。塞爾納依南港區是負責來往於波羅的海各港及比利時、荷蘭和英國主要挂車的定期航運中心，也是芬蘭進出水果和蔬菜的中心，擁有大規模的鮮貨倉庫，還有進口石油的專用碼頭，並提供危險品和易燃化學品倉庫。本港自由貿易區的面積達10萬平方米，主要是倉儲設施，在西港區有2萬平方米的自由貿易區，進入該區的貨物不受海關控製，期限也不受限製，待貨物運走時，在納稅交費。在塞爾納依南港區有8萬平方米的自由貿易區，主要用於停放進口的汽車等待交貨。主要進口貨物為煤、石油、糧𠔌、水果及汽車等，出口貨物主要有木材、紙張、紙漿及木製品等。1994年集裝箱吞吐量為47.3萬TEU（出口22.2萬，進口25.1萬），集裝箱運量占整個芬蘭約74%，卡車和挂車運量約46%。年貨物吞吐能力約1500萬噸。在節假日中如果需要加班，必須在24小時前提出申請，經批準後可以安排作業，但應付加班費。 三、哥德堡 港口名稱(中文)：哥德堡 港口名稱(英文)：Gothenburg 航綫：北歐 國傢：瑞典 時區：-7 港口情況描述 港口性質：海峽河口港、自由港、基本港（M） 經緯度：57度42分N，011度58分E 航綫：北歐 位於瑞典（全稱：瑞典王國THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN）西南沿海約塔（GOTA）河口，瀕臨卡特加特（KATTEGAT）海峽的東北側，與丹麥的腓特烈（FREDERIKSHAVN）港隔峽相望，相距僅50nmile，是瑞典的最大港口。自18世紀初，隨着瑞典海運業的發展和繁榮而逐漸成為全國第一大港。它又是瑞典西部的工業中心，主要工業有造船、煉油、汽車、機械、木材加工及食品等，有全國規模最大的造船廠和煉油廠。港口距機場約30km。 該港屬北溫帶海洋性氣候，全年多南-西風。3~5月多霧。12~2月海面有冰，但不封港。年平均氣溫鼕季約-11攝氏度，夏季約28攝氏度。全年平均降雨量約550mm。潮差不顯著，一般為0.25m。港區分佈在約塔河南北兩岸和河口以北的海峽沿岸，與斯德哥爾摩之間有一條運河相連。哥港是瑞典進出大西洋最近的港口。 裝卸設備有各種岸吊、門吊、捲揚機、傳送帶、集裝箱吊、浮吊及滾裝設施等，其中集裝箱吊最大起重能力為60噸，浮吊最大起重能力達260噸，還有直徑為203.2~406.4mm的輸油管供裝卸石油使用。集裝箱碼頭可靠3.5萬載重噸的船舶；油碼頭最大可泊25萬載重噸的大型油船。貨棚與倉庫面積達88萬平方米，露天堆場面積達180萬平方米。港口有運河與鐵路可通斯德哥爾摩港。本港自由港區的面積達30萬平方米。哥德堡新引進了一條自動化技術檢測係統—DICAMOS係統（數字攝像監控係統），安裝在碼頭大門的進出口通道，每條通道有固定的攝像機，把通過大門的拖車及集裝箱情況，僅用20秒鐘即可將視頻信號記錄器的檢測係統記錄下來，並將圖象儲存在磁盤上。每個磁盤可以存入500噸輛拖車的信息，每輛拖車可以有14個鏡頭。這些磁盤被保留下來，以便在可能發生的貨物運輸過程某個環節中糾紛時之用。港口主要進口貨物為煤、焦碳、機械、小汽車、礦油、金屬、鐵、棉花、羊毛、絲織品、𠔌物、食品、水果及化工品等，出口貨物主要有紙漿、木製品、紙張、鋼鐵、紙板、化工産品、汽車、機械及石油産品等。1993年貨物吞吐量為2710萬噸，比1992年增長6%，1993年集裝箱吞吐量達37萬TEU，比1992年增長3%。在節假日中加班要工人自願，在元旦、五一、聖誕節及除夕等節日不加班。 瑞典的別稱：“森林王國”“湖泊王國”“歐洲鋸木場”“北歐雪國”“禁酒王國” At 449.964 km² (173.732 sq mi), Sweden is the third largest country by area in Western Europe and fourth in all of Europe. With a total population slightly over 9 million, Sweden has a low population density of 20 people per km² (52 per sq. mi). About 84% of the population live in urban areas. Modern Sweden emerged out of the Kalmar Union formed in 1397, and by the unification of the country by King Gustav Vasa in the 16th century. In the 17th century the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish empire. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden constituted by the eastern half of Norrland and Österland was lost to Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union with Sweden, a union which lasted until 1905. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a non-aligned foreign policy in peacetime and neutrality in wartime. Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with a strong tradition of parliamentary democracy. The modern name Sweden is derived through "back-formation" from Old English Sweoðeod, which meant "people of the Swedes" (Old Norse Svíþjóð, Latin Suetidi). This word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas (Old Norse Sviar, Latin Suiones). The Swedish name Sverige literally means "Realm of the Swedes", excluding the Geats in Götaland. The etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but suggestively deriving from Proto-Germanic *Swihoniz meaning "one's own", referring to one's own Germanic tribe. History Prehistory Sweden's prehistory begins in the Allerød warm period c. 12,000 BCE with Late Palaeolithic reindeer-hunting camps of the Bromme culture at the edge of the ice in what is now the country's southernmost province. This period was characterised by small bands of hunter-gatherer-fishers using flint technology. Rock carvings from Tanum, Bohuslän. Rock carvings (petroglyphs) are common all over Scandinavia and several thousands have been found in Sweden alone.Farming and animal husbandry, along with monumental burial, polished flint axes and decorated pottery, arrived from the Continent with the Funnel-beaker Culture in c. 4,000 BCE. Sweden's southern third was part of the stock-keeping and agricultural Nordic Bronze Age Culture's area, most of it being peripheral to the culture's Danish centre. The period began in c. 1700 with the start of bronze imports from Europe. Copper mining was never tried locally during this period, and Scandinavia has no tin deposits, so all metal had to be imported though it was largely cast into local designs on arrival. The Nordic Bronze Age was entirely pre-urban, with people living in hamlets and on farmsteads with single-story wooden long-houses. In the absence of any Roman occupation, Sweden's Iron Age is reckoned up to the introduction of stone architecture and monastic orders about 1100 CE. Much of the period is proto-historical, that is, there are written sources but most hold a very low source-critical quality. The scraps of written matter are either much later than the period in question, written in areas far away, or local and coeval but extremely brief. A rock painted moose from Jämtland. Rock paintings (pictographs) have been fairly limited to northern Scandinavia.The climate took a turn for the worse, forcing farmers to keep cattle indoors over the winters, leading to an annual build-up of manure that could now for the first time be used systematically for soil improvement. A Roman attempt to move the Imperial border forward from the Rhine to the Elbe was aborted in AD 9 when Germans under Roman-trained leadership defeated the legions of Varus by ambush in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. About this time, a major shift in the material culture of Scandinavia occurred, reflecting increased contact with the Romans. Starting in the 2nd century CE, much of southern Sweden's agricultural land was parcelled up with low stone walls. They divided the land into permanent infields and meadows for winter fodder on one side of the wall, and wooded outland where the cattle was grazed on the other side. This principle of landscape organization survived into the 19th century. The Roman Period also saw the first large-scale expansion of agricultural settlement up the Baltic coast of the country's northern two thirds. Sweden enters proto-history with the Germania of Tacitus in 98 CE. Whether any of the brief information he reports about this distant barbaric area was well-founded is uncertain, but he does mention tribal names that correspond to the Swedes (Suiones) and the Sami (Fenni) of later centuries. As for literacy in Sweden itself, the runic script was invented among the south Scandinavian elite in the 2nd century, but all that has come down to the present from the Roman Period is curt inscriptions on artefacts, mainly of male names, demonstrating that the people of south Scandinavia spoke Proto-Norse at the time, a language ancestral to Swedish and other North Germanic languages. Panoramic view of Ale's Stones in Scania, southern Sweden. This ship setting is a Vendel Period burial monument, most likely dating from the 7th century CE. Viking and Middle ages See also: Early Swedish history and Foundation of Modern Sweden The Swedish Viking Age lasted roughly between the eighth and eleventh centuries CE. During this period, it is believed that the Swedes expanded from eastern Sweden and incorporated the Geats to the south. While Vikings from what is today Norway, Denmark and the west coast and south of Sweden travelled south and west, Swedish vikings and Gutar travelled east and south, going to Finland, the Baltic countries, Russia, the Mediterranean and further as far as Baghdad. Their routes passed the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople (Byzantine Empire) (present-day Istanbul, Turkey) on which they did numerous raids. The Byzantine Emperor Theophilos noticed their great skills in war, and invited them to serve as his personal bodyguard, these were called the varangian guard. The Swedish vikings Template:Early Swedish history. The Swedish vikings (Rus) are, according to the most popular theory, believed to have to have founded Russia. The adventures of these Swedish Vikings are commemorated on many runestones in Sweden, such as the Greece Runestones and the Varangian Runestones. There was also considerable participation in expeditions westwards, which are commorated on stones such as the England Runestones. The last major Swedish Viking expedition appears to have been the ill-fated expedition of Ingvar the Far-Travelled to Serkland, the region south-east of the Caspian Sea. Its members are commemorated on the Ingvar Runestones, none of which mentions any survivor. What happened to the crew is unknown, but it is believed that they died of sickness. It is not known when and how the kingdom of Sweden was born, but the list of Swedish monarchs is drawn from the first kings who ruled Svealand (Sweden) and Götaland (Gothia) as one with Erik the Victorious. Sweden and Gothia were two separate nations long before that. It is not known how long they existed, Beowulf described semi-legendary Swedish-Geatish wars in the sixth century CE. Visby, a medieval city on Gotland.During the early stages of the Scandinavian Viking Age, Ystad in Scania and Paviken on Gotland, in present-day Sweden, were flourishing trade centers. Remains of what is believed to have been a large market have been found in Ystad dating from 600–700 CE. In Paviken, an important center of trade in the Baltic region during the ninth and tenth century, remains have been found of a large Viking Age harbour with shipbuilding yards and handicraft industries. Between 800 and 1000, trade brought an abundance of silver to Gotland and according to some scholars, the Gotlanders of this era hoarded more silver than the rest of the population of Scandinavia combined. St. Ansgar introduced Christianity around 829, but the new religion did not begin to fully replace paganism until the twelfth century and onward. During the 11th century, Christianity became the most prevalent religion, and from the year 1050 Sweden is counted as a Christian nation. The period between 1100 and 1400 was characterized by internal power struggles and competition among the Nordic kingdoms, including struggles for territory and comparative power. Swedish kings also began to expand the Swedish-controlled territory in Finland, creating conflicts with the Rus. In the 14th century, Sweden was struck by the Black Death (the Plague). During this period the Swedish cities also began to acquire greater rights and were strongly influenced by German merchants of the Hanseatic League, active especially at Visby. In 1319, Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus Eriksson and in 1397 Queen Margaret I of Denmark effected the personal union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark through the Kalmar Union. However, Margaret’s successors, whose rule was also centred in Denmark, were unable to control the Swedish nobility. Real power was held for long periods by regents (notably those of the Sture family) chosen by the Swedish parliament. King Christian II of Denmark, who asserted his claim to Sweden by force of arms, ordered a massacre in 1520 of Swedish nobles at Stockholm. This came to be known as the “Stockholm blood bath” and stirred the Swedish nobility to new resistance and, on 6 June (now Sweden's national holiday) in 1523, they made Gustav Vasa their king. This is sometimes considered as the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden into the Protestant Reformation. Gustav Vasa is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation". Swedish Empire Sweden was during Imperial times the most powerful country of northern Europe and the Baltic Sea. Sweden's Imperial status took its start with Gustav II Adolph as king, who made Sweden the third biggest nation in Europe by area after Russia and Spain, and his successful participation in the Thirty Years' War, which made Sweden the recognized leader of continental Protestantism in Europe until 1721, when the Empire collapsed. Sweden's Imperial status during this period is largely credited to Gustav I's major changes on the Swedish economy in the mid-1500s, and his introduction of Protestantism (Lutheran). The mid 1600s and the early 1700s were Sweden's most successful years as a great power. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent as an empire during the rule of Charles X (1622–1660) after the treaty of Roskilde in 1658. However, Sweden's largest territorial extent lasted from 1319 to 1343 with Magnus Eriksson ruling all of the traditional lands of Sweden and Norway. 17th century saw Sweden engaged in warfare with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with both sides competing for territories of today's Baltic states, with the disastrous Battle of Kircholm being one of the highlights. This period also saw the Deluge - the Swedish invasion of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. After more than a half century of almost constant warfare the Swedish economy had deteriorated. It would become the lifetime task of Charles' son, Charles XI (1655-1697), to rebuild the economy and refit the army. His legacy to his son, the coming ruler of Sweden Charles XII, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army and a great fleet. Sweden's largest threat at this time, Russia, had a larger army but was far behind in both equipment and training. After the Battle of Narva in 1700, one of the first battles of the Great Northern War, the Russian army was so severely injured, that Sweden had an open chance to invade Russia. Instead, however, Charles XII invaded Poland and changed their king to a more Swedish friendly one. However after the crushing defeat at poltava the old king quickly took his throne back. This gave the Russian Tsar time to rebuild and modernise his army. After the success of invading Poland Charles decided to make an invasion attempt of Russia, which however, ended in a decisive Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava in 1709. The campaign had a successful opening for Sweden, which came to occupy Poland and change their rule into a more Swedish friendly king. But after a long march exposed by cossack raids, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great's scorched-earth techniques and the cold Russian climate, the Swedes stood weakened with a shattered confidence, and enormously outnumbered against the Russian army at Poltava. The defeat meant the beginning of the end for Sweden as Empire. After building up a new army Charles XII attempted to invade Norway 1716, however he was shot at Fredriksten fortress in 1718. The Swedish military was not defeated at Fredriksten. However, when Karl died the whole structure and organisation of the Norwegian campaign fell apart and the army withdrew back home. However this led to defeat, the Swedish head of state signed the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Forced to cede large areas of land, Sweden also lost its place as an empire and as the dominant state on the Baltic Sea. With Sweden's lost influence, Russia began to emerge as an empire, and become one of Europe's dominant nations. In the 18th century, Sweden did not have enough resources to maintain its territories outside Scandinavia and most of them were lost, culminating with the 1809 loss of the eastern part to Russia: forming the semi-autonomous (Duchy) of Finland of Imperial Russia. After Denmark-Norway was defeated in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway was ceded to the king of Sweden on 14 January 1814, at the Treaty of Kiel. The Norwegian attempts to keep their status as a sovereign state were rejected by the Swedish king, Charles XIII. He launched a military campaign against Norway on July 27, 1814, ending in the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a personal union with Sweden, which was not dissolved until 1905. The 1814 campaign was also the last war in which Sweden participated as a combatant. Modern history The 18th and 19th centuries saw a significant population increase, which the writer Esaias Tegnér in 1833 famously attributed to "the peace, the (smallpox) vaccine, and the potatoes". Between 1750 and 1850, the population in Sweden doubled. According to some scholars, mass emigration to America became the only way to prevent famine and rebellion; over 1 percent of the population emigrated annually during the 1880s. Nevertheless, Sweden remained poor, retaining a nearly entirely agricultural economy even as Denmark and Western European countries began to industrialize. Many looked towards America for a better life during this time. It is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States. In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Gothenburg (Sweden's second largest city). Most Swedish immigrants moved to the Midwestern United States, with a large population in Minnesota. Some Swedes moved to Delaware. Some also moved to Canada and others in smaller numbers to Argentina. A map of Sweden with largest cities and lakes and most important roads and railroads, from a printed CIA World Factbook. (See also: Atlas of Sweden)Despite the slow rate of industrialization into the 19th century, many important changes were taking place in the agrarian economy due to innovations and the large population growth. These innovations included government-sponsored programs of enclosure, aggressive exploitation of agricultural lands, and the introduction of new crops such as the potato. Due also to the fact that the Swedish peasantry had never been enserfed as elsewhere in Europe, the Swedish farming culture began to take on a critical role in the Swedish political process, which has continued through modern times with modern Agrarian party (now called the Centre Party). Between 1870 and 1914, Sweden began developing the industrialized economy that exists today. Strong grassroots movements sprung up in Sweden during the latter half of the nineteenth century (trade unions, temperance groups, and independent religious groups), creating a strong foundation of democratic principles. These movements precipitated Sweden's migration into a modern parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the twentieth century, people gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in socialist unions. A socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of parliamentarism, and the country was democratized. World Wars Sweden remained officially neutral during World War I and World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been vigorously debated. Sweden was under German influence for most of the war, as ties to the rest of the world were cut off through blockades. The Swedish government felt that it was in no position to openly contest Germany, and therefore collaborated with Hitler. Swedish volunteers in Nazi SS units were among the first to invade the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Sweden also supplied steel and machined parts to Germany throughout the war. Toward the end of the war however, when the defeat of Germany seemed imminent, Sweden began to play a role in humanitarian efforts and many refugees, among them many Jews from Nazi-occupied Europe, were saved partly because of the Swedish involvement in rescue missions at the internment camps and partly because Sweden served as a haven for refugees, primarily from Norden and the Baltic states. Nevertheless, internal and external critics have argued that Sweden could have done more to resist the Nazi war effort, even if risking occupation. Cold War Following the war, Sweden took advantage of an intact industrial base, social stability and its natural resources to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe. By the 1960s, Sweden, like the other Nordic countries, had become an affluent consumer society and welfare state. Sweden was part of the Marshall Plan and participated in the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), many of the policies aiming to improve the quality of life for the general population, in particular Sweden's working class, were successfully implemented. Sweden, like countries around the globe, entered a period of economic decline and upheaval, following the oil embargoes of 1973-74 and 1978-79. In the 1980s pillars of Swedish industry were massively restructured. Shipbuilding was discontinued, wood pulp was integrated into modernized paper production, the steel industry was concentrated and specialized, and mechanical engineering was roboticized. Prime Minister Olof Palme was murdered in 1986. Between 1970 and 1990 Sweden increased overall tax burden by over ten percentage points and the growth was very low compared to most other countries in Western Europe. Sweden steadily lost its position in rankings such as GDP per capita. Recent history A bursting real estate bubble caused by inadequate controls on lending combined with an international recession and a policy switch from anti-unemployment policies to anti-inflationary policies resulted in a fiscal crisis in the early 1990s. Sweden's GDP declined by around 5%. In 1992 there was a run on the currency, the central bank briefly jacking up interest to 500% in an unsuccessful effort to defend the currency's fixed exchange rate. Total employment fell by almost 10% during the crisis. The response of the government was to cut spending and institute a multitude of reforms to improve Sweden's competitiveness, among them reducing the welfare state and privatizing public services and goods. Much of the political establishment promoted EU membership, and the Swedish referendum passed by 52-48% in favour of joining the EU on 14 August 1994. Sweden joined the European Union on1 January 1995, after the collapse of the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, Europe's non-aligned Western countries, except Ireland, had considered membership unwise, as the EU predecessor, the European Community, had been strongly associated with NATO countries. Following the end of the Cold War, however, Sweden, Austria and Finland joined, though in Sweden's case without adopting the Euro. Sweden remains non-aligned militarily, although it participates in some joint military exercises with NATO and some other countries, in addition to extensive cooperation with other European countries in the area of defence technology and defence industry. Among others, Swedish companies export weapons that are used by the American military in Iraq. Sweden also has a long history of participating in international military operations, including most recently, Afghanistan, where Swedish troops are under NATO command, and in EU sponsored peacekeeping operations in UN protectorate Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Cyprus. Foreign minister Anna Lindh was murdered in 2003. Geography and climate Situated in Northern Europe, Sweden lies west of the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and forms the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain (Skanderna), a range that separates Sweden from Norway. Sweden is surrounded by Norway (west), Finland (northeast), the Skagerrak, Kattegat and Öresund straits (southwest) and the Baltic Sea (east). It has maritime borders with Denmark, Germany, Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, and it is also linked to Denmark (southwest) by the Öresund Bridge. The 25 provinces of SwedenAt 449,964 km² (173,732 sq mi), Sweden is the 55th largest country in the world. It is the 5th largest in Europe, and the largest in Northern Europe. The country is slightly larger than the U.S. state of California, with a population in 2006 of 9.1 million people. The lowest elevation in Sweden is in the bay of Lake Hammarsjön, near Kristianstad at -2.41 m (-7.91 ft) below sea level. The highest point is Kebnekaise at 2,111 m (6,926 ft) above sea level. Sweden has 25 provinces or landskap (landscapes), based on culture, geography and history; Bohuslän, Blekinge, Dalarna, Dalsland, Gotland, Gästrikland, Halland, Hälsingland, Härjedalen, Jämtland, Lapland, Medelpad, Norrbotten, Närke, Skåne, Småland, Södermanland, Uppland, Värmland, Västmanland, Västerbotten, Västergötland, Ångermanland, Öland and Östergötland. While these provinces serve no political or administrative purpose, they are common in everyday language. The provinces are usually grouped together in three large lands, parts, Norrland, Svealand and Götaland. About 15% of Sweden lies north of the Arctic Circle. Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, with increasing forest coverage northward. The highest population density is in the Öresund region in southern Sweden, and in the valley of lake Mälaren in central Sweden. Gotland and Öland are Sweden's largest islands; Vänern and Vättern are Sweden's largest lakes. Sweden has a temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly because of the Gulf Stream. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and in the winter, night is similarly unending. Common weather in the seasons (°C): Winter: Cold in the whole country, average temperature below 0°C. Spring: Chilly in north, and cool to mild in southern and central. Summer: Pleasantly warm in southern and central, cooler in north. Autumn: Cool to mild. Average precipitation is between 500 and 800 mm every year. In some parts though the average is between 1000 and 1700 mm/year. Administration and politics Sweden is a constitutional monarchy, in which King Carl XVI Gustaf is head of state, but royal power has long been limited to official and ceremonial functions. The Economist Intelligence Unit, while admitting that democracy is difficult to measure, lists Sweden in first place in its index of democracy assessing 167 countries. The nation's modern legislative body is the Riksdag (Swedish Parliament), with 349 members, which chooses the Prime Minister. Parliamentary elections are held every four years, on the third Sunday of September. Counties and municipalities Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into twenty-one counties (län). Each county has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse, which is appointed by the government (the first Swedish County Administrative Board was made up by the Swedish Prime Minister Axel Oxenstierna in 1634). In each county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is elected directly by the people. Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, with a total of 290 municipalities in 2004. Municipal government in Sweden is similar to city commission government and cabinet-style council government. A legislative municipal assembly (kommunfullmäktige) of between 31 and 101 members (always an uneven number) is elected from party-list proportional representation at municipal elections, held every four years in conjunction with the national parliamentary elections. The municipalities are also divided into a total of 2,512 parishes, or församlingar (2000). These have traditionally been a subdivision of the Church of Sweden, but still have importance as districts for census and elections. There are also older historical divisions, primarily the twenty-five provinces and three lands, which still retain cultural significance. The Swedish government is investigating the possibilities of merging the current 21 counties into circa 9 larger regions along the lines of the current riksområden used for statistical purposes. If approved, these would come into effect around 2015. Political history Kingdoms of Svear (Swedish) and Götar (Geats) in the twelfth century.The actual age of the kingdom of Sweden is unknown. It depends mostly on whether Sweden should be considered a nation when the Svear (Swedes) ruled Svealand or if the emergence of the nation started with the Svear and the Götar (Geats) of Götaland being united under one ruler. In the first case, Sweden was first mentioned to have one single ruler in the year 98 by Tacitus, but it is almost impossible to know for how long it had been this way. However, historians usually start the line of Swedish monarchs from when Svealand and Götaland were ruled under the same king, namely Erik the Victorious and his son Olof Skötkonung in the 10th century. These events are often described as the consolidation of Sweden, although substantial areas were conquered and incorporated later. Earlier kings, for which no reliable historical sources exist can be read about in mythical kings of Sweden and semi-legendary kings of Sweden, many of these kings are only mentioned in various saga and blend with Norse mythology. The title Sveriges och Götes Konung was last used for Gustaf I of Sweden, after which the title became "King of Sweden, of the Goths and of the Wends" (Sveriges, Götes och Vendes Konung) in official documentation. Up until the beginning of the 1920s, all laws in Sweden were introduced with the words, "We, the king of Sweden, of the Goths and Wends". This title was used up until 1973. The present King of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf was the first monarch officially proclaimed "King of Sweden" (Sveriges Konung) with no additional peoples mentioned in his title. The term Riksdag was used for the first time in the 1540s, although the first meeting where representatives of different social groups were called to discuss and determine affairs affecting the country as a whole took place as early as 1435, in the town of Arboga. During the assemblies of 1527 and 1544, under King Gustav Vasa, representatives of all four estates of the realm (clergy, nobility, townsmen and peasants) were called on to participate for the first time. The monarchy became hereditary in 1544. Executive power was historically shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, a parliamentary system was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of constitutional monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties. The Riksdag of the Estates consisted of two chambers. In 1866 Sweden became a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament, with the First Chamber indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. Swedish taxation is controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). Modern political system The Riksdag building, Stockholm.Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag (Parliament) holds supreme authority in modern Sweden. This Riksdag is responsible for choosing the prime minister, who then appoints the government (the ministers). The legislative power is then shared between the parliament and the Prime Minister led government. The executive power is exercised by the government, while the judiciary is independent. Sweden lacks compulsory judicial review, although the non-compulsory review carried out by lagrådet (Law Council) is mostly respected in technical matters but less so in controversial political matters. Acts of the parliament and government decrees can be made inapplicable at every level if they are manifestly against constitutional laws. However, due to the restrictions in this form of judicial review and a weak judiciary, this has had little practical consequence. Legislation may be initiated by the cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a simple but absolute majority and two decisions with general elections in between. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression. The Swedish Social Democratic Party has played a leading political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1932, the cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only four general elections (1976, 1979, 1991 and 2006) have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in Parliament to form a government. However, poor economic performance since the beginning of the 1970s, and especially the crisis at the beginning of the 1990s, have forced Sweden to reform its political system to become more like other European countries. In the 2006 general election the Moderate Party, allied with the Centre Party, Liberal People's Party, and the Christian Democrats, with a common political platform, won a majority of the votes. Together they have formed a majority government under the leadership of the Moderate party's leader Fredrik Reinfeldt. The next elections will be held in September 2010 The Riksdag following its 2006 renovation (picture of assembly hall).Election turnout in Sweden has always been high in international comparisons, although it has declined in recent decades, and is currently around 80% (80.11 in general election of 2002, 81.99 in general election of 2006). Swedish politicians enjoyed a high degree of confidence from the citizens in the 1960s but it has since declined steadily and has a markedly lower level of trust than its Scandinavian neighbours. Some Swedish political figures that have become known worldwide include Raoul Wallenberg, Folke Bernadotte, former Secretary General of the United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld, former Prime Minister Olof Palme, former Prime Minister and Foreign minister Carl Bildt, former President of the General Assembly of the United Nations Jan Eliasson, and former International Atomic Energy Agency Iraq inspector Hans Blix. Political movements Sweden has a history of strong political involvement by ordinary people through its "popular movements" (Folkrörelser), the most notable being trade unions, the independent Christian movement, the temperance movement, the women's movement and—more recently—the sports movement. Sweden is currently leading the EU in statistics measuring equality in the political system and equality in the education system. Gudrun Schyman founded the first Swedish feminist party, the Feminist Initiative party, commonly referred to simply as F!, in 2005. Ms. magazine quoted Schyman's view of Sweden's reputation for progressive initiatives: "In Sweden there’s a gap between words and reality.... Internationally a lot of people look upon Sweden as equality paradise, but that is not the truth – and now things are actually going backwards." In fact the pay gap between men and women in Sweden is 16%, higher than the EU average of 15%. Sweden compares unfavourably with the EU average when it comes to providing full-time jobs for women, with a high fraction of employed women working part-time. Law, law enforcement, and judicial system Swedish police car (Volvo V70).The Supreme Court of Sweden is the supreme court and the third and final instance in all civil and criminal cases in Sweden. Before a case can be decided by the Supreme Court, leave to appeal must be obtained, and with few exceptions, leave to appeal can be granted only when the case is of interest as a precedent. The Supreme Court consists of 16 Councillors of Justice or justitieråd which are appointed by the government, but the court as an institution is independent of the Riksdag, and the government is not able to interfere with the decisions of the court. Law enforcement in Sweden is carried out by several government entities. The Swedish Police Service is a Government agency concerned with police matters in Sweden. The National Task Force is a national SWAT unit within the National Criminal Investigation Department. Swedish Security Service's responsibilities are counter-espionage, anti-terrorist activities, protection of the constitution and protection of sensitive objects and people. According to a victimization survey of 1,201 residents in 2005, Sweden has above average crime rates compared to other EU countries. Sweden has high or above average levels of assaults, sexual assaults, hate crimes, and consumer fraud. Sweden has low levels of burglary, car theft and drug problems. Bribe seeking was rare. Foreign policy Throughout the twentieth century, Swedish foreign policy was based on the principle of non-alignment in peacetime and neutrality in wartime. "Sweden's government was left to pursue an independent course based on a foreign policy defined as nonalignment in times of peace so that neutrality would be possible in the event of war." Sweden's doctrine of neutrality is often traced back to the 19th century as it has not participated in any war since the end of the Swedish campaign against Norway in 1814. During World War II Sweden joined neither the allied nor axis powers. This has been disputed by many since in effect Sweden allowed the Nazi regime to use its railroad system to transport troops and goods, especially iron ore from the rich mines in northern Sweden, of vital need to the German war machine. During the early Cold War era, Sweden combined its policy of non-alignment with a low profile in international affairs, although it also pursued a security policy based on strong national defence to deter attack. At the same time, the country maintained relatively close informal connections with the Western bloc, especially in the realm of intelligence exchange. In 1952, a Swedish DC-3 was shot down over the Baltic Sea by a Soviet MiG-15 jet fighter. Later investigations revealed that the plane was actually gathering information for NATO. Another plane, a Catalina search and rescue plane, was sent out a few days later and shot down by the Soviets as well. Olof Palme the former prime minister of Sweden visited Cuba during the 1970s and showed his support for Cuba in his speech which was in Spanish.[citation needed] Beginning in the late 1960s, Sweden for a period attempted to play a more significant and independent role in international relations. This involved significant activity in international peace efforts, especially through the United Nations, and in support to the Third World. Since the murder of Olof Palme in 1986 and the end of the Cold War, this has been significantly toned down, although Sweden remains comparatively active in peace keeping missions and maintains a generous foreign aid budget. In 1981 a Soviet Whiskey class submarine ran aground close to the Swedish naval base at Karlskrona in the southern part of the country. It has never been clearly established whether the submarine ended up on the shoals through a navigational mistake or if it was a matter of espionage against Swedish military potential. The incident triggered a diplomatic crisis between Sweden and the Soviet Union. Since 1995 Sweden has been a member of the European Union, and as a consequence of a new world security situation the country's foreign policy doctrine has been partly modified, with Sweden playing a more active role in European security co-operation as well. Military The Försvarsmakten (Swedish Armed Forces) is a government agency reporting to the Swedish Ministry of Defence and responsible for the peacetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy peace support forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defence of Sweden in the event of war. The armed forces are divided into Army, Air Force and Navy. The head of the armed forces is the Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces (Överbefälhavaren, ÖB), and after the sovereign is the most senior officer in the country. Until the end of the Cold War, nearly all males reaching the age of military service were conscripted. In recent years, the number of conscripted males has reduced dramatically, while the number of female volunteers has increased slightly. Recruitment has generally shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits, rather than solely those otherwise most fit for service. All soldiers serving abroad must by law be volunteers. In 1975 the total number of conscripts was 45,000. By 2003 it was down to 15,000. After the Defence Proposition 2004, the number of troops in training will decrease even more to between 5,000 and 10,000 each year, while emphasizing the need to recruit only the soldiers later prepared to volunteer for international service. The total forces gathered would consist of about 60,000 men. This could be compared with the 80s before the fall of the Soviet Union, when Sweden could gather up to 1,000,000 men. Swedish units have taken part in peacekeeping operations, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cyprus, Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan. Currently, one of the most important tasks for the Swedish Armed Forces is to form a Swedish-led EU Battle Group to which Norway, Finland, Ireland and Estonia will also contribute. The Nordic Battle Group (NBG) is to have a 10-day deployment readiness during the first half of 2008 and, although Swedish led, will have its Operational Headquarters (OHQ) in Northwood, outside London. Economy Gross Regional Product (GRP) per capita in thousands of kronor (2004). Real GDP growth in Sweden, 1996-2006.Sweden is an export-oriented market economy featuring a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. Sweden's engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. Telecommunications, the automotive industry and the pharmaceutical industries are also of great importance. Agriculture accounts for 2 percent of GDP and employment. The 20 largest Sweden-registed companies by turnover in 2007 were Volvo, Ericsson, Vattenfall, Skanska, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, Scania, ICA, Hennes & Mauritz, Nordea, Preem, Atlas Copco, Securitas, Nordstjernan, and SKF. Sweden has always provided solid support for free trade (except agriculture), free immigration, and strong property rights. Sweden was richer than almost all countries until, after World War II, governments increased tax burden and government consumption to very heavy levels. The model eventually led to slow growth, Sweden fell some 10 places in GDP per capita rankings, and Swedish households became relatively poor compared to households in less-taxed similar countries. Sweden started to move away from the model in the 1980s, and according to OECD and McKinsey, Sweden has recently been relatively fast in liberalization compared to countries such as France. Deregulation-induced competition helped Sweden to halt the economic decline and restore strong growth rates in the 2000s. Sweden's industry is overwhelmingly in private control; unlike some other industrialized Western countries, such as Austria and Italy, publicly owned enterprises were always of minor importance. The current Swedish government, selected in 2006, is continuing the trend to pursue moderate reforms. Growth was over 3% in 2006, which is around double the growth in France or Germany. Swedes have rejected euro in a popular vote and Sweden maintains its own currency, the Swedish krona (SEK). The Swedish Riksbank—founded in 1668 and thus making it the oldest central bank in the world — is currently focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. According to Economic Survey of Sweden 2007 by OECD, the average inflation in Sweden has been one of the lowest among European countries since the mid-1990s, largely because of deregulation and quick utilization of globalization. Some 4.5 million residents are working, out of which around a third with tertiary education. According to OECD, deregulation, globalization, and technology sector growth have been key productivity drivers. GDP per hour worked is growing 2½ per cent a year for the economy as a whole and trade-terms-balanced productivity growth 2%. GDP per hour worked remains behind United States and GDP per capita gap is around 22%. Sweden is a world leader in privatized pensions and pension funding problems are relatively small compared to many other Western European countries. Although the labor market has become more flexible, Swedish labor market is still characterized by insiders and relatively excluded outsiders, and distorted prices, a contrast to the laissez-faire non-regulated labor market in Denmark. Also, taxes for all income groups are high: median income worker suffers from over 60% tax wedge. Inverted tax wedge - the amount going to the service worker's wallet - is approximately 15% compared to 10% in Belgium, 30% in Ireland and 50% in United States, often making services too expensive, or forcing people to the do-it-yourself economy or black market. The slowly declining overall taxation, 51.1% of GDP in 2007, is still nearly double of that in the United States or Ireland. Bureaucracy amounts to a third of Swedish workforce. The Index of Economic Freedom 2008 ranks Sweden the 27th most free out of 162 countries, or 14th out of 41 European countries. Sweden ranked 9th in the IMD Competitiveness Yearbook 2008, scoring high in private sector efficiency. According to the book, The Flight of the Creative Class, by the U.S. economist, Professor Richard Florida of George Mason University, Sweden is ranked as having the best creativity in Europe for business and is predicted to become a talent magnet for the world’s most purposeful workers. The book compiled an index to measure the kind of creativity it claims is most useful to business — talent, technology and tolerance. The largest trade flows are with Germany, United States, Norway, United Kingdom, Denmark, and Finland. Education Swedish students with their student caps on.All young children from 1-5 years old are guaranteed a place in public day-care facility (förskola or dagis). Between ages 6-16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school, divided in three stages. Swedish 15-years-old pupils have the 22nd highest average score in the PISA assessments, being neither significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three-year upper secondary school (gymnasium) leading sometimes to a vocational diploma and (depending on which program you've chosen) to qualifications for further studies at a university or university college (högskola). Both upper secondary school and university studies are financed by taxes. Some Swedes go straight to work after secondary school. There are universities and university colleges in Sweden. Only few countries except Canada, United States and Japan have higher levels of tertiary degree holders. Along with several other European countries, the government also subsidizes tuition of international students pursuing a degree at Swedish institutions, although there has been talk of this being changed. Uniquely, Sweden is known for being a leader in free-market revolution. While most pre-tertiary students are still enrolled in municipality-managed schools, Sweden introduced education vouchers in 1992, one of the first in the world after Netherlands. Anyone can establish a for-profit school and the municipality must pay new schools the same amount as municipal schools get. For instance, the biggest school chain, Kunskapsskolan, offers 30 schools and a web-based environment, teaches nearly 10,000 pupils, and makes decent profit. Over 10% of pupils were enrolled in private schools in 2008 and numbers are growing fast. The system is popular among voters and the consumer choice has helped to improve education. Energy Sweden's energy market is largely privatized. Nordic energy market is one of the first liberalized energy markets in Europe and it's traded in Nord Pool. The 1973 oil crisis strengthened Sweden's commitment to decrease dependence on imported fossil fuels. Since then, electricity has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. The use of nuclear power has been limited, however. Among other things, the accident of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (USA) prompted the Swedish parliament to hold a referendum on nuclear power. The referendum led to a decision that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010.[citation needed] In 2006, out of a total electricity production of 139 TWh, electricity from hydropower accounted for 61 TWh (44%), and nuclear power delivered 65 TWh (47%). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh (9%) of electricity, while wind power produced 1 TWh (1%). Sweden was a net importer of electricity by a margin of 6 TWh. Biomass is mainly used to produce heat for district heating and central heating and industry processes. In March 2005, an opinion poll showed that 83% supported maintaining or increasing nuclear power. Since then however, reports about radioactive leakages at a nuclear waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published, although this does not seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nuclear power. Sweden decided to phase out nuclear fission before 2020, although it is very unlikely that this will happen as the Government has decided to cancel the phase-out.[citation needed] In an effort to phase out the dependency on nuclear power and fossil fuels, the Swedish government has launched a multi-billion dollar program to promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. The country has for many years pursued a strategy of indirect taxation as an instrument of environmental policy, including energy taxes in general and carbon dioxide taxes in particular. Also in 2005, Sweden garnered international attention by announcing its intention to break its dependence on foreign oil within 15 years, with the goal of becoming the world's first oil-free economy. Transport Sweden has 162,707 km paved road and 1,428 km of expressways. Motorways run through Sweden, Denmark and over the Öresund Bridge to Stockholm, Gothenburg, Uppsala and Uddevalla. The system of motorways is still under construction and a new motorway from Uppsala to Gävle is under construction. Rail transport is privatized and companies include SJ, Green Cargo, Tågkompaniet and a number of regional companies. The largest airport include Stockholm-Arlanda Airport (17.91 million passengers in 2007), Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport (4.3 million passengers in 2006), and Stockholm-Skavsta Airport (2.0 million passengers). Public policy See also: Nordic model and Swedish welfare Since the late 1960s, Sweden had the highest tax quota (as percentage of GDP) in the industrialized world, although today the gap has narrowed and Denmark has surpassed as the heaviest taxed country among developed countries. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20–25% when a salary exceeds roughly 300,000 SEK per year. The employing company pays an additional 32% of an "employer's fee". In addition, a national VAT of 25% or 18% is added to many things bought by private citizens, with the exception of food (12% VAT), transportation, and books (6% VAT). Certain items are subject to additional taxes, e.g. electricity, petrol/diesel and alcoholic beverages. As of 2007, total tax revenue was 47.8% of GDP, the second highest tax burden among developed countries, down from 49.1% 2006. After increasing the tax burden after World War II, Sweden's GDP per capita ranking fell from the 4th to 14th place in a few decades. No new net jobs have been produced in the Swedish private sector since 1950. None of top 50 companies on the Stockholm stock exchange has been started since 1970. Public sector spending amounts to 53% of the GDP. State and municipal employees total around a third of the workforce, much more than in most Western countries. Only Denmark has larger bureaucracy (38% of Danish workforce). Spending on transfers is also high. In the 1990s, Sweden started to make reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralization of some types of healthcare services to municipal control. Eighty percent of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions which have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Swedish unemployment figures are highly contested in politics. The official number, defended by SDP before it lost elections, was around 4.5% in 2006. The official number does not include people in government unemployment programmes (about 2% of the workforce), people on extended sick-leave, those in early retirement or those outside the unemployment system. Unemployment is higher amongst younger people. Because of the contradiction—unemployment despite a growing commercial enterprise economy—politicians and analysts often speak of the "jobless growth". According to Eurostat the unemployment rate in February 2007 was at 6.7% down from 7.4% from February 2006. Sweden also still bears scars from an economic crisis in the 1990s, which resulted in thousands of people becoming unemployed and a great national debt. Two remnants are an increase in socioeconomic segregation and a national debt of approximately 1 167 billion Swedish Kronor (approx. €124 billion, December 2007), 39% of the GDP. OECD notes, that while several sectors in the economy have been deregulated, the Swedish housing market remains distorted, hindering an optimal matching of supply and demand. Also, because of taxes and regulation, Swedish construction productivity is low. The rampant tax evasion has helped to keep prices a bit lower, but at the same time caused overly fragmented industry. Demographics As of April 2007, the total population of Sweden was estimated to be 9,131,425. The population exceeded 9,000,000 for the first time as of approximately 12 August 2004 according to the Statistics Sweden. Of the 2004 population, 1.1 million, or 12%, were foreign-born and approximately 16.7% (1.53 million) had at least one parent born abroad or were themselves born abroad. This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, earlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration. Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. In 2006, immigration to Sweden reached its highest level since records began. The largest immigrant group living in Sweden as of 2005 consists of people born in Finland, followed by people born in Turkey, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Poland, Russia, Iran, Iraq and Former Yugoslavia. Immigration from the other Nordic countries reached a peak of more than 40,000 per year in 1969-70 when the new immigration rules introduced in 1967 had made it more difficult for immigrants from outside the Nordic region to settle in Sweden for labour market policy reasons. Immigration by refugees and immigrating relatives of refugees from outside the Nordic region increased drastically during the late 1980s, with many of the immigrants arriving from Asia and Latin America, especially from Iran and Chile. During the 1990s and onwards another large immigrant group came from former Yugoslavia and the Middle East. Language The primary language of Sweden is Swedish, a North Germanic language, related and very similar to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Norwegians have little difficulty understanding Swedish, and Danes can also understand it, with slightly more difficulty than the Norwegians. The dominant language is Swedish, though it is not an official language. However, with the recognition of five minority languages of Sweden (Finnish, Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish) the issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language was raised. The parliament voted in 2005 but the proposal narrowly failed. In varying degrees, depending largely on frequency of interaction with English, a majority of Swedes, especially those born after World War II, understand and speak English thanks to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films. English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studying natural sciences as early as 1849, and has been a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s. Depending on the local school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject between first grade and ninth grade, with all students continuing in secondary school studying English for at least another year. Most students also study one and sometimes two additional languages. These include (but are not limited to) German, French and Spanish. Some Danish and Norwegian is at times also taught as part of the Swedish course for native speakers. Sweden Finns are Sweden's largest linguistic minority. They make around 3 percent of Sweden's population. On the other hand, in neighboring Finland, Swedish is first language for about 5.5 percent (2007) of the population, the so called Swedish-speaking Finns. Swedish-speakers are found in rural and coastal municipalities. Swedish is an official language in these municipalities and holds the status of an official language of the state. There are mandatory Swedish courses in the secondary school. Religion Before the eleventh century, Swedes adhered to Norse paganism, worshiping Æsir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianization in the 11th century, the laws of the country were changed, forbidding worship of other deities into the late nineteenth century. After the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s, a change significantly affected by Martin Luther's Swedish associate Olaus Petri, the Church and state were separated and the authority of Roman Catholic bishops abolished, allowing Lutheranism to prevail. This process was completed by the Uppsala Synod of 1593. During the era following the Reformation, usually known as the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutchmen, the Moravian Church and Walloons or French Huguenots from Belgium, played a significant role in trade and industry, and were quietly tolerated as long as they kept a low religious profile. The Sami originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries. Not until liberalization in the late 18th century, however, were believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Roman Catholicism, allowed to openly live and work in Sweden, and it remained illegal until 1860 for Lutheran Swedes to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw the arrival of various evangelical free churches, and, towards the end of the century secularism, leading many to distance themselves from Church rituals. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called dissenter law of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was established in the Law on Freedom of Religion in 1951. Today about 75% of Swedes belong to the Church of Sweden (Lutheran), but the number is decreasing by about 1% every year, and Church of Sweden services are sparsely attended (hovering in the single digit percentages of the population). The reason for the large number of inactive members is partly that until 1996, children became members automatically at birth if at least one of the parents was a member. Since 1996, all children that are christened become members. Some 275,000 Swedes are today members of various free churches (where congregation attendance is much higher), and, in addition, immigration has meant that there are now some 92,000 Roman Catholics and 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians living in Sweden. Because of immigration, Sweden also has a significant Muslim population. Almost 500,000 are Muslims by tradition, but approximately 5% (25,000) of these are practising Islam (in the sense of attending Friday prayer and praying five times a day). (See Islam in Sweden.) According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 23% of Swedish citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", whereas 53% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 23% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". Sweden ranks aside with France and Russia on having a large minority of its citizens who have no religion. Independent of these statistics, it is generally known that Swedish society, collectively, considers religiousness as a private affair separate from daily life. Health Healthcare in Sweden is developed. Sweden ranks in the top five countries with respect to low infant mortality. It also ranks high in life expectancy and in safe drinking water. World-class hospitals in Sweden include Lund University, Karolinska University Hospital, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Linköping University Hospital and Uppsala University Hospital. A person seeking care first contacts a clinic for a doctor's appointment, and may then be referred to a specialist by the clinic physician, who may in turn recommend either in-patient or out-patient treatment, or an elective care option. The health care is governed by the 21 Landsting (County councils) of Sweden, which act on general recommendations of the parliament, and delegate local government to the municipalities. Regulations, waiting times and patient fees vary in the different Landsting. The main criticism leveled at Swedish health care is that the waiting times are too long. Another criticism is that waiting times, quality of care and patient fees may vary in different counties, effectively meaning that patients may be treated better depending on where they live. Culture Sweden has many authors of worldwide recognition including August Strindberg, Astrid Lindgren, and Nobel Prize winners Selma Lagerlöf and Harry Martinson. In total seven Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded to Swedes. The nation's most well-known artists are painters such as Carl Larsson and Anders Zorn, and the sculptors Tobias Sergel and Carl Milles. Swedish twentieth-century culture is noted by pioneering works in the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmaker Ingmar Bergman and actors Greta Garbo and Ingrid Bergman became internationally noted people within cinema. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson and Lasse Hallström have received international recognition. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s Sweden was seen as an international leader in what is now referred to as the "sexual revolution", with gender equality having particularly been promoted. At the present time, the number of single people is one of the highest in the world. The early Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow) (1967) reflected a liberal view of sexuality, including scenes of love making that caught international attention, and introduced the concept of the "Swedish sin". Sweden has also become, in recent decades, fairly liberal regarding homosexuality, as is reflected in the popular acceptance of films such as Show Me Love, which is about two young lesbians in the small Swedish town of Åmål. In the absence of legislation on same-sex marriages, Sweden offers both registered partnerships and domestic partnerships for same-sex couples. Cohabitation (sammanboende) by heterosexual couples of all ages, including teenagers as well as elderly couples, is widespread although in recent years it has become administratively problematical with regard to proof in claims of "spousal" social security. About half the children in the country are born out of wedlock. Presence of already obtained common-law offspring in newspaper photographs of marrying couples is commonplace. Music Sweden has a rich musical tradition, ranging from medieval folk ballads to hip hop music. The music of the pre-Christian Norse has been lost to history, although historical re-creations have been attempted based on instruments found in Viking sites. Instruments used were the lur (a sort of trumpet), simple string instruments, wooden flutes and drums. It is possible that the Viking musical legacy lives on in some of the old Swedish folk music. Sweden has a significant folk-music scene, both in the traditional style as well as more modern interpretations which often mix in elements of rock and jazz. Väsen is more of a traditionalist group, using a unique traditional Swedish instrument called the nyckelharpa while Garmarna, Nordman, and Hedningarna have more modern elements. There is also Saami music, called the joik, which is actually a type of chant which is part of the traditional Saami animistic spirituality but has gained recognition in the international world of folk music as well. Sweden has a major market for new age and ecologically or environmentally aware music, as well a large portion of pop and rock music have liberal and left-wing political messages. Sweden also has a prominent choral music tradition, deriving in part from the cultural importance of Swedish folk songs. In fact, out of a population of 9.1 million, it is estimated that five to six hundred thousand people sing in choirs. ABBA was one of the first internationally well-known popular music bands from Sweden, and still ranks among the most prominent bands in the world, with about 370 million records sold. With ABBA, Sweden entered into a new era, in which Swedish pop music gained international prominence. There have been many other internationally successful bands since, such as Roxette, Ace of Base, and the Cardigans to name some of the biggest, and recently there has been a surge of Swedish Indie pop bands such as Peter, Bjorn & John, The Hives and Mando Diao. Sweden has also become known for a large number of heavy metal (mostly death metal and melodic death metal which genre in fact was created with the Swedish melodic death metal band In Flames) as well as progressive- and power metal bands. Sweden is the 3rd largest music exporter in the world, with over 800 million dollars in revenue last year, surpassed only by the US and the UK. Sweden has a rather lively jazz scene. During the last sixty years or so it has attained a remarkably high artistic standard, stimulated by domestic as well as external influences and experiences. The Centre for Swedish Folk Music and Jazz Research has published an overview of jazz in Sweden by Lars Westin. Media Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and nearly every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers are Dagens Nyheter (liberal), Göteborgs-Posten (liberal), Svenska Dagbladet (liberal conservative) and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest evening tabloids are Aftonbladet (social democratic) and Expressen (liberal). The ad-financed, free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by, among others, The Local (liberal). The public broadcasting companies held a monopoly on radio and television for a long time in Sweden. Licence funded radio broadcasts started in 1925. A second radio network was started in 1954 and a third opened 1962 in response to pirate radio stations. Non-profit community radio was allowed in 1979 and in 1993 commercial local radio started. The licence funded television service was officially launched in 1956. A second channel, TV2, was launched in 1969. These two channels (operated by Sveriges Television since the late '70s) held a monopoly until the 1980s when cable and satellite television became available. The first Swedish language satellite service was TV3 which started broadcasting from London in 1987. It was followed by Kanal 5 in 1989 (then known as Nordic Channel) and TV4 in 1990. In 1991 the government announced it would begin taking applications from private television companies wishing to broadcast on the terrestrial network. TV4, which had previously been broadcasting via satellite, was granted a permit and began its terrestrial broadcasts in 1992, becoming the first private channel to broadcast television content from within the country. Around half the population are connected to cable television. Digital terrestrial television in Sweden started in 1999 and the last analogue terrestrial broadcasts were terminated in 2007. Literature The first literary text from Sweden is the Rök Runestone, carved during the Viking Age circa 800 AD. With the conversion of the land to Christianity around 1100 AD, Sweden entered the Middle Ages, during which monastic writers preferred to use Latin. Therefore there are only a few texts in the Old Swedish from that period. Swedish literature only flourished when the Swedish language was standardized in the 16th century, a standardization largely due to the full translation of the Bible into Swedish in 1541. This translation is the so-called Gustav Vasa Bible. With improved education and the freedom brought by secularisation, the 17th century saw several notable authors develop the Swedish language further. Some key figures include Georg Stiernhielm (17th century), who was the first to write classical poetry in Swedish; Johan Henric Kellgren (18th century), the first to write fluent Swedish prose; Carl Michael Bellman (late 18th century), the first writer of burlesque ballads; and August Strindberg (late 19th century), a socio-realistic writer and playwright who won worldwide fame. The early 20th century continued to produce notable authors, such as Selma Lagerlöf, (Nobel laureate 1909), Verner von Heidenstam (Nobel laureate 1916) and Pär Lagerkvist (Nobel laureate 1951). In recent decades, a handful of Swedish writers have established themselves internationally, including the detective novelist Henning Mankell and the writer of spy fiction Jan Guillou. But the only Swedish writer to have made a significant mark on world literature is the children's book writer Astrid Lindgren, and her books about Pippi Longstocking, Emil of Maple Hills, and others. Inventions In the 18th century Sweden's scientific revolution took off. Previously, technical progress had mainly come from professionals who had immigrated from mainland Europe. In 1739, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded, with people such as Carolus Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members. From the 1870s, engineering companies were created at an unmatched rate and engineers became heroes of the age. Many of the companies founded by early pioneers are still internationally familiar. Gustaf Dalén founded AGA, and received the Nobel Prize for his sun valve. Alfred Nobel invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes. Lars Magnus Ericsson started the company bearing his name, Ericsson, still one of the largest telecom companies in the world. Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is along with Serbian inventor Tesla credited as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system. The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. Tetra Pak is an invention for storing liquid foods, invented by Erik Wallenberg. Håkan Lans invented the Automatic Identification System, a worldwide standard for shipping and civil aviation navigation. Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the world's best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed by AstraZeneca. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions, and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors. Holidays Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They include Midsummer celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night (Valborgsmässoafton) on 30 April lighting bonfires; and Labour Day or Mayday on 1 May is dedicated to socialist demonstrations. The day of giver-of-light Saint Lucia, 13 December, is widely acknowledged in elaborate celebrations which betoken its Italian origin and commence the month-long Christmas season. 6 June is the National Day of Sweden and, as of 2005, a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes have kräftskivor (crayfish dinner parties). Martin of Tours Eve is celebrated in Scania in November with Mårten Gås parties, where roast goose and svartsoppa ('black soup', made of goose stock, fruit, spices, spirits and goose blood) are served. The Sami, one of Sweden's indigenous minorities, have their holiday on February 6 and Scania celebrate their Scanian Flag day on the third Sunday in July. Cuisine Swedish cuisine, like that of the other Scandinavian countries (Denmark and Norway), was traditionally simple. Fish (particularly herring), meat and potatoes played prominent roles. Spices were sparse. Famous dishes include Swedish meatballs, traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam; pancakes, lutfisk, and Smörgåsbord, or lavish buffet. Akvavit is a popular alcoholic distilled beverage, and the drinking of snaps is of cultural importance. The traditional flat and dry crisp bread has developed into several contemporary variants. Regionally important foods are the surströmming (a fermented fish) in Northern Sweden and eel in Scania in Southern Sweden. However, Swedes have traditionally also been very open to foreign influences, ranging from the French cuisine during the eighteenth century, to the sushi and cafe latte of today. Film Swedes have been fairly prominent in the film area through the years, to several successful Swedish Hollywood actors can be mentioned: Ingrid Bergman, Greta Garbo, Max von Sydow, Dolph Lundgren, Lena Olin, Stellan Skarsgård, Peter Stormare, Izabella Scorupco, Pernilla August, Ann Margaret, Anita Ekberg, Alexander Skarsgård, Harriet Andersson, Bibi Andersson, Ingrid Thulin and Gunnar Björnstrand. Amongst several directors who have made internationally successful films can be mentioned: Ingmar Bergman and Lasse Hallström. Comics There are only a few well known comics in Sweden. One is Herman Hedning and back in the 40s a comic called Biffen och Bananen("The Beef and the Banana") was very popular. It's currently very rare. The comic strip Hälge, a story about a moose being hunted every year, is also well known. Also, American comic strip Beetle Bailey is very popular here. Fashion Sweden has in late years taken an interest in the fashion industry, through headquartering famous brands like Hennes & Mauritz (operating as H&M), J. Lindeberg (operating as JL), Gina Tricot, Tiger of Sweden and Filippa K within its borders. These companies, however, are comprised largely of buyers who import fashionable goods from throughout Europe and the Americas, continuing the trend of Swedish business toward multinational economic dependency like many of its neighbours. Sports Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating, much thanks to the heavy government subsidies of sport associations (föreningsstöd). The two main spectator sports are association football and ice hockey. Second to football, horse sports have the highest number of practitioners, mostly women. Thereafter follow golf, athletics, and the team sports of handball, floorball, basketball and bandy. The Swedish ice hockey team Tre Kronor is regarded as one of the best in the world and has won the World Championships seven times, and Olympic gold medals in 1994 and 2006. In 2006, as the first nation in history, they won both the Olympic and world championships in the same year. The Swedish national football team has seen some success at the World Cup in the past, finishing second when they hosted the tournament in 1958, and third twice, in 1950 and 1994. Athletics has enjoyed a surge in popularity due to several successful athletes in recent years. In schools, on meadows and in parks, the game brännboll, a sport similar to baseball, is commonly played for fun. Other leisure sports are the historical game of kubb, and boules among the older generation. Sweden hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup in 1958. Other big sports events held here include 1992 UEFA European Football Championship, FIFA Women's World Cup 1995, and several championships of ice hockey, athletics, skiing, bandy, figure skating and swimming. International rankings Rankings Name Year Place Out of # Reference CIA World Factbook – GDP per capita (PPP) 2008 26th 229 CIA World Factbook – Life expectancy at birth 2008 9th 223 World Economic Forum – Enabling Trade Index ranking 2008 3rd 118 Yale University / Columbia University - Environmental Performance Index 2008 3rd 149 The Economist Intelligence Unit - E-readiness 2008 3rd 70 The Economist Intelligence Unit - Global Peace Index 2008 13th 140 Save the Children - Mother's Index Rank 2007 1st 141 Save the Children - Women's Index Rank 2007 1st 141 Save the Children - Children's Index Rank 2007 4th 141 Wall Street Journal / The Heritage Foundation - Index of Economic Freedom 2007 27th 157 United Nations - Human Development Index 2007 6th 177 World Economic Forum - Global Competitiveness Report 2007-2008 2007 4th 131 World Economic Forum - The Global Gender Gap Report 2007 2007 1st 128 World Bank - Ease of Doing Business Index 2007 14th 178 Reporters Without Borders - Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2007 5th 169 Transparency International - Corruption Perceptions Index 2007 4th 179 The Economist Intelligence Unit - Index of Democracy 2007 1st 167 NationMaster's index of civil and political liberties 13th 140 NationMaster's index of asylum seekers (per capita) 4th 28 NationMaster's index of economic aid (donor, per capita) 5th 24 NationMaster's index of total tax wedge (single worker) 4th 29 NationMaster's index of technological achievement 3rd 68 NationMaster's index of marriage rate 27th 27 NationMaster's index of drug offences 7th 46 World Health Organization - suicide rates by country 31th 100 Privacy International - Privacy index (EU and 11 other selected countries) 2006 28th 36 New Economics Foundation - Happy Planet Index 2006 119th 178 The Economist Intelligence Unit - Quality-of-life index 2005 5th 111 Save the Children - % seats in the national government held by women 2004 1st (47%) 141 |
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