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英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| jié kè Czech shǒudōu:bù lā gé guógūdàimǎ: cz |
 捷克guó qí： chéng cháng fāng xíng， cháng yǔ kuān zhī bǐ wéi ３ ∶ ２。 yóu lán、 bái、 hóng sān sè zǔ chéng。 zuǒ cè wéi lán sè děng yāo sān jiǎo xíng。 yòu cè shì liǎng gè xiāng děng de tī xíng， shàng bái xià hóng。 lán、 bái、 hóng sān sè shì sī lā fū mín zú xǐ huān de chuán tǒng yán sè。 jié kè rén de gù xiāng shì gǔ lǎo de bō xī mǐ yà wáng guó， zhè gè wáng guó bǎ hóng、 bái liǎng sè zuò wèiguó sè， qí zhōng bái sè dài biǎo shén shèng hé chún jié， xiàng zhēng zhe rén mín duì hé píng yǔ guāng míng de zhuī qiú； hóng sè xiàng zhēng yǒng gǎn hé bù wèi kùn nán de jīng shén， xiàng zhēng rén mín wèiguó jiā de dú lì jiě fàng hé fán róng fù qiáng 'ér fèng xiàn de xiān xuè yǔ qǔ dé de shèng lì。 lán sè lái zì yuán lái de mó lā wéi yà hé sī luò fá kè shěng huī zhāng de yán sè。 guó huī： fēn dà xiǎo liǎng zhǒng。 dà guó huī wéi fāng xíng dùn huī， dùn miàn fēn sì bù fēn： zuǒ shàng fāng hé yòu xià fāng wéi hóng dì shàng bái sè de shuāng wěi shī， shī zǐ tóu dài jīn guān， zhǎo wéi jīn huáng sè， qián zhǎo téng qǐ， dài biǎo bō xī mǐ yà； yòu shàng fāng wéi lán dì shàng hóng bái sè xiāngjiàn de yīng， dài biǎo mó lā wéi yà； zuǒ xià fāng wéi huáng dì shàng tóu dài jīn guān de hēi yīng， zhǎo wéi hóng sè， xiōng qián huì yòu bái sè yuè yá， shí zì xíng hé sān yè xíng shì wù fēn bié wèi yú yuè yá zhōng yāng hé liǎng duān， dài biǎo xī lǐ xī yà。 jié kè bāo kuò lì shǐ shàng de bō xī mǐ yà、 mó lā wéi yà hé xī lǐ xī yà dì qū， zhè méi dùn huī xíng xiàng dì jiē shì liǎo jié kè de lì shǐ yuān yuán。 xiǎo guó huī wéi dùn xíng， dùn miàn wéi hóng sè， shàng yòu yī tóu dài jīn guān、 zhǎo wéi jīn huáng sè、 qián zhǎo téng qǐ de shuāng wěi shī。 shí chā bǐ gé lín ní zhì shí jiān zǎo 1 xiǎo shí； bǐ běi jīng shí jiān wǎn 7 xiǎo shí guó jì diàn huà mǎ 420 huò bì jié kè kè lǎng yǔ yán guān fāng yǔ yán wéi jié kè yǔ hé sī luò fá kè yǔ、 xiōng yá lì yǔ bǎo jiā lì yà yǔ guó qìng rì 10 yuè 28 rì guó jiā zhèng yào： zǒng tǒng wǎ cí lā fū · kè láo sī (VaclavKlaus)，２ ００３ nián２ yuè dāng xuǎn jié kè zǒng tǒng， tóng nián３ yuè xuān shì jiù zhí， rèn qī ５ nián。 zǒng lǐ tuō bō lā nèi kè，２００ ６ nián １１ yuè rèn zhí，２００ ７ nián１ yuè zài cì rèn zhí。 zì rán dì lǐ jié kè gòng hé guó yuán shǔ jié kè hé sī luò fá kè lián bāng gòng hé guó， shì 'ōu zhōu zhōng bù de nèi lù guó jiā。 dōng lián sī luò fá kè， nán jiē 'ào dì lì， běi lín bō lán， xī yǔ dé guó xiāng lín， miàn jī７ ８８６６ píng fāng gōng lǐ， qí zhōng lù dì miàn jī： 77276 píng fāng gōng lǐ， shuǐ yù miàn jī： 1590 píng fāng gōng lǐ。 yóu bō xī mǐ yà、 mó lā wéi yà hé xī lǐ xī yà３ gè bù fēn zǔ chéng。 tā chù zài sān miàn lóng qǐ de sì biān xíng pén dì， tǔ dì féi wò。 běi yòu kè 'ěr kē nuò xiè shān， nán yòu shū mǎ wǎ shān， dōng bù hé dōng nán bù wéi píng jūn hǎi bá５００ héng６００ mǐ de jié kè héng mó lā wéi yà gāo yuán。 pén dì nèi dà bù fēn dì qū zài hǎi bá５００ mǐ yǐ xià， yòu lā bèi hé píng yuán， bǐ 'ěr sēn pén dì、 è 'ěr shì shān lù pén dì hé nán jié kè hú zhǎo dì dài。 fú 'ěr tǎ wǎ hé zuì cháng， liú jīng bù lā gé。 yì běi hé fā yuán yú jié kè de lā bèi hé， kě yǐ tōng háng。 dōng bù mó lā wǎ hé héng 'ào dé hé shàng yóu hé gǔ dì qū shì jié kè pén dì yǔ sī luò fá kè shān dì zhī jiān dì dài， chēng wéi mó lā wǎ hé héng 'ào dé hé zǒu láng， zì gǔ shì běi 'ōu yǔ nán 'ōu zhī jiān tōng shāng yào dào。 quán guó qiū líng qǐ fú， sēn lín mì bù， fēng jǐng xiù lì。 guó tǔ fēn wéi liǎng dà dì lǐ qū， yī wéi wèi yú xī bàn bù de bō xī mǐ yà gāo dì， lìng yī wéi wèi yú dōng bàn bù de kā 'ěr bā qiān shān dì， tā yóu yī xì liè dōng xī zǒu xiàng shān mài zǔ chéng。 zuì gāo diǎn shì hǎi bá wéi２６５５ mǐ de gé 'ěr lā huò fū sī jī fēng。 jìng nèi gāo dì、 qiū líng hé pén dì xiāngjiàn。 biān jìng duō shān， sū tái dé shān de sī niè rì kǎ shān（ Snezka）， hǎi bá 1602 mǐ。 jìng nèi zuì dī hǎi bá Elbe hé： 115 mǐ。 qì hòu wēn hé， nián jiàng shuǐ liàng píng yuán 450-600 háo mǐ， shān qū 1200-1600 háo mǐ， pō dì yòu hùn jiāo lín hé zhēn yè lín。 kuàng chǎn yòu méi、 tiě， qiān、 xīn、 yín、 yóu děng。 zài fú 'ěr tǎ wǎ hé shàng jiàn yòu dà xíng shuǐ diàn zhàn。 rén kǒu 10241138 rén (2005 nián 7 yuè）。 zhù yào mín zú wéi jié kè zú， zhàn yuán lián bāng gòng hé guó zǒng rén kǒu de８１ ．３ ％， qí tā mín zú yòu mó lā wéi yà zú（１３．２％）、 sī luò fá kè zú、 dé yì zhì zú hé shǎo liàng de bō lán zú děng。 guān fāng yǔ yán wéi jié kè yǔ， zhù yào zōng jiào shì luó mǎ tiān zhù jiào。 shǒu dū bù lā gé（ Prague）， miàn jī ４ ９６ píng fāng gōng lǐ， rén kǒu１１７ wàn rén（２００４ nián dǐ）。 zuì dī diǎn hǎi bá１９０ mǐ， zuì gāo diǎn３８０ mǐ。 qì hòu jù yòu diǎn xíng de zhōng bù dà lù xíng tè zhēng， píng jūn qì wēn７ yuè fèn wéi１９．５ ℃，１ yuè fèn wéi －０．５℃。 zhù yào chéng shì zhù yào chéng shì hái yòu bǐ 'ěr sēn、 bù 'ěr nuò、 é sī tè lā fā děng。 lì shǐ tǔ zhù jū mín wéi kǎi 'ěr tè zú bó yī rén。 gōng yuán chū bèi rì 'ěr màn mǎ kē màn ní rén qǔ dài。 5 ～ 6 shì jì， sī lā fū rén xī qiān zhì jié kè hé sī luò fá kè dì qū。 623 nián sī lā fū (SLOVANE) bù luò lián méng sà mó gōng guó xíng chéng， chéng wéi lì shǐ shàng dì yī gè sī lā fū wáng guó。 830 nián jiàn lì dà mó lā wéi yà (VELKAMORAVIA) gōng guó。 9 shì jì mò～ 10 shì jì shàng bàn yè dì guó jiě tǐ， pǔ rè měi sī (PŘEMYSLOVCI) jiā zú chéng lì yǐ bù lā gé wéi zhōng xīn de jié kè gōng guó。 1086 nián， dé yì zhì guó wáng shén shèng luó mǎ dì guó huáng dì hēng lì sì shì shòu yú jié kè wáng gōng fú lā dí sī fū 'èr shì (vradislav2) yǐ bō xī mǐ yà guó wáng chēng hào， cǐ hòu jié kè gōng guó chén fú yú shén shèng luó mǎ dì guó。 12 shì jì hòu bàn yè， gōng guó gǎi chēng jié kè wáng guó。 1306 nián， shén shèng luó mǎ dì guó lú sēn bǎo wáng cháo hēng lì qī shì zhī zǐ yuē hàn qǔ jié kè wáng wèi jì chéng rén 'ài lì qiàn kǎ (ELIŽKA) wéi qī， yuē hàn chéng wéi jié kè guó wáng， cǐ hòu lú sēn bǎo jiā zú qǔ dài pǔ rè měi sī (PŘEMYSLOVCI) jiā zú yōng yòu jié kè tǒng zhì quán。 1346 nián chá lǐ yī shì (KAREL1) dēng jī， 1355 nián yǐ chá lǐ sì shì (KAREL4) shēn fèn jiē guǎn shén shèng luó mǎ dì guó， bù lā gé (PRAHA) chéng wéi dì guó tǒng zhì zhōng xīn。 15 shì jì chū bō xī mǐ yà (BOHEMIA) shèng xíng yǐ hú sī (JANHUSA) lǐng dǎo de dài yòu mín zú zhù yì sè cǎi de zōng jiào gǎi gé yùn dòng。 1415 nián hú sī bèi jiào huì yǐ yì jiào tú zuì míng chù yǐ huǒ xíng 'ér sǐ hòu， yǐn bào jié kè fǎn kàng luó mǎ jiào tíng、 dé yì zhì guì zú hé fēng jiàn tǒng zhì de hú sī gé mìng yùn dòng。 luó mǎ jiào huáng lián hé 'ōu zhōu fēng jiàn shì lì， zài 1420～ 1431 nián qī jiān zǔ zhì liǎo wǔ cì 'ōu zhōu shí zì jūn (KŘIŽACI) duì gāi yùn dòng jìn xíng zhēng tǎo。 1526 nián， shēn wéi tiān zhù jiào tú de 'ào dì lì hā bù sī bǎo jiā zú chéng yuán、 ào huáng fěi dí nán dāng xuǎn wéi zhōng 'ōu duō mín zú guó jiā guó wáng， jié kè mín zú hé sī luò fá kè mín zú lún wéi bèi yā pò mín zú。 1867 nián hòu chǔyú 'ào xiōng dì guó tǒng zhì zhī xià。 dì yī cì shì jiè dà zhàn hòu 'ào xiōng dì guó jiě tǐ， jié kè yǔ sī luò fá kè lián hé， 1918 nián 10 yuè 28 rì chéng lì jié kè sī luò fá kè shè huì zhù yì gòng hé guó (Československásocialistickárepublika,ČSSR)。 1938 nián 9 yuè， yīng、 fǎ tóng dé、 yì qiān dìng《 mù ní hēi xié dìng》， jié kè sī luò fá kè bèi pò jiāng sū tái dé dì qū gē ràng gěi dé guó。 1939 nián 3 yuè， dé guó zhàn lǐng jié kè sī luò fá kè quán jìng。 jié kè hé mó lā wéi yà chéng wéi dé guó de bǎo hù guó。 1945 nián 4 yuè yǐ gòng chǎn dǎng wéi zhù yào lǐng dǎo zhě de jié kè sī luò fá kè mín zú zhèn xiàn lián hé zhèng fǔ chéng lì。 5 yuè 9 rì， bù lā gé mín zhòng qǐ yì， zài sū lián hóng jūn bāng zhù xià jiě fàng jié kè sī luò fá kè quán jìng。 1948 nián 5 yuè 9 rì chéng lì jié kè sī luò fá kè rén mín mín zhù gòng hé guó， gē tè wǎ 'ěr dāng xuǎn wéi zǒng tǒng。 1960 nián 7 yuè 11 rì gǎi guó míng wéi jié kè sī luò fá kè shè huì zhù yì gòng hé guó， dù bù qiē kè (DUBČECH) chū rèn jié gòng dì yī shū jì， bìng kāi shǐ yī xì liè gǎi gé。 1968 nián 8 yuè 21 rì， huá shā gōng yuē zǔ zhì chéng yuán sū、 bō、 xiōng、 bǎo、 mín zhù dé guó 5 guó chū dòng 50 wàn dà jūn qīn rù jié kè sī luò fá kè。 1969 nián 4 yuè， hú sà kè chū rèn jié gòng dì yī shū jì， 1975 nián rèn zǒng tǒng。 1989 nián 11 yuè jié zhèng jú fā shēng jù biàn。 12 yuè 29 rì gōng mín lùn tán qǔ dé zhèng quán， “ tiān 'é róng gé mìng ” lǐng dǎo rén、 zuò jiā hā wéi 'ěr (HAVEL) dāng xuǎn lín shí zǒng tǒng， jié gòng shī qù zhí zhèng dǎng dì wèi。 1990 nián 3 yuè gǎi guó míng wéi jié kè sī luò fá kè lián bāng gòng hé guó， 4 yuè gǎi chēng jié kè hé sī luò fá kè lián bāng gòng hé guó。 1992 nián 6 yuè jǔ xíng shǒu cì zì yóu xuǎn jǔ， gōng mín mín zhù dǎng hé zhēng qǔ mín zhù sī luò fá kè yùn dòng fēn bié zài jié kè、 sī luò fá kè zhí zhèng。 11 yuè， liǎng gè gòng hé guó lǐng dǎo rén jīng guò tán pàn， tóng yì jié kè hé sī luò fá kè fēn lí， lián bāng yì huì tōng guò liǎo lián bāng jiě tǐ fǎ。 12 yuè 31 rì lián bāng jiě tǐ。 1993 nián 1 yuè 1 rì， jié kè gòng hé guó chéng wéi dú lì de zhù quán guó jiā。 wǎ cí lā fū · hā wéi 'ěr yú 1 yuè 20 rì dāng xuǎn wéi jié kè gòng hé guó zǒng tǒng。 1996 nián 6 yuè， jié kè jǔ xíng dú lì hòu shǒu cì yì huì xuǎn jǔ， kè láo sī jì rèn zǒng lǐ， shè huì mín zhù dǎng zhù xí zé màn dān rèn yì huì zhòng yì yuàn zhù xí。 zhèng zhì １９９２ nián１２ yuè１６ rì jié kè mín zú yì huì tōng guò dì yī bù xiàn fǎ。 xiàn fǎ què lì jié kè gòng hé guó shì yī gè zhù quán、 tǒng yī、 mín zhù yǔ fǎ zhì de guó jiā。 xiàn fǎ guī dìng， lì fǎ quán guī yì huì， yì huì yóu cān yì yuàn hé zhòng yì yuàn zǔ chéng。 gòng hé guó zǒng tǒng wèiguó jiā yuán shǒu， yóu yì huì liǎng yuàn lián xí huì yì xuǎn jǔ chǎn shēng， bì xū huò dé yī bàn yǐ shàng duō shù piào cái néng dāng xuǎn。 zǒng tǒng xū nián mǎn４０ suì， rèn qī５ nián， zuì duō lián rèn liǎng jiè。 zhèng fǔ wéi zuì gāo xíng zhèng quán lì jī gòu， duì zhòng yì yuàn fù zé， zhòng yì yuàn yòu quán duì zhèng fǔ biǎo shì xìn rèn huò bù xìn rèn。 dú lì fǎ yuàn dài biǎo gòng hé guó zhí xíng sī fǎ quán。 gòng hé guó shè xiàn fǎ fǎ yuàn， wéi hù fǎ zhì。 xiàn fǎ fǎ yuàn yóu１５ míng fǎ guān zǔ chéng， fǎ guān rèn qī１０ nián， yóu zǒng tǒng rèn mìng， bìng jīng cān yì yuàn tóng yì。 jīng jì jié kè yuán wéi 'ào xiōng dì guó de gōng yè qū，７０％ de gōng yè jí zhōng zài cǐ。 tā yǐ jī xiè zhì zào、 gè zhǒng jī chuáng、 dòng lì shè bèi、 chuán bó、 qì chē、 diàn lì jī chē、 zhá gāng shè bèi、 jūn gōng、 qīng fǎng wéi zhù， huà xué、 bō lí gōng yè yě jiào fā dá。 fǎng zhì、 zhì xié、 pí jiǔ niàng zào jūn wén míng yú shì。 gōng yè jī chǔ xióng hòu， èr zhàn hòu， gǎi biàn liǎo yuán lái de gōng yè jié gòu， zhòng diǎn fā zhǎn gāng tiě、 zhòng xíng jī xiè gōng yè。 gōng yè zài guó mín shēng chǎn zǒng zhí zhōng de bǐ zhòng zhàn４０％（１９９９ nián）。 jié kè shì pí jiǔ shēng chǎn hé xiāo fèi dà guó， qí chū kǒu de zhù yào duì xiàng shì sī luò fá kè、 bō lán、 dé guó、 ào dì lì hé měi guó。１９９６ nián pí jiǔ zǒng chǎn liàng dá１８．３ yì shēng。１９９９ nián jié kè rén jūn pí jiǔ xiāo fèi liàng dá dào１６１．１ shēng， bǐ pí jiǔ xiāo fèi dà guó dé guó duō３０ shēng。 yǐ rén jūn pí jiǔ xiāo fèi liángjì， jié kè lián xù７ nián wèi jū shì jiè bǎng shǒu。 tōng xùn yè fā zhǎn xùn sù，１９９８ nián dǐ yí dòng diàn huà pǔ jí shuài jiē jìn１０％， yí dòng diàn huà yòng hù dá９３ wàn， gǎn chāo liǎo mǒu xiē xī fāng fā dá guó jiā。 huò bì míng chēng： jié kè kè lǎng（ CzechKoruna）。 gōng nóng yè gōng yè yǐ rán liào dòng lì、 yě jīn、 huà gōng jī xiè zhì zào、 qīng gōng、 shí pǐn、 fǎng zhì、 pí jiǔ niàng zào、 zhì xié、 bō lí、 táo cí wéi zhù。 nóng chǎn pǐn yòu mài lèi、 tián cài、 mǎ líng shǔ、 pí jiǔ huā、 shuǐ guǒ děng。 rǔ ròu chù mù yè hé yǎng qín yè bǐ jiào fā dá。 jiāo tōng yǐ gōng lù、 tiě lù hé háng kōng yùn shū wéi zhù。 gōng lù： zǒng cháng 55432 gōng lǐ， qí zhōng gāo sù gōng lù 499 gōng lǐ， kè yùn liàng zǒng jì 4.34 yì rén cì， huò yùn liàng zǒng jì 4.39 yì dūn。 tiě lù： zǒng cháng 9444 gōng lǐ， qí zhōng fù xiàn 1929 gōng lǐ， diàn qì huà tiě lù 2843 gōng lǐ； kè yùn liàng zǒng jì 1.9 yì rén cì， huò yùn liàng zǒng jì 9722 wàn dūn。 shuǐ yùn： nèi hé háng dào 303 gōng lǐ， huò yùn liàng zǒng jì 159.4 wàn dūn。 kōng yùn： 2001 nián fēi xíng zǒng shù 57074 cì， guó jì háng xiàn fēi xíng 6312.1 wàn gōng lǐ， kè yùn liàng zǒng jì 394.6 wàn rén cì， huò yùn liàng zǒng jì 16079 dūn。 zài bù lā gé hé bù 'ěr nuò shì fēn bié yòu yī gè jī chǎng， shǒu dū jī chǎng shì guó jì jī chǎng。 jūn shì jié kè hé sī luò fá kè yú１９９３ nián１ yuè１ rì dú lì hòu， yuán lián bāng guó jiā jūn duì hé wǔ qì zhuāng bèi 'àn２ :１ fēn pèi， zǒng tǒng shì jūn duì zuì gāo tǒng shuài。２００４ nián９ yuè， jié kè zhòng yì yuàn tōng guò liǎo zhèng fǔ guān yú qǔ xiāo yì wù bīng yì zhì de tí 'àn， qǔ 'ér dài zhī de shì zhí yè huà jūn duì。 gēn jù zhèng fǔ tí 'àn， cóng２００５ nián nián chū qǐ， jié kè jūn duì shí xiàn quán miàn zhí yè huà， zuì hòu yī pī yì wù bīng jiāng yú２００４ nián１２ yuè２２ rì lí kāi bù duì。 yì wù bīng yì zhì yě jiāng yú２００４ nián１２ yuè３１ rì jié shù。 cǐ hòu， zhǐ yòu zài guó jiā miàn lín wēi xié huò chǔyú zhàn zhēng zhuàng tài shí， jié kè mín zhòng cái néng bèi yào qiú lǚ xíng bīng yì yì wù。 zhè xiàng fǎ 'àn jīng jié kè zǒng tǒng qiān zì hòu jí kě shēng xiào。 wài jiāo zì１９９３ nián dú lì hòu jì xù fèng xíng“ fǎn huí 'ōu zhōu” de duì wài zhèng cè， zhòng diǎn fā zhǎn tóng měi dé děng xī fāng guó jiā de guān xì， zhòng shì jiā qiáng tóng bō lán、 ào dì lì、 sī luò fá kè děng lín guó de guān xì， bìng zhù yì yǔ běn dì qū yǐ wài de guó jiā fā zhǎn jīng jì guān xì。 yǔ zhōng guó guān xì：１９９３ nián１ yuè１ rì， zhōng guó chéng rèn jié kè gòng hé guó wéi dú lì guó jiā bìng yǔ qí jiàn lì dà shǐ jí wài jiāo guān xì。 yǔ yán : jié kè yǔ jié kè yǔ shǐ yòng rén shù jìn yī qiān yī bǎi wàn rén， shǔ xī sī lā fū yǔ zhī de nán fēn zhī。 zǎo qī jié kè jìng nèi tōng xíng jiào huì sī lā fū yǔ、 lā dīng yǔ huò dé yǔ， shí sān shì jì xià bàn yè shí kāi shǐ chū xiàn zhēn zhèng de jié kè yǔ wén xiàn。 shí wǔ shì jì chū hú sī fā qǐ zōng jiào gǎi gé yùn dòng de tóng shí， yě diàn dìng liǎo jié kè yǔ de pīn yīn guī zé， duì qí tā shǐ yòng lā dīng zì mǔ pīn xiě de sī lā fū yǔ dū chǎn shēng zhòng dà yǐng xiǎng。 jié kè yǔ céng shì yuán jié kè sī luò fá kè de zhù yào guān fāng yǔ yán， yǔ sī luò fá kè yǔ kě hù tōng。 xiàn jīn jié kè yǔ shǐ yòng sì shí 'èr gè zì mǔ， qí zhōng yòu shí sì gè yuán yīn zì mǔ， èr shí qī gè fǔ yīn zì mǔ， jí yī gè shuāng zì mǔ， bù fèn zì mǔ zài lā dīng zì mǔ shàng fù jiā fú hào。 fāng yán zé yòu sān dà fāng yán： zhōng jié fāng yán、 hā nà fāng yán jí lāi hè fāng yán， yǐ jí yī gè mó lā wéi yà guò dù fāng yán qū； biāo zhǔn yǔ yǐ zhōng jié fāng yán wéi jī chǔ。 yīn wèi yòu sān shí wǔ gè， bāo hán shí gè yuán yīn yǔ 'èr shí wǔ gè fǔ yīn， ér fǔ yīn zhōng yòu sān gè kě chōng zuò yuán yīn de chéng jié fǔ yīn： Ｍ， Ｌ， Ｒ。 zhòng yīn zé gù dìng luò zài dì yī yīn jié。 cí fǎ shàng bǎo yòu hū gé。 The Czech lands were under Habsburg rule from 1526, later becoming part of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary. The independent republic of Czechoslovakia was created in 1918, following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire after World War I. After the Munich Agreement, German occupation of Czechoslovakia and the consequent disillusion with the Western response and liberation of major part of Czechoslovakia by the Red Army, the Communist party gained the majority in 1946 elections. Following a coup in 1948, Czechoslovakia became a Communist-ruled state. Prague Spring of 1968, an attempt at reformation of the Communist regime, ended by invasion of armies of Warsaw Pact countries which didn't leave until after the 1989 Velvet Revolution. On January 1, 1993 the country peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic made economic reforms such as massive privatization and flat tax. Annual gross domestic product growth has recently been around 6%. The country is the first former member of the Comecon to achieve the status of a developed country (2006) according to the World Bank. The Czech Republic also ranks best compared to the former Comecon countries in the Human Development Index. The Czech Republic is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy. President Václav Klaus is the current head of state. The Prime Minister is the head of government (currently Mirek Topolánek). The Parliament has two chambers — the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004. It is also a member of the OECD, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech portion found itself without a common single-word name in English. In 1993, The Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs suggested the name Czechia as an official alternative in all situations other than formal official documents and the full names of government institutions; however, this has not become widely used--though other languages have single-word names, e.g. Tschechien in German, and Czechy in Polish. The official website of the Czech Republic (www.czech.cz) run by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs does not use the name Czechia as of 2005. Its Czech equivalent is Česko. History Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human settlement in the area dating back to the Neolithic era. In the classical era, from the 3rd century BC Celtic migrations, the Boii (see Bohemia) and later in the 1st century Germanic tribes of Marcomanni and Quadi settled there. During the Migration Period around the 5th century, many Germanic tribes moved westwards and southwards out of Central Europe. In an equally significant migration, Slavic people from the Black Sea and Carpathian regions settled in the area (a movement that was also stimulated by the onslaught of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe: Huns, Avars, Bulgars and Magyars). Following in the Germans' wake, they moved southwards into Bohemia, Moravia, and some of present day Austria. During the 7th century the Frankish merchant Samo, supporting the Slavs fighting their Avar rulers, became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe. The Moravian principality arose in the 8th century (see Great Moravia). The Bohemian or Czech state emerged in the late 9th century when it was unified by the Přemyslid dynasty. The kingdom of Bohemia was a significant regional power during the Middle Ages. It was part of the Holy Roman Empire during the entire existence of this confederation. Religious conflicts such as the 15th century Hussite Wars and the 17th century Thirty Years' War had a devastating effect on the local population. From the 16th century, Bohemia came increasingly under Habsburg control as the Habsburgs became first the elected and then hereditary rulers of Bohemia. After the fall of the Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia became part of Austrian Empire and later of Austria-Hungary. From Independence to World War 2 Following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I, the independent republic of Czechoslovakia was created in 1918. This new country incorporated regions of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia (known as Subcarpathian Rus at the time) with significant German, Hungarian, Polish and Ruthenian speaking minorities. Although Czechoslovakia was a unitary state, it provided what was at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities. However, it did not grant its minorities any territorial political autonomy, which resulted in discontent and strong support among some of the minorities to break away from Czechoslovakia. Adolf Hitler used the opportunity and, supported by Konrad Henlein's Sudeten German National Socialist Party, gained the largely German speaking Sudetenland through the 1938 Munich Agreement. Poland occupied Polish inhabited areas around Český Těšín. Hungary gained parts of Slovakia and Subcarpathian Rus as a result of the First Vienna Award in November 1938. Kutná HoraSlovakia and Subcarpathian Rus gained greater autonomy, with the state renamed to "Czecho-Slovakia" (The Second Republic; see Occupation of Czechoslovakia). Slovakia seceded in March 1939 and allied itself with Hitler's coalition. The remaining Czech territory was occupied by Germany, transformed it into the so-called Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The Protectorate was proclaimed part of the Third Reich, and President and Prime Minister were subordinate to the Nazi Reichsprotektor ("imperial protector"). Subcarpathian Rus declared independence as the Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine on 15 March 1939 but was invaded by Hungary the same day and formally annexed on 16 March. Approximately 390,000 Czechoslovak citizens, including 83,000 Jews, were killed or executed, and hundreds of thousands of others were sent to prisons and concentration camps or as forced labour. A Nazi concentration camp existed at Terezin to the north of Prague. There was Czech resistance to Nazi occupation both home and abroad, most notably with the assassination of leading Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich in Prague suburbs on May 27, 1942. The Czechoslovak government-in-exile and its army fighting against the Germans were acknowledged by Allies (Czechoslovak troops fought in Great Britain, North Africa, Middle East and Soviet Union). The occupation ended on 9 May 1945 with the arrival of Soviet and American armies and the Prague uprising. In 1945-46 almost the entire German minority of Czechoslovakia, about 2.7 million people, were expelled to Germany and Austria. During this time, thousands of Germans were held in prisons, detention camps, and used as forced labour. In the summer of 1945, there were several massacres. Only 250,000 Germans who had been active in the resistance against the Nazis or were necessary for the economy were not expelled, though many of them emigrated later. Following a Soviet-organised referendum, the Subcarpathian Rus has never returned under Czechoslovak rule and became part of the Ukrainian SSR, as the Zakarpattia Oblast in 1946. Communist era Czechoslovakia uneasily tried to play the role of a "bridge" between the West and East. However, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia rapidly increased in popularity, particularly because of a general disappointment with the West (due to the pre-war Munich Agreement) and a favourable popular attitude towards the Soviet Union (due to the Soviets' role in liberating Czechoslovakia from German rule). In the 1946 elections, with 38% of the votes, the Communists became the largest party in the Czechoslovak parliament. They formed a coalition government with other parties of the National Front, and moved quickly to consolidate power. The decisive step took place in February 1948. During a series of events characterized by Communists as a "revolution" and by anti-Communists as a "takeover", the Communist People's Militias secured control of key locations in Prague, and a new, all-Communist government was formed. For the next forty-one years, Czechoslovakia was a Communist state within the eastern bloc (see Czechoslovakia: 1948-1989). This period was marked by a variety of social developments. The Communist government completely nationalized the means of production and established a command economy. The economy grew rapidly during the 1950s and 1960s, but slowed down in the 1970s with increasing problems during the 1980s. The political climate was highly repressive during the 1950s (including numerous show trials), but became more open and tolerant in the 1960s, culminating in Alexander Dubček's leadership in the 1968 Prague Spring that tried to create "socialism with a human face" and perhaps even introduce political pluralism. This was forcibly ended by 21 August 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion. From then until 1989, the political establishment returned to censorship of opposition, though using more "carrot" than "whip" policy to ensure the populace's passivity. Modern era In November 1989, Czechoslovakia returned to democracy through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution". However, Slovak national aspirations strengthened until on January 1, 1993, the country peacefully split into the independent Czech Republic and Slovakia. Both countries went through economic reforms and privatisations, with the intention of creating a market economy. From 1991 the Czech Republic (originally as part of Czechoslovakia, and now in its own right) has been a member of the Visegrad Group and from 1995 of the OECD. The Czech Republic joined NATO on March 12, 1999 and the European Union on May 1, 2004. Geography The Czech landscape is quite varied. Bohemia to the west consists of a basin, drained by the Elbe (Czech: Labe) and the Vltava rivers, and surrounded by mostly low mountains such as the Krkonoše range of the Sudetes. The highest point in the country, Sněžka, at 1,602 m (5,262 ft), is located here. Moravia, the eastern part of the country, is also quite hilly. It is drained mainly by the Morava River, but it also contains the source of the Oder (Czech: Odra) River. Water from the landlocked Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Black Sea. The Czech Republic also leases the Moldauhafen, a 30,000-square-metre (7.4-acre) lot in the middle of the Hamburg Docks, which was awarded to Czechoslovakia by Article 363 of the Treaty of Versailles to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported downriver could be transferred to seagoing ships. The territory reverts to Germany in 2028. Phytogeographically, the Czech Republic belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of the Czech Republic can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, Western European broadleaf forests and Carpathian montane conifer forests. Weather and climate The Czech Republic has a temperate, continental climate with relatively hot summers and cold, cloudy winters, usually with snow. Most rains are during the summer. The temperature difference between summers and winters is relatively high due to its landlocked geographical position. Even within the Czech Republic, temperatures vary greatly depending on the elevation. In general, at higher altitudes the temperatures decrease and precipitation increases. Another important factor is the distribution of the mountains. Therefore the climate is quite varied. At the highest peak (Sněžka, 1,602 m/5,260 ft) the average temperature is only −0.4 °C (31 °F), whereas in the lowlands of South Moravia, the average temperature is as high as 10 °C (50 °F). This also applies for the country's capital Prague, but this is due to urban factors. The coldest month is usually January followed by February and December. During these months there is usually snow in the mountains and sometimes in the major cities and lowlands. During March, April and May, the temperature usually increases rapidly and especially during April the temperature and weather tends to vary widely during the day. Spring is also characterized by high water levels in the rivers due to melting snow followed by floods at times. The warmest month of the year is July, followed by August and June. On average, the summer temperatures are about 20 °C (68 °F) higher than during winter. Especially in the last decade,[citation needed] temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) are not unusual. Summer is also characterized by rain and storms. Autumn generally begins in September, which is still relatively warm, but much drier. During October, temperatures usually fall back under 15° or 10°C (59° or 50°F) and deciduous trees begin to shed their leaves. By the end of November, temperatures usually range around the freezing point. Demographics Population Population of the Czech lands Year Total Change Year Total Change 1857 7,016,531 — 1930 10,674,386 6.6% 1869 7,617,230 8.6% 1950 8,896,133 -16.7% 1880 8,222,013 7.9% 1961 9,571,531 7.6% 1890 8,665,421 5.4% 1970 9,807,697 2.5% 1900 9,372,214 8.2% 1980 10,291,927 4.9% 1910 10,078,637 7.5% 1991 10,302,215 0.1% 1921 10,009,587 -0.7% 2001 10,230,060 -0.7% The vast majority of the inhabitants of the Czech Republic are Czechs (94.2%). Significant minorities include the Slovaks (1.9%), Poles (0.5%), Vietnamese (0.44%) Germans (0.4%), and Romani. According to the Interior Ministry of the Czech Republic, there were 392,087 foreigners legally residing in the country at the end of 2007, making up 3.2% of the population, with the largest groups being Ukrainians, Slovaks and Vietnamese. Total fertility rate was low at 1.44 children born/woman. In 2007, immigration increased population by nearly 1%. Religion The Czech Republic, along with Estonia, has one of the least religious populations in all of Europe. According to the 2001 census, 59% of the country is agnostic, atheist, non-believer or no-organised believer, 26.8% Roman Catholic and 2.5% Protestant. According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 19% of Czech citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 50% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 30% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force", the lowest rate of EU countries after Estonia with 16%. Politics Political system The Czech Republic is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy, where the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Parliament is bicameral, with the Chamber of Deputies (Czech: Poslanecká sněmovna) (200 members) and the Senate (81 members). Foreign policy A key goal in foreign policy has been European integration. According to The Economist, the Czech Republic has earned a reputation for promoting human rights at every turn. Czech officials have pushed Europe's weight behind democrats everywhere from Myanmar to Belarus, Moldova and Cuba. Czech foreign ministry has an entire unit devoted to helping dissidents in other countries. Czech Republic is motivated by its experience of Nazi and communist oppression. Also, the country's first post-communist president Václav Havel is ex-dissident writer, who has set moral example and has attracted ex-dissidents to key government positions. For example, every March since 2003, when Fidel Castro locked up 75 political opponents, activists have set up a cage in Wenceslas Square representing a Cuban prison cell. Frequent prison uniform-wearing protesters have included names such as the foreign minister, the mayor of Prague and musical stars. Some EU officials have been irritated by Czech Republic's activism in human rights. Czech Republic and other countries stressing human rights have been in conflicts with EU countries who favor closer ties with dictatorships. Armed forces The Czech armed forces consist of the Army and Air Force and of specialized support units. In 2004, the Czech armed forces completely phased out conscription and transformed into a fully professional army and air force. The country has been a member of NATO since March 12, 1999. Defence spending is around 1.8% of GDP (2006). Regions and districts Since 2000, the Czech Republic is divided into thirteen regions (Czech: kraje, singular kraj) and the capital city of Prague. Each region has its own elected Regional Assembly (krajské zastupitelstvo) and hejtman (usually translated as hetman or "president"). In Prague, their powers are executed by the city council and the mayor. The older seventy-six districts (okresy, singular okres) including three 'statutory cities' (without Prague, which had special status) were disbanded in 1999 in an administrative reform; they remain as territorial division and seats of various branches of state administration. Map of the Czech Republic with regions.(Lic. plate) Region Capital Population (2004 est.) Population (2008 est.) A Capital of Prague (Hlavní město Praha) 1,170,571 1,218,644 S Central Bohemian Region (Středočeský kraj) offices located in Prague (Praha) 1,144,071 1,208,145 C South Bohemian Region (Jihočeský kraj) České Budějovice 625,712 633,750 P Plzeň Region (Plzeňský kraj) Pilsen (Plzeň) 549,618 562,783 K Karlovy Vary Region (Karlovarský kraj) Karlovy Vary 304,588 307,975 U Ústí nad Labem Region (Ústecký kraj) Ústí nad Labem 822,133 833,218 L Liberec Region (Liberecký kraj) Liberec 427,563 434,751 H Hradec Králové Region (Královéhradecký kraj) Hradec Králové 547,296 552,850 E Pardubice Region (Pardubický kraj) Pardubice 505,285 512,380 M Olomouc Region (Olomoucký kraj) Olomouc 635,126 641,809 T Moravian-Silesian Region (Moravskoslezský kraj) Ostrava 1,257,554 1,249,844 B South Moravian Region (Jihomoravský kraj) Brno 1,123,201 1,142,013 Z Zlín Region (Zlínský kraj) Zlín 590,706 590,828 J Vysočina Region (Vysočina) Jihlava 517,153 514,146 Economy The Czech Republic possesses a developed, high-income economy with a GDP per capita of 82% of the European Union average. One of the most stable and prosperous of the post-Communist states, the Czech Republic has seen a growth of over 6% annually in the last three years. Recent growth has been led by exports to the European Union, especially Germany, and foreign investment, while domestic demand is reviving. However, the rate of corruption remains one of the highest among OECD countries. The public budgets remain in deficit despite strong growth of the economy in recent years. However, the 2007 deficit has been 1.58% GDP (according to EU accounting rules), far less than originally expected. Most of the economy has been privatized, including banks and telecommunications. The current right-center government plans to continue with privatization, including the energy industry and the Prague airport. It has recently agreed to the sale of a 7% stake of the energy producer ČEZ, with the sale of the Budějovický Budvar brewery also mooted. The country has fully implemented the Schengen Agreement and therefore has abolished border controls with all of its neighbours (Germany, Austria, Poland, Slovakia) on December 21, 2007. The Czech Republic is a member of the WTO. The last Czech government had expressed a desire to adopt the euro in 2010, but the current government has postponed it due to budget deficits. An exact date has not been set up, but the Finance Ministry described adoption by 2012 as realistic if public finance reform passes. However, the most recent draft of the euro adoption plan omits giving any date. Education The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks the Czech education as the 15th best in the world, being higher than the OECD average. Transport Prague Airport is the main international airport. Czech Republic has 46 airports, out of which two have over 3,047 meter runaways. Energy In 2005, according to the Czech Statistical Office, 65.4% of electricity was produced in steam, combined, and combustion power plants (mostly coal); 30% in nuclear plants; and 4.6% from renewable sources, including hydropower. Russia (via pipelines through Ukraine) and, to a lesser extent, Norway (via pipelines through Germany) supply the Czech Republic with liquid and natural gas. Communications The Czech Republic has the most Wi-Fi subscribers in the European Union. By the beginning of 2008 there was over 800 mostly local WISPs with about 350 000 subscribers in 2007. Mobile internet is quite popular. Plans based on either GPRS, EDGE, UMTS or CDMA2000 are being offered by all three mobile phone operators (T-Mobile, Vodafone, Telefonica O2) and by a data-only wireless operator U:fon. Government-owned Český Telecom slowed down broadband penetration. At the beginning of 2004, local loop unbundling began, and alternative operators started to offer ADSL (and also SDSL). This, and later privatisation of Cesky Telecom helped drive down prices. On July 1, 2006, Český Telecom was renamed to Telefónica O2 Czech Republic. As of January 2006, ADSL2+ is offered in many variants, both with data limit and without with speeds up to 10 Mbit/s. Cable internet is gaining popularity with its higher download speeds beginning at 2 Mbit/s up to 20 Mbit/s. The biggest ISP, UPC (which has bought another CATV internet provider Karneval in 2007) is providing its service in big cities (Prague, Brno, Ostrava) Tourism The Czech economy gets a substantial income from tourism: in 2001, the total earnings from tourism reached 118.13 billion CZK, making up 5.5% of GNP and 9.3% of overall export earnings. The industry employs more than 110,000 people - over 1% of the population. There are several centres of tourist activity: The historic city of Prague is the primary tourist attraction, and the city is also the most common point of entry for tourists visiting other parts of the country. Most other cities in the country attract significant numbers of tourists, but the spa towns such as Karlovy Vary, Mariánské Lázně and Františkovy Lázně are particularly popular holiday destinations. Other popular tourist sites are the many castles and chateaux, such as those at Karlštejn, Konopiště and Český Krumlov. Away from the towns, areas as Český ráj, Šumava and the Krkonoše Mountains attract visitors seeking outdoor pursuits. The country is also famous for its love of puppetry and marionettes. The Pilsner style beer originated in western Bohemian city of Plzeň. Culture Cuisine Vepřo-knedlo-zelo (Roast pork with dumplings and cabbage)Czech cuisine is marked by a strong emphasis on meat dishes. Pork is quite common, and beef and chicken are also popular. Goose, duck, rabbit and wild game are served. Fish is rare, with the occasional exception of fresh trout, and carp, which is served at Christmas. Aside from Slivovitz, Czech beer and wine, Czechs also produce two uniquely Czech liquors, Fernet Stock and Becherovka. Kofola is a non-alcoholic Czech soft drink somewhat similar in look and taste to Coca-Cola. Sport Sport plays a significant part in the life of many Czechs who are generally loyal supporters of their favourite teams or individuals. The two leading sports in the Czech Republic are football and ice hockey, both drawing the largest attention of both the media and supporters. The many other sports with professional leagues and structures include basketball, volleyball, handball, athletics, floorball and others. Sport is a source of strong waves of patriotism, usually rising several days or weeks before an event and sinking several days after. The events considered the most important by Czech fans are: the Ice Hockey World Championship, Olympic Ice hockey tournament, the Euro, the football World Cup and qualification matches for such events. In general, any international match of the Czech ice hockey or football national team draws attention, especially when played against a traditional rival: Germany in football; Russia, Sweden and Canada in ice hockey; and Slovakia in both. Music Music in the Czech Republic has roots both in high-culture opera and symphony and in the traditional music of Bohemia and Moravia. Cross-pollination and diversity are important aspects of Czech music: Composers were often influenced by traditional music; jazz and bluegrass music have become popular; pop music often consisted of English language hits sung in Czech. Literature Czech literature is the literature of the historical regions of Bohemia, Moravia, and the Czech-speaking part of Silesia, (now part of the Czech Republic, formerly of Czechoslovakia). This most often means literature written by Czechs, in the Czech language, although Old Church Slavonic, Latin, and German were also used, mostly in the early periods. Modern authors from the Czech territory who wrote in other languages (e.g. German) are generally considered separately, and their writing usually existed in parallel with Czech-language literature and did not interact with it. Thus Franz Kafka, for example, who wrote in German (though he also knew Czech rather well), falls within Austrian literature, though he lived his entire life in Bohemia. Czech literature is divided into several main time periods: the Middle Ages; the Hussite period; the years of re-Catholicization and the baroque; the Enlightenment and Czech reawakening in the 19th century; the avantgarde of the interwar period; the years under Communism and the Prague Spring; and the literature of the post-Communist Czech Republic. Czech literature and culture played a major role on at least two occasions when Czech society lived under oppression and no political activity was possible. On both of these occasions, in the early 19th century and then again in the 1960s, the Czechs used their cultural and literary effort to create political freedom and to establish a confident, politically aware nation. International rankings Human Development Index 2007: Rank 32nd out of 178 countries Index of Economic Freedom 2007: Rank 31st out of 157 countries Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index 2007: Rank 14th out of 169 countries Global Competitiveness Report 2006: Rank 29th out of 125 countries Democracy Index (January 2007): Ranks 18th of 167 countries (a functioning democracy along with only 27 others) It was also ranked as the highest alcohol-consuming nation by The Economist in 2006. |
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