歐洲:
英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| 瑞士 Switzerland 首都:伯爾尼 國家代碼: ch |
 瑞士 瑞士英文:Swiss Confederation 德文：SCHWEIZERISCHE EIDGENOSSENSCHAFT 法文：LA CONFEDERATION SUISSE 意大利文：CONFEDERAZIONE SVIZZERA 拉丁文：Confoedoratio Helvetica，簡稱CH 面積：41,285平方公裏面積 水域面積百分比 3.7％，位於第132位。 國旗:呈正方形。旗地為紅色，正中一個白色十字。瑞士國旗圖案的來歷衆說紛紜，其中有代表性的說法就有四種。至１８４８年，瑞士製定了新聯邦憲法，正式規定紅地白十字旗為瑞士聯邦國旗。白色象徵和平、公正和光明，紅色象徵着人民的勝利、幸福和熱情；國旗的整組圖案象徵國傢的統一。這面國旗在１８８９曾作過修改，把原來的紅地白十字橫長方形改為正方形，象徵國傢在外交上采取的公正和中立的政策。 國徽：為盾徽。圖案與顔色與國旗相同。 國花：火絨草 國石：水晶 貨幣：瑞士貨幣名稱為瑞士法郎，屬國際硬通貨。1瑞士法郎＝100生丁。瑞士貨幣有7種面值的紙幣：10、20、50、100、200、500、1000瑞士法郎（CHF）及7種面值的硬幣：5、10、20、50生丁，1、2、5瑞士法郎。美元對瑞士法郎兌換率2000年為1:1.69，2001年為1:1.69, 2002年為1:1.56。 時差：瑞士的時間，比中國慢7小時，夏季則比中國慢6小時，因每年的3月至9月尾均采用夏令時間。而滑雪季節則是從12月中旬至5月下旬。 與中國關係：1950年9月14日，中國與瑞士建交。 人口：725.88萬（2001年），其中瑞士藉人口占79.8%，外藉人口占20.2%；人口密度 176/km2位於第92位； 語言：瑞士應用語言共四種：德語Deutsch、法語、意大利語Italiano及拉丁羅曼語。其中講德語的人口占63.9%，主要在北部地區；講法語人口占l9.5%，在西部地區；講意大利語人口占6.6%，在南部地區；講拉丁羅曼語人口占0.5%，在東部少數地區；講其它語言人口占9.5%。前3種語言係官方語言，為聯邦的正式文件所采用。英語亦廣泛運用。 宗教信仰：瑞士居民主要信仰天主教和基督教，其中天主教徒約占信教人口總數的44.1%，基督教徒占36.6%。另，伊斯蘭教徒約占4.5%， 其他3.1%，無宗教者占11.7%。 地理概況：瑞士是位於歐洲中南部的多山內陸國。東界奧地利、列支敦士登，南鄰意大利，西接法國，北連德國。其領土東起東經10°29'26"格勞賓登州的沙瓦拉茨峰，西至東經5°57'24"的日內瓦的尚希鎮，最南端位於北緯45°49'8"，靠近提契諾州的基亞索，最北面在北緯47°48'35"，係沙夫豪森州的巴爾根。南北長220.1公裏，東西長348.4公裏。全境分中南部的阿爾卑斯山脈（占總面積的60％）、西北部的汝拉山脈（占10％）、中部高原（占30％）三個自然地形區。平均海拔約1350米，最高點是接近意大利的杜富爾峰（DUFOUR-PEAK,海拔4634米），最低點是位於提契諾州的馬祖爾湖（LAKE MAGGIORE，海拔193米）。瑞士是一個山國，山清水秀。其森林面積達12523平方公裏，占全國面積的30.3％。如果再加上農業、緑地面積（10166平方公裏，占全國面積24.6％），則全國一半以上的土地被緑地所覆蓋。瑞士是歐洲大陸三大河流發源地，有“歐洲水塔”之稱。主要河流有：萊茵河(在瑞士境內375公裏，是瑞士最大的河流)、阿爾河(在瑞士境內295公裏，是瑞士最長的內陸河)、羅納河(在瑞士境內264公裏，是瑞士第二大內陸河)。湖泊共有1484個，其中最大的是萊蒙湖（又名日內瓦湖），面積582平方公裏，最深處310米，其它有：康斯坦茨湖、紐沙泰爾湖、馬喬雷湖、四州湖、蘇黎世湖等。瑞士的河湖面積達1726平方公裏，占瑞士全國面積的4.2％。瑞士地處北溫帶，地域雖小，但各地氣候差異很大。阿爾卑斯山由東嚮西伸展，形成了瑞士氣候的分界綫。阿爾卑斯山以北受溫和潮濕的西歐海洋性氣候和鼕寒夏熱的東歐大陸性氣候的交替影響，變化較大；阿爾卑斯山以南則屬地中海氣候，全年氣候宜人。瑞士年降雨量為1500毫米,但各地分佈不均。年平均氣溫為8．6攝氏度。在城市中，夏季氣溫可達華氏86度（攝氏30度），空氣濕度適宜；鼕季氣溫經常低於華氏32度（攝氏0度），時有下雪結冰的現象。 各大城市介紹 首都:伯爾尼，市區人口12.25萬 伯爾尼市： 伯爾尼市位於瑞士國土中間偏西，1848年聯邦憲法定為瑞士首都，又稱為“聯邦城”, 同時也是伯爾尼州的首府。面積(包括郊區)230多平方公裏，市區人口12.4萬,海拔550米，位於萊茵河支流阿爾河的一個天然彎麯處，湍急的河水從三面環繞伯爾尼老城而過，形成了一個半島。傳說為給城市取名，當時的統治者紮靈根公爵决定外出打獵，以打到的第一隻野獸作為城市名，結果打死一頭熊，於是以“熊”字為該城命名。伯爾尼這一名稱是從德文“熊”字演繹而來，德語中熊一詞的發音是“拜爾”，後漸變為“伯爾尼”。“熊”自然成了伯爾尼的城徽，進而又變為伯爾尼州的標志。伯爾尼市有些古建築上至今仍留有熊的雕塑。在阿爾河東岸山崗尼德格大橋附近，還闢有熊苑，喂養着一些供遊人觀賞的熊。 伯爾尼城始建於12世紀，至18世紀建成現在規模，已有800年的歷史。伯爾尼老城原來一些木質結構的建築被中世紀的多次大火燒毀，後來重建時改為石頭結構，現仍保持完好：碎石鋪成的馬車道，街道兩旁是彼此相連的漫長拱廓，紅瓦白墻相映生輝的古老房屋，各有典故的街心噴泉彩柱，16世紀的鐘塔及始建於1421年的晚期哥特式大教堂，使伯爾尼顯得古色古香，保留着中世紀時的風貌。現主要街道已被劃為步行區，環境十分幽靜。伯爾尼老城已被聯合國科教文組織列入世界文化名城之列。 瑞士過去在很長時間內沒有固定的首都，1848年11月28日，伯爾尼被定為瑞士聯邦首都，成為聯邦政府所在地和全國政治和外交中心。聯邦政府和聯邦議會設在阿爾河北岸銅緑色的聯邦大廈中，這是一組用花崗石建造的宮殿式的大型建築群，建於1852年－1857年。大廈左右兩翼是聯邦各部的辦公樓 ，中間圓頂下面是聯邦議會兩院的會議廳。大廈於1894－1902年進行擴建，1993年再次進行修繕，並添置了電子表决裝置。 由於市民反對噪音和地勢等原因，伯爾尼未建大型機場，僅有一小飛機場，設有通往西歐主要城市的航綫。伯爾尼有通往全國各地的高速公路，也是全國鐵路樞紐之一。 二次大戰後, 伯爾尼的機械、儀表、電器、製藥、紡織、食品、建築和印刷工業逐年發展，但均係一些中小企業，在瑞士經濟中不占重要地位。 伯爾尼主要是行政和銀行業中心，同時也是一個文化和旅遊城市。市內有古老學府之一的伯爾尼大學，建於1834年，以研究宇宙射綫著稱。此外，還有歷史、自然史、藝術、兵器等不同類型的衆多博物館，伯爾尼還是萬國郵政聯盟和國際鐵路運輸總局所在地。 歷史上，許多革命活動傢都曾在伯爾尼居住過。恩格斯1848年秋曾到伯爾尼指導瑞士的工人運動。列寧從1914年9月到1916年初也曾在伯爾尼附近的齊美瓦爾德和昆塔爾逗留過，並寫過不少揭露第二國際機會主義叛徒的文章。著名物理學家愛因斯坦在伯爾尼聯邦專利局工作期間，業餘鑽研物理學，發表了他的驚世之作“相對論”，伯爾尼將此引為驕傲，至今還保留着愛因斯坦的住所（已闢為博物館）。 瑞士其他主要城市 蘇黎世市：蘇黎世市是蘇黎世州首府，坐落在蘇黎世湖畔北岸。1997年底市區人口 33.8萬，其中外國人占 27.9％，是瑞士第一大城市，已有兩千年的歷史，它既是全國最大的金融和商業中心，又是瑞士重要的文化城市，交通和服務業也居全國首位。 蘇黎世是重要的國際金融中心和黃金市場之一。這裏集中了350余家銀行及銀行分支機構，其中外國銀行近70傢。享有盛名的蘇黎世交易所建於1876年，其成交額在西歐交易所中居前列，最高峰時有70％的證券交易在此進行。瑞士證券交易所是世界上目前唯一的具有全自動交易和清算係統的交易所，其先進的設備、高素質的人員為投資者提供了優良的服務。蘇黎世的黃金市場更是聞名遐邇，近年來其黃金市場的地位有所下降，六十年代曾躍為僅次於倫敦的世界第二大黃金市場。 蘇黎世地處交通要道，該市及其周圍地區工商業很早就很興盛，特別是絲綢業發展較快。現主要有機器製造、建築、紡織、化工、電子、印刷和食品加工。市中心利馬河西側的火車站大街是全城最繁華的商業街，集中了上百傢銀行和衆多的高級商店，珠寶首飾、名表裘皮、高檔服裝、文物古玩琳琅滿目。 蘇黎世是瑞士國內與國際交通的樞紐，高速公路四通八達，全國最大的火車站和機場均設在這裏，每天進出火車700多列；機場年客運量上千萬人次，瑞航和中國民航每周有數次航班往返於蘇黎世和北京、上海之間。 蘇黎世還是瑞士文化、教育和科研中心之一。蘇黎世湖畔的“馥勞”教堂始建於公元853年，為典型的羅馬式建築。教堂不遠處全市最美的巴羅剋式建築是昔日的酒業公會。河對岸正對“馥勞”教堂的建築是蘇黎世大教堂，其一對高聳的塔樓建於15世紀，它是蘇黎世城的重要標志。市政廳則是一座華麗的意大利文藝復興風格的建築。蘇黎世市有各類博物館、美術館50多處。蘇黎世聯邦高工、蘇黎世大學等院校均是舉世聞名的高等學府，我留瑞的近千名學生中約一半在上述兩校深造。瑞士國傢博物館和圖書館也設在這裏。列寧1916-1917年在該市從事研究工作，完成了著名的《帝國主義是資本主義發展的最高階段》一書。 1982年蘇黎世市與我昆明市結為友好城市。蘇黎世對昆明市內公交、污水處理等給予了援助。 1988年我國在蘇黎世設立了總領館。 日內瓦市：日內瓦市是日內瓦州的首府，坐落在風景宜人的萊蒙湖畔。北、西、南三面與法國交界，依山傍水，景色秀麗，夏無酷暑，鼕無嚴寒。最熱的七月份平均氣溫為攝氏19度，最冷的一月份平均氣溫為攝氏零度左右。1997年底，日內瓦市區人口為17.3萬，其中外籍人占 43.8％，為瑞士第二大城市。 日內瓦早在12世紀起已是歐洲的一個重要商業中心,目前是瑞士第二大金融市場，擁有120多傢銀行。 日內瓦尤以國際組織所在地和國際會議城市著稱於世，與紐約、維也納並稱為聯合國城。據統計，這裏的國際機構共有243個，大致分三類：第一，聯合國機構，如聯合國貿易與發展會議、聯合國開發計劃署、世界貿發組織、世界衛生組織等；第二，政府間機構，如歐洲核子研究中心、歐洲自由貿易聯盟等；第三，非政府組織，如各國議會聯盟、保衛兒童國際聯合會、國際紅十字會等。著名的萬國宮原是國際聯盟的所在地，而今是聯合國駐歐洲總部，已成為重要的多邊外交活動中心之一，有關國際裁軍、貿易、勞工、衛生、氣象、電訊、人權等涉及世界和平、經濟發展和社會進步的許多重大國際會議都在這裏舉行。近 130個國傢在此設有常駐聯合國和其它國際組織代表。我國於1954年設立駐日內瓦總領館，1972年改為常駐聯合國日內瓦代表處和其它國際組織代表團。 1954年，周恩來總理曾率代表團參加了關於越南問題的日內瓦會議；1961年，陳毅副總理率代表團參加關於老撾問題的日內瓦會議。 日內瓦是瑞士有名的遊覽勝地，有許多名勝古跡。法國啓蒙思想傢盧梭就誕生在老城一座古老的住宅裏。英國詩人拜倫1816年曾住在科洛尼區一棟名為迪奧大迪的別墅裏。在這別墅不遠處，是英國浪漫詩人雪萊的舊居。 日內瓦市內值得一遊的有：著名的宗教改革國際紀念碑、聖－皮埃爾大教堂、大劇院、藝術與歷史博物館、日內瓦大學等，在晴朗的日子裏泛舟萊蒙湖，更是別有一番情趣。 巴塞爾市：巴塞爾市位於瑞士、法國和德國的三國交界處，面積37平方公裏，市區人口 17.l萬，係全國第三大城市。因萊茵河之故，中世紀的巴塞爾曾對歐洲貿易起過重要作用，1833年因城鄉戰爭而分裂為北部的巴塞爾(市)和南部的巴塞爾(鄉)兩個半州。 自19世紀初起，巴塞爾逐漸發展成為一個工業城市。現在的工業主要有化工醫藥、機械、水泥、紡織、食品、鐘錶、冶金等。世界著名的諾華、羅氏等化工集團都設在巴塞爾，使它成為瑞士化學工業中心。在這兩傢集團就業的職工幾乎占全市就業人口的一半。 巴塞爾：也是瑞士重要的金融市場之一，是國際清算銀行和國際重建與發展銀行的所在地，也是避暑的好地方。 巴塞爾既是瑞士的鐵路樞紐，也是瑞士唯一通嚮海洋的河運港口，年貨物吞吐量占瑞士全部外貿貨運量的一半。 巴塞爾大學是瑞士最古老的大學，已有500多年的歷史。哥特式的巴塞爾大教堂建於14世紀，宏偉挺拔，別具一格。聖馬丁教堂則是11世紀至14世紀的建築。巴塞爾市政廳建於16世紀，赭紅色的高大門墻上，有瑞士古代著名畫傢繪製的精美彩畫。市內的金星飯店是瑞士全國最古老的飯店，建於1412年，繪有晚期哥特式的彩色圖案。巴塞爾美術博物館在歐洲頗負盛名，館內陳列有瑞士中世紀著名畫傢和雕塑傢的作品和大批現代畫。地處市中心的巴塞爾博覽會共有 4個大型展覽館，室內展區面積為14萬平方米，露天展區面積為1萬平米。每年春季都要舉辦國際博覽會。1984年建成的巴塞爾廣播電視塔高達250米，是瑞士目前最高的建築物。 洛桑市：洛桑是沃州的首府，位於萊蒙湖畔。市區人口12萬，主要講法語，是瑞士第五大城市。 洛桑，一種解釋為“水流”，另一解釋意為“石頭”。中世紀時洛桑已成為這個地區的政治、經濟和宗教中心。1803年由沃州議會决定成為沃州的首府。 19世紀末，鐵路的出現使洛桑成為瑞士法語區最重要的交通樞紐。洛桑是沃州工業的集中地，主要工業有精密機械、化工、食品、印刷等。 洛桑除有兩所大學(洛桑聯邦高工和洛桑大學)外，還有高等貿易學校、音樂學院、師範學校等。洛桑酒店管理學校在世界上頗有名氣。 洛桑氣候溫和，依山傍水，風景宜人，是瑞士的遊覽勝地之一，旅遊業是該地收入的重要來源。主要遊覽地有12世紀的哥特式大教堂?ツ岡骸?3世紀的聖－弗郎索瓦教堂、市政廳、14世紀的聖－梅爾城堡、自然療養站，19世紀修建的呂密納爾宮內常年展出大量收藏品。該市西部韋迪區的羅馬博物館收藏着有關古羅馬港口盧佐納的文物。此外還有古城博物館、沃州歷史博物館、美術博物館、自然歷史博物館等。 自1874年瑞士聯邦憲法規定洛桑為聯邦最高司法機構所在地以來，聯邦法院就一直設在此地。 洛桑曾是外國流亡者聚集的城市。如法國的瑪麗•路易絲皇后、拿破侖的三個兄弟、意大利燒炭黨人、還有俄國的革命者和後來的白俄等。許多歷史文化名人也曾在此逗留，如密支凱維茨、雪萊、拜倫、狄更斯、大仲馬、雨果等。 洛桑是國際奧林匹剋委員會總部（IOC）的所在地，並建有奧林匹剋博物館。 盧塞恩市：盧塞恩市是盧塞恩州的首府，位於瑞士中部高原，在盧塞恩湖的西北、蘇黎世西南端，羅伊斯河穿城而過。人口約 7萬，主要講德語。盧塞恩原是一個漁村，8世紀建城，l178年建市，1230年聖哥達隧道開通後，成為聯接中歐和南歐的重要交通樞紐和萊茵河與倫巴第之間的重要貿易中心，有木材加工、化學、機械和紡織等工業。 盧塞恩自然景色優美，旅遊業相當發達，是瑞士的療養、旅遊勝地。河右岸老城與河左岸新城之間有7座橋梁相連，其中兩座古代木橋形飾精美。最大的木橋和與其相連的水塔建於 1300年，是歐洲最古老的木橋，以其歷史和美學價值成為該市的象徵和瑞士人的驕傲，可惜這座木橋於1993年一夜之間被大火焚壞，次年重新修復。老城內有 14世紀的城墻和文藝復興時期的建築、老市政廳(1602—1606)、歷史博物館、交通博物館等。市內的冰川公園裏有兩萬年前冰川的遺跡和關於冰川時期的展覽。在希爾斯廣場可以尋覓到德國詩人歌德的故居。 瑞士主要名勝和景點 萬國宮： 萬國宮過去是國際聯盟的所在地，而今是聯合國駐日內瓦辦事處的總部。它是日內瓦作為一個國際城市的象徵，也是世界近代史的一個縮影。 萬國宮坐落在阿麗亞娜公園內，阿麗亞娜公園地處萊蒙湖右岸的丘陵地帶上，占地面積25公頃(約合375畝)。站在園內高處可以俯瞰萊蒙湖，遙望歐洲最高的山峰勃朗峰。這座公園原為勒維利奧傢族的私産，居斯塔夫？勒維利奧是這一傢族的最後一代，他是一位作傢，也是藝術品收藏傢，他的母親叫阿麗亞娜。當他母親亡故以後，他把園子取名為阿麗亞娜，以表示對母親的懷念。園中還有一個阿麗亞娜博物館，是勒維利奧為存放他所收藏的中國和日本的大量瓷器而建造的。1890年，居斯塔夫？勒維利奧在臨死前將阿麗亞娜公園和阿麗亞娜博物館遺贈給日內瓦市。在其遺囑中有三個規定：一、他死後，陵墓要修建在這個園內，日內瓦市政府必須永遠負責保護和維修，不得毀壞；二、阿麗亞娜公園不能為私人所有，必須嚮公衆開放；三、按照勒維利奧傢族的傳統，在園內要繼續飼養孔雀。日內瓦市政府同意並遵守這三條規定。當年享有對阿麗亞娜公園的使用權的“國聯”和現在的聯合國駐日內瓦辦事處也同意恪守這三條規定。 萬國宮於1929年由“國聯”着手興建，當時曾有360名設計師參與設計。“國聯”挑選了五名最佳建築師，其中最主要的是意大利人卡洛布？羅奇和法國人雅剋？卡呂。歷時七年，大廈於1936年落成。 建成後的“國聯”大廈——萬國宮，占地面積18600平方米，整個建築面積比著名的凡爾賽宮還要大。 聯合國成立以後，將其駐日內瓦辦事處設在萬國宮。1969年，聯合國决定擴建萬國宮，由秘書長吳丹奠基，在萬國宮北側動工興建新翼。為了使新翼能與老樓的建築風格和阿裏亞娜公園的自然環境相協調，同時又能符合實際的需要，由英、法、意三國的建築師組成的設計委員會仔細選擇了設計方案，並采用現代化的建築材料和技術，歷時五年方始建成。1973年，聯合國秘書長瓦爾德海姆主持落成典禮。新建的樓翼設計新穎，造型優美，與原來的國聯大廈十分和諧地融合在一起，新建的樓翼通過一條空中走廊即“天橋”與老樓相銜接。無論從它的綫條、高度或是整個外形來看，它同萬國官的老樓都相配得體，可以說是珠聯璧合，相得益彰。 擴建後的萬國官共有50個門，總長度為575米，占地面積為32600平方米，共有辦公室1600個和大小會議室34個，總的空間容量是820，000立方米，樓面面積是32，000平方米。 原萬國宮呈雙馬蹄形，一個對着萊蒙湖，一個對着汝拉山。朝嚮湖面這一側馬蹄形的三翼建築結構主要包括： 一、左翼圖書館，這個圖書館是“國聯”在建造萬國宮時用美國人約翰？ D？洛剋菲勤捐贈的二百萬美元建立起來的。目前共藏書一百萬册，另有各國出版的各種期刊一萬種，是世界上最大的國際性圖書館。館內有寬敞的閱覽室，還有一個國際聯盟展覽館，展出“國聯”的歷史文獻、圖片和實物。此外，圖書館還收藏有世界各國的政界要人與聯合國之間往來的親筆信和各種手稿。這些重要的文獻都集中在二樓一個專門的陳列室內。事實上，萬國宮之所以坐落在這兒，正是由於這圖書館的緣故。原來計劃將萬國宮建在“國聯”所擁有的一塊地面上，即現在的臨湖“休憩公園”，當初也沒有建造這樣一座大型圖書館的計劃。 二、右翼理事樓，理事廳是萬國官裏最漂亮的一個大廳，又名西班牙廳，因為廳內的大型壁畫是西班牙名畫傢約瑟？馬利亞？塞爾特的作品。 19341936年間，塞爾特在他巴黎的畫室裏用了整整兩年的時間，纔完成這一組不朽的名作。畫面呈金色與深褐色，畫的主題是：正義、力量、和平、法律與智慧。 理事會議廳不僅是萬國官裏最漂亮的一個廳，而且也是一個重要的會議廳。按照聯合國不成文的規定，凡涉及到國際安全問題的會議，或者比較緊急的會議，均在理事會議廳召開。 1954年，周總理親自參加的印支會議就是在這個大廳舉行的。理事廳能容納500人，它的特色之一是能夠按照每次會議的需要調整會議桌的位置。 三、中間部分是大會堂，大會堂前面的大過道實際上是一間休息廳，十分寬敞高大，是“國聯”用各成員國贈送的材料建造的。墻上淺緑色的大理石是瑞典的，深緑色的是意大利的，朱紅色的地板大理石是芬蘭的，地板上的黑白大理石裝飾是比利時的。過廳的墻上懸挂着兩幅大型壁畫，是萬國宮的主要設計者之一雅剋？卡呂的夫人繪製的。內容取自《聖經》上的故事，一幅象徵着戰爭，一幅象徵着和平。 大會堂與巴黎歌劇院一樣大，內有兩千個席位，另有同聲傳譯席、記者席和觀衆席。1962年聯合國曾進行擴建和裝修。歷史上這裏曾舉行過許多重要會議。現在，聯合國的一些大型會議如裁軍、海洋法會議等均在此舉行；世界衛生組織和國際勞工組織的年會，也都在大會議廳裏召開。 大會堂的兩側另有二十二個會議廳，大小不等。最小的有五十個席位，最大的有三百個席位。若留心觀察一下這些會議廳，便會發現它們的內部裝飾風格迥然不同。原來，這二十二個會議廳由“國聯”的部分創始國負責裝飾，每個國傢負責一個，所以纔形成了在風格上的千差萬別。 新建的樓翼在建築上可分兩部分： 一是西側的七層秘書大樓，內有六個小會議廳和七百個辦公室，聯合國六種工作語言(英文、法文、中文、阿拉伯文、西班牙文和俄文)的翻譯科就設在那裏。二是東側的兩個巨大的圓柱體建築，每個圓柱體內有上、下兩個會議廳，共四個。上層的會議廳有九百多個席位，下層的有六百多個。其中最大的一個會議廳叫瑞士廳，是作為對瑞士政府為建造新樓而捐贈的四百萬瑞士法郎的表彰和紀念。 新樓東側寬敞的過道上，設有咖啡間和許多座椅，供代表們小憩之用。東邊是一堵巨大的玻璃墻，這堵玻璃墻長80米、高14米。每一塊玻璃高 13米、寬2.25米，重 1.2噸，鑲玻璃的總面積為9,250平方米。從室內就看到萊蒙湖的美麗風光，“榮譽院”也盡收眼底。 榮譽院是萬國宮主樓正面的大院子，是阿麗亞娜公園的主要組成部分。這裏地勢開闊，緑草如茵，環境很美。數棵百年以上的高大古鬆，生機依然十分旺盛。院中央有一個小小的水池，那是聯合國難民事務高級專員公署的募捐池，裏邊常有不少遊人投下的硬幣。池子中間有一個巨型渾天儀，上邊有代表天體十二宮的雕刻，是美國為紀念威爾遜總統而贈給聯合國的。 榮譽院的左邊，有一個不太顯眼的石棺環繞在一圈蒼鬆翠柏中間，這就是阿麗亞娜公園的前主人居斯塔夫？勒維利奧的陵墓，這是死者生前自己設計的。陵墓東邊有蘇聯贈送的一座徵服宇宙紀念碑和一座雕像。紀念碑高28米，外面鑲有鈦金屬製成的薄板，鈦是航天飛機用的一種極耐高溫的材料。陵墓北側，有一個題為“傢”的雕塑作品，它是丘吉爾孫女桑迪斯夫人為國際兒童節(1979年)而特別製作贈送給兒童基金會的。 聯合國駐日內瓦辦事處總部就設在萬國宮內，它由一位聯合國副秘書長兼辦事處主任來領導。據統計，目前已有140個國傢在日內瓦設有駐聯合國日內瓦辦事處常設代表團，其中有61個國傢有常設裁軍代表團，另有8個國傢和地區集團有常設觀察員。萬國宮裏有三千多名工作人員，為會議提供各方面的服務工作。1980年，曾在萬國宮舉行了7,500多次會議，其中4,000次會議用同聲傳譯。聯合國每年預算的30％撥給聯合國駐日內瓦辦事處，另外駐日內瓦辦事處還有自己的警察、郵政和通訊係統。著名的聯合國集郵博物館就在萬國宮內，它常年展出從第二次世界大戰至近期的郵票和文件。 在辦事處內，衹有事先得到聯合國駐日內瓦辦事處主任的授權，纔可以實施瑞士的刑法和民事法律。在日內瓦市內，這裏儼然成了國中之國。 奧林匹剋博物館： 奧林匹剋博物館位於洛桑萊蒙湖畔，1993年建成。博物館門口排放着希臘藝術立柱，燃燒着奧運之火。展廳約3400平方米，藏有與奧運會有關的各類藝術品、紀念品，其中包括郵票、火炬、奧運會張貼畫、紀念幣、奬章和繪畫等。館內電影廳放映介紹奧林匹剋百年發展史、歷屆夏季和鼕季奧運會盛況的電影片，深受旅遊者歡迎。該館還有一個世界一流的研究中心，設有圖書館、錄像部、圖片室和資料中心，擁有最先進的聲、光、電和多媒體視聽設備，經常舉辦各種展覽、報告會、討論會。 據統計，參觀者60％以上來自國外。該館每年財政預算1000萬瑞郎。1995年，所産生的直接經濟效益達1億瑞郎。 西庸古堡: 西庸古堡是瑞士最負盛名的古跡之一，位於日內瓦湖的東端，突出於日內瓦湖上的由巨石組成的小半島上。在青銅器時代就有人居往，後來羅馬人在此安營紮寨，修築防禦工事。西庸半島在幾易主人之後，於十一世紀至十三世紀之間，在 SAVOYEN傢族手裏經過大規模擴建，基本形成現在人們看到的集軍事防禦、倉儲、牢獄、教堂和貴族宮廷等功能於一體的封閉式的封建古堡。自1536年起，古堡被伯爾尼人所占有，1798年沃州起義後，古堡轉入沃州政府名下。古堡所處位置正好一邊依山，一邊臨水，是歷史上瑞士各地通往意大利的一條走廊，歷代統治者便在此分兵把守，如同扼住咽喉，以控製南來北往，徵收捐稅。藉助於保存完好的十二世紀的建築圖紙，十九世紀末進行的最後一次修繕工作得以順利進行。 宗教改革國際紀念碑： 在日內瓦大學的後邊，沿古城墻的遺址有一堵巨大的墻，名曰宗教改革國際紀念碑，又稱宗教改革者墻。 該紀念碑高7米，長1OO多米，是19O9年為紀念宗教改革運動的先軀人物加爾文誕辰四百周年而修建的。為了建造紀念碑，當時曾專門成立了宗教改革國際紀念碑委員會，並在全世界範國內舉辦設計競賽。 委員會經過反復評選，最後選定了瑞士洛桑市四名建築師的聯合設計方案，歷時八年，於1917年始告建成。 宗教改革國際紀念碑規模宏大，記載的內容十分豐富。墻的上方，從左到右有一行拉丁文大字：“黑暗過去是光明”。墻的正中央，有四個高大的人物雕像並排而立，從左起依次是法海爾、加爾文、拜茲和諾剋斯。兩邊另有六個稍小一點的人物雕像，都是十六世紀在歐洲各地積極鼓吹並致力於宗教改革的著名人物。除了大型的浮雕像外，墻的下部另有八幅小型浮雕圖案和文字說明。這堵宗教改革國際紀念碑，再現了十六世紀歐洲宗教改革運動的場面，也記述了日內瓦之所以成為“新教的羅馬”的由來與始末。 萊蒙湖： 在瑞士1498個湖泊中，萊蒙湖是最大的一個。它也是西歐最大的湖泊，面積582平方公裏，蓄水量達890億立方米，其中心綫的長度為72.3公裏，周長167公裏；在瑞士一側的北岸（俗稱右岸）長95公裏，在法國一側的南岸 （俗稱左岸）長72公裏。湖的最寬處為14,000米，最深處為310米。 萊蒙湖是一個冰磧湖。據說在第四紀冰期，發源於阿爾卑斯山的羅納河在埃剋呂澤地區被冰磧物質所阻斷，因此匯水成湖。當時，湖面一直上升到海拔425米。後來，羅納河得到了新的出口，湖水纔逐漸下降。目前，萊蒙湖的海拔為372米。 現在，共有41條河、299個冰川的融水註入萊蒙湖，其中最大的河是羅納河，它以每秒180立方米的流量從湖的最東部流入，又在日內瓦從湖中流出。由於羅納河發源於阿爾卑斯山，水從山中流出，流勢湍急，夾帶有不少泥沙，據估計，它每年帶入萊蒙湖的泥沙約有400萬噸。因此有人說，羅納河促成了萊蒙湖，但卻又在不斷地填塞它。 萊蒙湖中，最引人註目的是一個巨大的人工噴泉。那衝天而起的高大水柱，從湖面直射天際，蔚為壯觀。這個人工噴泉最初是1891年建成，當時所噴射的高度衹有90米。1958年改建後至今。它的動力是兩組安裝在水下的水泵，總重為16噸，由每分鐘達1,500轉的500千瓦2,400伏的發動機帶動。每個水泵的功率為1,360匹馬力，噴泉的流量為每秒500公升，噴口處的水速達每小時200公裏，進入噴水管中的水的壓力為16個大氣壓，水柱的高度在無風時可達140米，停留在空中的水量達7噸之多。水從噴嘴噴出達到頂峰再回到水面，每個回合為16秒。 萊蒙湖是美麗的。自古以來，許多名作傢、大詩人都贊美、謳歌過它。亨利？詹姆斯稱它是“出奇的藍色的湖”；拜倫則把它比喻成一面晶瑩的鏡子，“有着沉思所需要的養料和空氣”；巴爾紮剋則把它說成是“愛情的同義詞”。今日，在港灣兩邊緑樹掩映之間建起的一棟棟漂亮的別墅和豪宅，又給萊蒙湖增添了幾分秀色。 萊茵瀑布： 萊茵瀑布( Rheinfall)位於瑞士沙夫豪森州和蘇黎世州交界處的萊茵河上。瀑布最寬處150米，最大落差21米，水深13米。夏季平均流量每秒700立方米。萊茵瀑布是歐洲最大的瀑布。 萊茵瀑布已有 l萬多年歷史。2萬年前尚無瀑布，後因冰川活動和萊茵河改道，形成了現在的景象。 小城英特拉根： 英特拉根（INTERLAKEN，即“湖間”之意）屬伯爾尼州，距離伯爾尼市約50公裏，地處圖恩湖和布裏茵茨湖之間，海拔衹有56470米，是瑞士著名的風景區之一。這裏群山環抱，緑色草場廣阔開敞，瑞士著名的少女峰終年白雪冠頂，倒映緑色湖中，遠山近水，湖光瀲灧，置身此地，如在畫中。 英特拉根衹有固定居民13,000人，但每到夏季，便遊客雲集，餐廳滿座，停車場也都十分緊張，必須捷足先步，才能避免嚮隅。城內最繁華的大街名叫霍赫街，維多利亞風格的飯店、餐館、商店等都雲集這裏。霍赫街緑蔭夾道，走嚮筆直，長1公裏半，也是一個散步的理想場所。街上還有馬拉車輛可供遊人兜風，坐在車裏遙望少女峰的容姿，真令人流連忘返 。 圖恩湖： 英特拉根市西面是圖恩湖，東面是布裏恩茨湖。兩湖都為狹長形，略嚮北翹，加在一起像一彎中間斷開的新月。其中圖恩湖面積較大，但湖水不深，遊人可乘船暢遊，也可驅車或搭火車沿湖觀光。玲瓏的村莊或高棲坡崗，或依立水邊，裝點着大自然的妖媚。 湖的北岸有一條公路逶迤嚮前，有時經過山腳，有時又延伸在湖邊。兩側是如畫的村莊、寧靜的樹林。奧伯雷芬村中有一所中世紀的城堡矗立湖畔，已按當年風格重加修葺。從北岸還可隔着粼粼湖波南望阿爾卑斯山，別有一番情趣。 與湖同名的圖恩市是一個景物宜人的古城，在圖恩湖的西北端。市內有個12世紀末的古堡，那是紮靈根傢族一個公爵打敗圖思當地貴族後建造的。圖恩城在阿爾河流出圖恩湖不遠處，河再下遊三四十公裏便是瑞士首都伯爾尼。城的總體設計十分別緻。老城中心是河中一個狹長的島嶼，是個優美的散步場所。河北岸是城市的主體，最繁華、也最有趣的街道叫郝特伽塞(意為“大馬路”)。街分上下兩層，旁邊都有商店；人在擺着鮮花的上層行走，腳踩的實際是下層商店的屋頂。街上還有一個帶頂的梯道，通往坡上的古堡和教堂。這梯道藏在大馬路上層55號和57號房屋之間，很不顯眼，容易被遊人錯過。 圖恩古堡是一個碉堡建築群，主體建築成一座方形塔，四角各有一個角塔。主塔內有三層歸歷史博物館(1888年建)使用，展品是古兵器、古挂毯，還有瑞士軍服及武器的歷代演變。 施皮茨風景區： 施皮茨鎮位於伯爾尼東南三十多公裏處、圖恩湖南岸一水灣邊上，海拔628米，屬伯爾尼高原。這裏碧水如鏡，雪峰環抱，空氣清新，是瑞士著名的休養和水上運動勝地。 施皮茨古堡始建於1200年；外部建築風格為中世紀伯爾尼式，內部裝飾則溶合了哥特、文藝復興和巴羅剋等藝術形式，質樸典雅，是瑞士不多的古跡之一。古堡曾是伯爾尼執政官的夏宮，故不同於歐洲其他古城池，並無護城禦敵之設施，而主要是居住功能。古堡地下也以葡萄酒窖代替了關押俘虜的牢獄。庭院南端是一座建於公元762年的小教堂，兼具早期羅馬伯爾尼鄉村風格。該古堡自1929年以後屬公共所有，由一專門基金會負責管理，並建成博物館對外開放，館內展品為城堡歷屆主人的遺物及古代傢具。每年夏季這裏還舉行古典音樂會，吸引四方賓客。 施皮茨是遊艇愛好者的一個基地，又是通往南面某些度假村莊必經之地。公路爬上阿爾卑斯北麓，但見溪壑幽邃，山村點點，木結構的村捨襯托着簇簇鮮花。有一條麯徑從施皮茨通往伯爾尼州西南角的格什塔德。它是四個山𠔌交會之處，所以也是個理想的滑雪中心。 蘇黎世證券交易所： 蘇黎世證券交易所成立於1873年，到第二次世界大戰後逐步發展成為世界最大的證券市場之一。1976年，交易所營業額首次突破1000億瑞郎。到1991年，交易所營業額已達5000多億瑞郎，上市證券達3000種。瑞士和外國二十四傢銀行是蘇黎世證券交易所協會成員。此外，瑞在交易所外面，共有234傢經紀人(銀行)從事證券交易活動。 蘇黎世證券交易所是瑞士國民經濟體係和銀行業的一個組成部分，它在蘇黎世州政府的監督下開展業務。進行交易需經州政府批準，且受一係列法規的製約和調節。 蘇黎世證券交易所也是瑞士最大的證券交易市場，其業務量占全國證券交易總額的65％。每年約有40,000多人出入於交易所，買賣雙方還可通過電話或電視屏幕進行交易。該交易所是世界上目前唯一的具有全自動交易和清算係統的交易所。其先進的設備、高素質的人員為投資者提供了優良的服務。 交易所在蘇黎世州政府交易所委員會領導下，設有交易所領導委員會、仲裁法庭、培訓委員會等組織，由瑞士各大銀行和企業有關人員組成。 該交易所行政管理人員共16人，由經理、兩名副經理和一名經理助理主持日常管理工作。 瑞士歷史 要瞭解瑞士的歷史，必須先瞭解其理位置：瑞士的地理位置左右着歷史的發展，影響巨大。 我們所知的瑞士最終形成於1848年。在這之前，真正的“瑞士歷史”並不存在。準確地說，衹存在各個獨立地區的歷史，而這些獨立地區逐漸形成了今日的瑞士。 史前瑞士 現在瑞士國土範圍在史前是凱爾特人的活動區域，凱爾特人曾經是歐中中部的土著居民，他們的部落在公元前2世紀曾經擴展到今天的法國、比利時、意大利北部、西班牙以及萊茵河流域的廣大範圍，在他們的全盛時期還曾經成功地攻占了羅馬城。聚居在今天瑞士國土內的是凱爾特人的海爾維的部落。 羅馬帝國時期的瑞士 公元前後分佈於歐洲北部的日耳曼人不斷嚮凱爾特人居住區域擴張，公元前70年，感受到日耳曼人壓力的海爾維的部落决定嚮西撤離到高盧西南的大西洋沿岸，因而嚮愷撒統治的羅馬帝國藉道；考慮到日耳曼人對羅馬帝國的潛在威脅，愷撒决定在瑞士建立一個受羅馬控製的海爾維的人國傢。羅馬軍隊不僅沒有同意凱而特人藉道通行的請求，反而嚮他們發起攻擊，迫使後者成為羅馬帝國的同盟者，獲得羅馬帝國支持的凱爾特人戰敗南侵的日耳曼人。 愷撒死後繼任者奧古斯都將海爾維的人部落並入帝國行省，今天瑞士的範圍正式納入羅馬帝國，當地的凱爾特人開始了羅馬化時代。 羅馬瑞士時期當地建立了羅馬式的行政係統，興起了一係列城市，修建了通嚮羅馬城的帝國大道。羅馬人還為瑞士引入了地中海沿岸的農作物和亞平寧半島的生活方式，隨之而來的還有基督教。 100年－250年是羅馬瑞士的黃金時代，這個時代結束於日耳曼人對帝國的入侵。 日耳曼人入侵 259年一支日耳曼人的部落聯盟渡過萊茵河，攻剋的帝國瑞士的北部邊塞，從此羅馬瑞士進入了戰亂的年代，直到公元401年帝國軍隊撤出了阿爾卑斯山以北地區。從此日耳曼人統治瑞士的時代開始了。 日耳曼人統治的瑞士大體可以分為東西兩個部分，西部由勃艮第部落聯盟統治，他們人口數量少，文化落後在占領瑞士之後接受了當地的羅馬－凱爾特人語言和文化傳統；中部和東部由阿勒曼尼部落聯盟統治，他們所占領的是瑞士的山區和羅馬化程度較低的區域，在那裏日耳曼語言取得了勝利，這種東西分治也是如今瑞士法語區和德語區的雛形 日耳曼人治下的瑞士地區先後産生了很多小的王國，這些王國相互徵伐，最終於536年同一於法蘭剋王國，公元843年，根據瓜分查理大帝的法蘭剋王國的凡爾登條約，瑞士再度分裂，分屬中法蘭剋王國和東法蘭剋王國。 1033年，分裂的瑞士再度歸於同一的神聖羅馬帝國治下，由於神聖羅馬帝國皇帝和羅馬教皇之間的權力鬥爭，德意志王權衰落，各地方諸侯勢力上升，各路諸侯為了擴展自己的勢力，建立了大批城市，在今天瑞士的區域，策林根傢族推動建立了衆多的城市，形成了瑞士特有的城鎮自治體製。為日後瑞士邦聯的建立埋下了伏筆。 瑞士邦聯 哈布斯堡傢族的興起和瑞士邦聯 哈布斯堡傢族緣起於瑞士中部，逐漸強盛的哈布斯堡傢族控製了瑞士中部阿爾薩斯、阿爾高和瑞士中央區，成為神聖羅馬帝國最有影響力的諸侯之一，1273年哈布斯堡傢族的魯道夫一世被選舉成為神聖羅馬帝國皇帝，結束了從1254年開始的大空位時代，繼位後的魯道夫一世致力於擴大王權和傢族勢力，瑞士各個自由領的自主性受到嚴重的威脅，在哈布斯堡王朝的強大壓力下，1291年8月，瑞士的三個𠔌地共同體：烏裏、施維茨和翁特瓦爾登簽訂了三州同盟協定。同盟條約規定了三者須相互幫助對抗一切內外敵人；通過共同的法律來保證地方安定；同盟之間的分歧須以協商方式和平解决；並規定同盟的締約方均不得接受非本地的或者為了貪圖錢財而被任命的執法官員。這份同盟協議是瑞士歷史上有案可查的最早的協議，因而今天的瑞士人把1291年8月視為瑞士聯邦的誕生日，每年的8月1日被定為瑞士國慶日。但是有學者認為，1291年的同盟協議，從文本上看是更早前另一個協議的重申和加強，在此之前應該還有其他類似協議，那麽瑞士聯邦的歷史應當比現在所知道的更加久遠，但至今並未找到更早的同盟協議文本。 瑞士政治 憲法制度 瑞士憲法在瑞士法律編號中位於SR 101，為國傢最大法律。 現行瑞士憲法由公民於1999年投票通過，於2000年1月1日正式施行。憲法內容包括瑞士聯邦之組成，公民權利與義務，聯邦體製與州級制度，國策等。 特點： 瑞士憲法禁止在瑞士實行死刑。 瑞士憲法體驗了聯邦國傢的制度，許多權利移給各州定之。 [編輯]法律制度 瑞士公民屬於很嚴格遵守法律規定的公民。一切觸法的行為都可以被舉報。 國體 瑞士為委員製國傢，最高國傢元首為聯邦主席，亦稱總統 (Bundespräpresident)，但衹為形式上領導人。真正的權利原自七席聯邦委員會，由國傢七個機關的部長（包括現任聯邦主席）組織之。 瑞士為聯邦國傢，允許公民具有雙國籍或者多國籍，國傢由二十三個州（包括六個半州，總共二十六州）組織之，最新加盟州為Jura州，於1979年經公民投票從伯爾尼州分割而成立。憲法上留給聯邦，即中央政府的權利不多，許多權利與政策則移給各州立法並執行之。 瑞士除了國傢擁有一部憲法，也允許各州製定州憲法。 制度 瑞士實行民主制度，公民的民主權利很大。公民對重大國事與地方事宜擁有表决、創製與復决權，可以成立請願，也可以以投票抵製政府的一些政策。十萬名瑞士國籍者可以修改憲法，也可以修改國傢外交政策。 行政區域 瑞士目前分26個州 阿爾高州 內阿彭策爾州 外阿彭策爾州 巴塞爾城市半州 巴塞爾鄉村半州 伯爾尼州 弗裏堡州 日內瓦州 格拉魯斯州 格勞賓登州 汝拉州 盧塞恩州 納沙泰爾州 下瓦爾登州 上瓦爾登州 沙夫豪森州 施維茨州 索洛圖恩州 聖加侖州 圖爾高州 提契諾州 烏裏州 瓦萊州 沃州 楚格州 蘇黎世州 瑞士人自己說：“瑞士之所以成為瑞士，是因為有些德意志人不願做德國人；有些法蘭西人不願做法國人；有些意大利人不願做意大利人。”於是這些人一起成了瑞士人。 這也就形成了瑞士的國傢政治制度——聯邦製。但是由於種族、宗教、語言以及經濟發展的不同，組成聯邦的各州之間的關係一直十分微妙。由於歷史上存在的不平等的創痕，各州之間彼此心存芥蒂，互相防範。而且原本一州的地區，也鬧出不少分裂事件。如阿彭策爾州因教派不同，於1597年分為阿彭策爾內羅登和阿彭策爾外羅登；巴塞爾州則因城鄉矛盾，於1833年分為巴塞爾城州和巴塞爾鄉州。這樣，一個州變成了兩個“半州”。這是瑞士國體中的一個有趣現象。各州對自己的主權十分重視，尤其是法語區。有的州的名稱是“共和國”，州政府叫做“國務院”，州政府官員是“部長”。但即便如此，至今還沒有一個州提出脫離聯邦。各州享有很大的自主權，如地方法院、學校、教會事務、社會福利等都屬各州管理。各州還有自己的警察部門，而且警服不同。如驅車穿越瑞士，可以在公路上看到不同顔色和樣式的警服。 聯邦政府統一管理全國性的事業，如外交、國防、海關、貨幣發行、郵電、鐵路、度量衡等等，聯邦警察主要處理外國人事務。 儘管在外交上一直奉行着中立政策，但瑞士還是在2002年加入了聯合國這一目前世界上最大的政治組織。 瑞士氣候 瑞士夏季不熱，鼕天很冷。 但是地理位置與多變的地形又造成當地氣候的多樣性。阿爾卑斯山區南部屬地中海氣候，夏季幹旱、鼕季溫暖濕潤。 阿爾卑斯山以北地區氣候具有明顯的過渡性，自西嚮東， 由溫和濕潤的溫帶海洋性氣候嚮鼕寒夏熱的溫帶大陸性氣候過渡。 全國年平均氣溫為８.６℃。中部地區１月份平均氣溫０℃左右，山區以外的地區７月平均氣溫在２０℃左右。山區氣溫隨海拔增高而遞減， 海拔２５００米的森蒂斯７月平均氣溫僅有５℃。但在山𠔌地帶鼕季易形成逆溫現象。 方位對局部地區的氣溫也起一定作用，朝南的山坡比𠔌地和朝北的山坡溫度要高。 全所降水量在１０００￣２０００毫米之間， ３／４地區平均年降水量超過１０００毫米。降水也深受地形的影響， 高山峻嶺處降水量遠遠超過中部高原一些地區及河𠔌地帶。 此外， 西風帶山𠔌裏的幹冷東北風和北阿爾卑斯大橫𠔌中的幹熱焚風等也造成了局部的氣候差異。幹冷的東北風來自歐洲大陸的內陸， 給汝拉山區和中部高原地區帶來晴朗天氣，也使山𠔌裏的氣候比無風時更加寒冷。焚風吹起時， 阿爾卑斯山北麓的一些山𠔌和丘陵會溫度驟增，有時早春３月或晚秋１１月的天氣會像盛夏一樣炎熱。 焚風會將雪融化，有利於作物的生長，但也常常造成山崩、雪崩、洪水或火災， 使生命財産遭受損失。如果這種風來得過早，就可能將雪颳走，從而破壞各種鼕季運動， 使旅遊業受損。 瑞士交通 瑞士交通係統(Swiss Trave System)以提供旅客方便舒適的旅行為宗旨。瑞士交通係統由火車，汽車，輪船和高山纜車相成，這些旅行工具環環相扣，形成覆蓋整個瑞士的交通網，將一個引人入勝的瑞士帶到旅客的面前。 瑞士通行票券(Swiss Pass)是一種個人連綫票，有4天、8天、15天、1個月為期的車票，持有者在期限內搭乘裏數不計，可乘坐火車、郵政列車、船，並可在24個城市內乘坐公共汽車和電車。 在瑞士旅行，最好隨身攜帶瑞士公定的《交通時刻表》(Offizielle Schweizer Kursbuch)，以便查詢所有火車、渡船、山區列車的班次及時刻。此表在各旅行社均能提供。 瑞士通道 利用“瑞士通道”，基本用來在購買交通運輸票時打折扣用，持卡者衹需付半價。遊客不僅可以選擇瑞士六條具有傳奇色彩的旅行綫路(瑞士聯邦鐵路、大多數私營鐵路、湖面遊船、長途大轎車、市內交通運輸係統，以及到山頂的纜車遊覽)中的任何一條綫路遊覽瑞士，而且可以免費咨詢如何到達瑞士境內的火車站、汽車站和輪船站；在30多個瑞士城市中，還可以利用“瑞士通道”瞭解瑞士市內交通各項情況。 “瑞士通道”的交通工具分為一等和二等。可以連續旅行4天至1個月，您也可以購買“瑞士弗立剋西通道”(Swiss Flexf Pass)，在 1個月中旅行 3至 9天。如果攜帶6至16歲的孩子一起旅行，則可以索取瑞士家庭旅行免費卡(free Swiss Family Card)，這樣孩子可以免費使用‘瑞士通道”。如果兩個海外旅遊者(成年人)一起旅行，第二位旅遊者使用‘瑞士通道”可以享受40%的折扣。 飛機： 瑞士航空公司和中國國際航空公司每周都有航班往返於蘇黎世和北京。 火車： 瑞士火車的特徵是快捷、可靠、舒適和整潔，因而受到遊客的歡迎，而且事實上，火車也是瑞士之旅中的重要工具。在蘇黎世和日內瓦的入境機場都有主要火車站。瑞士的鐵路係統總長達5000公裏，可以說這是世界上最密集的鐵路交通網。車廂內有餐車或流動飲料車滿足客人需要。 瑞士各大城市基本都保證每小時有一班車。 汽車： 瑞士的公路運輸綫路四通八達，一般車輛的限速為：高速公路為每小時一百二十公裏；一般公路為每小時八十公裏；城鎮為每小時五十公裏。高速公路有緑色指示標志識別。除非另有標志，靠右邊行駛的司機有優先通行權。靠右邊行駛，從左邊超車，禁止從右邊超車。嚮所有使用高速公路的車輛和摩托車徵收每年道路通行稅四十瑞士法郎。“郵政公共汽車”能讓旅客舒適方便地到達各個瑞士旅遊景點。在瑞士乘車穿越高山關隘可以體驗到別處體驗不到的旅行感受。 交通工具租賃 在瑞士搭計程車相當貴，車資計算方式各地均有所不同。若有額外服務(行李等)，則有固定加價價格，張貼在計程車內。通常全額車資已包括小費在內。 在瑞士除了可以租汽車外，還能租賃飛機。當然，遊客不能成為駕駛員。但被租賃的直升機可以更便捷地幫助遊客到達目的地。 瑞士的經濟發展 1.自然資源 水力資源豐富,利用率達95%。森林面積120萬公頃,覆蓋率為全國面積的25%。 2.經濟簡史 第二次世界大戰後,瑞士先後參加歐洲經濟合作組織,歐洲自由貿易聯盟、經濟合作與發展組織等許多國際性或地區性的經濟組織。瑞士在2002年加入了聯合國這一目前世界上最大的政治組織，其中有些機構就設在瑞士。1992年12月6曰,瑞士公民對歐洲經濟區協議進行投票表决,結果公民投票未能通過,從而使瑞士處於歐洲經濟區之外。 戰後以來,瑞士經濟是在通貨膨脹率較低的情況下實現較為迅速的增長的。在戰後經濟發展過程中,既有五六十年代的迅速增長階段,也有70年代初期以來的停滯階段；雖然在此期間,瑞士爆發過兩次主産過剩 的經濟危機,經濟增長率有3年絶對下降,其中1975年甚至下降了1.3%,然而從總體上看,戰後至今,瑞士經濟的增長還是比較迅速的。從1950年到1986年,瑞士的國內生産總值增長2.1倍,每年平均增長3.2％。 1986一1990年,年平均增長率為2.86％。然而,1990年以來,瑞士經濟也受西方經濟衰退的影響,1991和1992年連續兩年出現負增長,1992年國內生産總值比1990年下降了0.8%。失業嚴重睏擾西歐各國,許多國的失業率達到兩位數,個別國傢甚至超過20%的時候,瑞士的失業率仍長期處於1%以下,80年代以來才略微超過1%。1991年瑞士失業人數為39200人,失業率為1.3%；而上年的失業人數為18100人,失業率為0.6%。 瑞士在抑製通貨膨脹方面也是很突出的,雖然在70年代最初幾年,消費物價的上漲率較之於五六十年代高,個別年份（1974年）甚至達到9.8%,但總的來看,1987年的消費物價衹比1950年上漲2.3倍,平均每年上漲3.3% 。1988年以來,除個別年份外,消費物價上漲率均呈負數。目前瑞士已經成為高度發達的資本主義工業國,據《歐洲管理論壇》的調查,近些年來,瑞士的國際競爭能力僅次於日本,在發達資本主義國傢中居第二位,1988年瑞士人均國民生産總值27260美元,超過美國和日本,居世界第一位。 3.經濟概況 高度發達的資本主義工業國。實行自由經濟政策,政府盡量減少幹預,吸收大量外籍工人從事工資較低的勞動。對外主張自由貿易,反對貿易保護主義政策。受世界經濟蕭條的影響,自1991年開始,瑞士經濟已連續6年停滯和衰退,陷入30年來最嚴重的危機：失業率持續上升,國傢財政狀況惡化。經濟復蘇步履維艱。 4.行業概況 （1）農業概況 農業産值約占國內生産總值的4%, 農業就業人數約占全國就業總人數的6.6%。長期以來, 瑞士政府相當重視農業生産的發展。對農業長期實施補貼政策, 諸如發放補助金, 對山區提供特別補助, 對主要農産品提供價格補貼； 限製和減少蔬菜和水果的進口；對農民提供無息貸款；支持農業的機械化和專業化；加強農業科學研究和技術培訓； 重視農業知識普及。 因此, 農業生産獲得迅速發展, 農業勞動生産率和農産品自給率有了很大提高. 目前肉類基本自給, 奶製品自給有餘,𠔌物能滿足國內需求量的1/3以上。瑞士農業以畜牧業為主, 畜牧業的産值占 農業産值的3/4到4/5, 主要飼養牛、豬、羊和馬匹。主要農作物有小麥、大麥、馬鈴薯、甜菜和水果。 農産品産量統計 （2）工業概況 工業是瑞士國民經濟的主體, 工業産值約占國內生産總值的50%。瑞士的主要工業部門包括: 鐘錶、機械、化學、食品等部門。瑞士素有"鐘錶王國"之稱。從1587年日內瓦生産手錶迄今的400多年中, 一直保持着在世界鐘錶業的領先地位。近幾年, 瑞士鐘錶出口量大幅度增加。 機械製造業主要生産紡織機械和發電設備。機床、精密儀器、儀表、運輸機械、農業機械、化工機械、食品機械、印刷機械也很重要, 近些年來, 打 字機、計算機、照相機和電影攝像機生産的發展十分迅速。食品工業的産品主要供國內需要, 但奶酪、巧剋力、速溶咖啡和濃縮食品在世界也享有盛譽。化學工業也是瑞士工業的重要支柱。目前, 藥品約占化學工業産值的2/5, 染料、農藥、香脂、香精在國際市場上的地位也很重要。 （3）服務業概況 瑞士旅遊業發達, 有望得到進一步發展。瑞士是世界金融中心, 銀行業和保險業是最大的部門, 旅遊業長期保持穩定和強勁的發展勢頭, 為旅遊相關行業的發展提供了市場。 5.主要經濟指標 國內生産總值(1995年)：3620億瑞朗； 人均國民生産總值(1995年)：51275瑞朗； 國內生産實際增長率(1996年)：-0.7%； 匯率(1998年5月1日)：1美元=1.4916瑞士法朗； 通貨膨脹率(1996年)：0.8%； 失業率(1996年)：4.7%； It is bordered by Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Liechtenstein and has a long history of neutrality — it has not been at war since 1815 — and hosts many international organizations, including the Red Cross, the World Trade Organization and one of the U.N.'s two European offices. Switzerland is multilingual and has four national languages: German, French, Italian and Romansh. The country's Latin formal name, Confoederatio Helvetica is derived from the Helvetii, an ancient Celtic people in the Alpine region. It is rendered in German as Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, in French as Confédération suisse, in Italian as Confederazione Svizzera and in Romansh as Confederaziun svizra. The establishment of Switzerland is traditionally dated to August 1, 1291; the first of August is the national holiday. The earliest known tribes of the area were members of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450BC, possibly under some influence from the Greek, and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii. In 15 BC, Tiberius I, who was destined to be the second Roman Emperor, and his brother, Drusus, conquered the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire. The area occupied by the Helvetii first became part of Rome's Gallia Belgica Province and then of its Germania Superior Province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia. In the Early Middle Ages, from the 4th Century AD, the western extents of modern day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundiuns. The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th Century AD and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th Century AD, forming Alemannia. Modern Day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the Kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy. The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th Century, following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians. By 561 AD, the Merovingian King Guntram, Clovis I's grandson, had inherited the Frankish Kingdon of Burgundy, which stretched East nearly as far as the Rhine. East of this, the Alamanni were ruled under a nominal dukedom within Frankia, as the Franks filled the vacuum caused by the declining Western reach of Roman Byzantium. By this time Frankia was beginning to form the tripartite character that would characterise the rest of its history. The territories were subdivided into Neustria in the West (referred to simply as Frankia at the time; the name Neustria did not appear in writing until some 80 years later), Austrasia in the North East and Burgundy. Throughout the rest of the 6th and early 7th Centuries AD the Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony, with the Franks largely occupied with infighting about issues of succession amongst the Frankish sub-kingdoms (whose Kings were close blood relatives). In 632 AD, following the death of Chlothar II, the entire Frankish realm was briefly united under Dagobert, who is described as the last Merovingian king able to exercise real power. Under Dagobert, the Austrasians agitated for self governance as a means of countering the influence of the Neustrians, who dominated royal court. Dagobert was forced by the strong Austrasian aristocracy to appoint his infant son, Sigebert III, as sub-king of Austrasia in 633 AD. The weakness of the realm became clear, and this led to those subjucated by the Franks considering the risks and benefits of rebellion. After Sigebert III suffered a military defeat at the hands of Radulf, King of Thuringia in 640 AD, the Alemanni also revolted against Frankish rule. The period of Allemani independence that followed lasted more or less continuously until the middle of the 8th Century AD. Mayors of the Palace had been appointed by the Frankish Kings as court officials since the early 7th Century AD to act as mediators between the king and the people. However following Dagobert's death in 639 AD, with infants on the throne in both Neustria (Clovis II - a babe in arms in 639 AD) and Austrasia (Sigebert III - about 4 years old in 639 AD), these court appointees assumed greater power, eventually to such an extent that they ended the rule of the Merovingian monarchs, and took over the Frankish throne themselves. The first step was taken by the Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, Grimoald I, who convinced the childless Sigebert III to adopt his own son, Childebert as heir to the throne. Meanwhile in the Neustrian palace, the Mayors of the Palace, Erchinoald, and his successor, Ebroin, were likewise increasing their hold on power behind Clovis II, and his successor Chlothar III. Ebroin reunited the Frankish kingdom by defeating and removing Childebert (and Grimoald) from Austrasia in 661 AD. Chlothar III's younger brother, Childeric II, was then installed as King of the Austrasians, and together they ruled the empire. When Chlothar III died in 673 AD, Childeric II became king of the entire realm, ruling from Austrasia, until he was assassinated two years later by members of the Neustrian elite. After his death, Theuderic III, son of Clovis II, ascended to the throne, ruling from Neustria. He and his Mayor of the Palace, Berthar, declared war on Austrasia, which was ruled by Dagobert II, son of Sigebert III, and Pepin of Heristal (Pepin II), the Arnulfing Mayor of Austrasia. Theuderic and Berthar were defeated by Peppin at the Battle of Tertry in 687 AD, whereafter Peppin was appointed the sole Mayor of all Frankia, nominating himself as Duke and Prince of all the Franks. Peppin was the product of the marriage of two very powerful houses; that of the Pippinids and the Arnulfings. His success at Tertry was to mark the end of Merovingian power. Peppin again tasted military success in his campaign to bring the Frisians, of Europe's north coast, back under Frankish control. Between 709 AD and 712 AD he fought a similar campaign against the Alemanni, including those within the borders of present day Switzerland, and succeeded in re-imposing Frankish rule, the first since the Alemannian revolt of 640 AD. However Frankish control of this and other outlying areas was again lost when a Frankish civil war of succession followed Peppin's death in 714 AD. The war was a continuation of the ageless Neustrian/Austrasian rivalry. Peppin's illegitimate son, Charles Martel (who was the son of Peppin's mistress Alpaida), had been proclaimed Mayor of Austrasia by the Austraian nobility in defiance of Peppin's widow, Plectrude, who preferred that her 8 year old grandson, Theudoald, be appointed. Neustria invaded Austrasia under Chilperic II who had been appointed by the Neustrians without the agreement of the rest of the Frankish peoples. The turning point of the war came at the Battle of Ambleve, when Charles Martel, using brilliant and unconventional tactics, defeated combined Neustrian and Frisian forces under Chilperic II and Mayor Ragenfrid. Charles struck when The Neustrians were marching home after triumphing at Cologne over Plectrude and the child Theudoald. By 717 AD, Charles had confirmed his supremacy, with victory over the Neustians at the Battle of Vincy, thereby marking the beginning of Carolingian rule over the Frankish empire. After 718 AD, Charles, who was a brilliant commander, embarked upon a series of wars to strenthen Frankish dominion over Western Europe. This included bringing the Alemannians back under Frankish hegemony, and even, in the 720's AD, forcing some Alemannian elements to participate in his wars against their Eastern neigbours, the Bavarians. Alemannia, however, remained restless, with Duke Lantfrid in the late 720's AD, expressing independence by issuing revisions of the laws of the Alemans. Charles invaded again in 730 AD and subjugated the Alemannis by force. Charles is perhaps best known for stopping the Arab advance into Western Europe at the Battle of Tours in 732 AD, in a military stand that arguably halted Islamist expansionism into the European homeland. When Charles died in 741 AD, the dominion over Frankia was divided between his two sons from his first marriage; namely Peppin the Short and Carloman. Carloman was given Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringen, while Peppen took control of Neustria, Provence and Burgundy (including present day Western Switzerland). By 743 AD, Carloman was vowing to impose a greater degree of control over Alemannia, and this resulted ultimately in the arrst, trial and execution of several thousand Alemanni nobleman at the Blood court at Cannstatt in 746 AD. Carloman retired to a monastery in 747 AD, leaving Peppin to assume the Frankish crown (after a vote of nobles) in 751 AD. Peppen further strengthened his position by forming an alliance, in 754 AD, with Pope Stephen II, who then came all the way to Paris to anoint him King in a ceremony at St Denis's Basilica. In return Peppin subdued the Lombards and donated the Exarchate of Ravenna and captured territry around Rome to the church. This was a turning point in the history of the Roman Catholic Church and Western Europe, as it foreshadowed later events under Charlemagne leading to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. It is claimed that Pope Stephen II tabled the forged Donation of Constantine during his negotiations with Peppin. The Donation is a falsified imperial order purported to have been issued by Constantine to gift to Pope Sylvester I and all his successors dominion over not only the Western Roman empire, but also all of Judea, Greece, Asia, Thrace and Rome. Upon Peppen's death in 768 AD, the Frankish empire was passed to his sons Charles and Carloman I. Carloman withdrew to a monastery and died shortly afterwards, leaving Charles, later known as the legendary Charlemagne, the sole ruler of the Franks. Charles expanded Frankish sovereignty to include the Saxons, Bavarians, and the Lombards in Northern Italy and he expanded the empire into today's Austria and parts of Croatia. He offered the Papacy the promise of enduring Frankish protection, and he patronised monastic centres of learning. Charles therefore emerged as the leader of Western Christendom By 1200 AD, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg and Kyburg. When the Kyburg dynasty fell in 1264 AD, the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Emperor in 1273) extended its territory to the eastern Swiss plateau. The house dominions that existed around AD 1200: Savoy Zähringer Habsburg Kyburg Old Swiss Confederacy Further information: Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy, Reformation in Switzerland, and Early Modern Switzerland The Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps. The Confederacy facilitated management of common interests (free trade) and ensured peace on the important mountain trade routes. The Federal Charter of 1291 agreed between the rural communes of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden is considered the confederacy's founding document; even though similar alliances are likely to have existed decades earlier. A view of Zug in 1548.By 1353 the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne, Zürich and Berne city states to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century. The expansion lead to increased power and wealth for the federation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains. particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of Sempach, Battle of Näfels), over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire. Federal charter of 1291The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of the federation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. This ended the so-called "heroic" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal wars in 1529 and 1531 (Kappeler Kriege). It wasn't until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Treaty of Westphalia, European countries recognised Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality (ancien régime). During the Early Modern period of Swiss history, the growing authoritarianism of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake of the Thirty Years' War led to the Swiss peasant war of 1653. In the background to this struggle, the conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the battles of Villmergen in 1656 and 1712. Napoleonic era This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. The Act of Mediation was Napoleon's attempt at a compromise between the Ancien Régime and a Republic.In 1798 the armies of the French Revolution conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country and effectively abolished the cantons. The new regime, known as the Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September of 1798 is an example of the suppressing presence of the French army and the local population's resistance to the occupation. When war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland. In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons. Henceforth much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government. In 1815 the Congress of Vienna fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise Swiss neutrality. The treaty marked the last time that Switzerland fought in an international conflict. The treaty also allowed Switzerland to increase its territory, with the admission of the cantons of Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva – this was also the last time Switzerland's territory expanded. Federal state This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. The restoration of the power to the patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes such as the Züriputsch of 1839, civil war broke out between some of the Catholic and most of the other cantons in 1847 (the Sonderbundskrieg). The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties; most of which were through friendly fire. However minor the Sonderbundskrieg seems to be when compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century, it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland. The war made all Swiss understand the need for unity and strength towards its European neighbours. Swiss people from all strata of society, whether Catholic, Protestant, or from the liberal or conservative current, realised that the cantons would profit more if their economic and religious interest were merged. Credit to those who favored the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided among an upper house (the Swiss Council of States) and a lower house (the National Council of Switzerland). Thus, the interests of the Federationalists were accounted for. Switzerland adopted a federal constitution and the use of referenda (mandatory for any amendment of this constitution) in 1848. This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. In 1850 the Swiss franc became the Swiss single currency. The constitution was amended extensively in 1874 in order to take into account the rise in population and the Industrial Revolution. It introduced the facultative referendum for laws at the federal level. It also established federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters. In 1891, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy, which remain unique even today. Since then, continued political, economic, and social improvement has characterised Swiss history. Modern history The Zmutt Valley and the Mischabelhörner (or Mischabel) mountains in the canton of Valais. The image is from a photochrom postcard (circa 1890).Switzerland was not invaded during either of the World Wars. During World War I, Switzerland was home to Vladimir Illych Ulyanov (Lenin) and he remained there until 1917. Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the Grimm-Hoffmann Affair in 1917, but it was short-lived. In 1920, Switzerland joined the League of Nations, and in 1963 the Council of Europe. During World War II, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, economic concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion. Attempts by Switzerland's small Nazi party to cause an Anschluss with Germany failed miserably. The Swiss press vigorously criticised the Third Reich, often infuriating its leadership. Under General Henri Guisan, a massive mobilisation of militia forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland, to a strategy of organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Réduit. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers. Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion, and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached an apex after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees, 104,000 of which were foreign troops, interned according to the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers outlined in the Hague Conventions. 60,000 of the refugees were civilians escaping persecution by the Nazis. Of these, 26,000 to 27,000 were Jews. However, strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy. The Grossmünster cathedral and waterfront in modern day Zürich.Women were granted the right to vote in the first Swiss cantons in 1959, at the federal level in 1971, and after resistance, in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden in 1990. After suffrage at the federal level women quickly rose in political significance, with the first woman on the seven member high council being Elisabeth Kopp from 1984–1989. The first female president was Ruth Dreifuss, elected in 1998 to become president during 1999. (The Swiss president is elected every year from those among the seven member high council). The second female president is Micheline Calmy-Rey who held the 2007 Swiss high office. She is originally from the French-speaking western area of canton Valais (Wallis in German). She is presently joined on the seven member cabinet/high council by two other women, Doris Leuthard, from the canton of Aargau and Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, from the canton of Graubünden. In 1979 areas from inside the previous borders in the canton of Bern attained independence from the Bernese, forming the new canton of Jura. On April 18, 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution. In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican as the last widely recognized state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, but is not a member of the European Economic Area. An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several referenda on the EU issue, with a mixed reaction to these from the population, the membership application has been frozen. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria's membership in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland, a country that is traditionally perceived as independent, neutral, or isolationist. Politics The Federal Palace in the canton of Berne is the name of the building in which the Federal Assembly of Switzerland (federal parliament) and the Swiss Federal Council (executive) are housed.The Federal Constitution adopted in 1848 is the legal foundation of the modern federal state. A new Constitution was adopted in 1999, but did not introduce notable changes to the federal structure. It outlines basic and political rights of individuals and citizen participation in public affairs, and divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdictions and authorities. There are three main governing bodies on the federal level: the bicameral parliament (legislative), the Federal Council (executive) and the Federal Court (judicial). The Swiss Parliament consists of two houses: the Council of States which has 46 representatives (two from each canton and one from each half-canton) who are elected under a system determined by each canton, and the National Council, which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation, depending on the population of each canton. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. When both houses are in joint session, they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly. Through referendums, citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives, introduce amendments to the federal constitution, making Switzerland a direct democracy. The Swiss Federal Council in 2008. The current members of the council are (from left to right): Widmer-Schlumpf, Leuenberger, Calmy-Rey, Couchepin, Schmid, Leuthard, Merz. The Federal Chancellor of Switzerland, Casanova, is also pictured.The Federal Council constitutes the federal government, directs the federal administration and serves as collective Head of State. It is a collegial body of seven members, elected for a four-year mandate by the Federal Assembly which also exercises oversight over the Council. The President of the Confederation is elected by the Assembly from among the seven members, traditionally in rotation, for a one-year term, in order to chair the government and assume representative functions. However, the president is a primus inter pares with no additional powers, and remains the head of a department of the administration. The Swiss government has been a coalition of the four major political parties since 1959, each party having a number of seats that roughly reflects its share of electorate and representation in the federal parliament: currently there are 1 Christian Democrat (CVP/PDC), 2 Social Democrats (SPS/PSS), 2 Liberal Democrats (FDP/PRD), and 2 representatives of the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) in the government. This traditional distribution of seats is called the "magic formula", and is not backed up by any law. The original distribution of 2 CVP/PDC, 2 SPS/PSS, 2 FDP/PRD and 1 SVP/UDC lasted from 1959 to 2003, until the CVP/PDC lost their second seat to the SVP/UDC, which had become the strongest party in Switzerland's legislative following the 2003 parliamentary elections. The function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals against rulings of cantonal or federal courts. The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six-year terms. Direct democracy Swiss citizens are subject to three legal jurisdictions: the commune, canton and federal levels. The 1848 federal constitution defines a system of direct democracy (sometimes called half-direct democracy since it is added by the more commonplace institutions of a parliamentary democracy). The instruments of Swiss direct democracy at the federal level, known as civil rights (Volksrechte, droits civiques), include the right to submit a constitutional initiative and a referendum, both of which may overturn parliamentary decisions. By calling a federal referendum a group of citizens may challenge a law that has been passed by Parliament, if they can gather 50,000 signatures against the law within 100 days. If so, a national vote is scheduled where voters decide by a simple majority whether to accept or reject the law. Eight cantons together can also call a referendum on a federal law. Similarly, the federal constitutional initiative allows citizens to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote, if they can get 100,000 voters to sign the proposed amendment within 18 months. Parliament can supplement the proposed amendment with a counter-proposal, with voters having to indicate a preference on the ballot in case both proposals are accepted. Constitutional amendments, whether introduced by initiative or in Parliament, must be accepted by a double majority of both the national popular vote and a majority of the cantonal popular votes. Cantons The Swiss Confederation consists of 26 cantons: Aargau Appenzell Innerrhoden* Appenzell Ausserrhoden* Basel-Stadt* Basel-Landschaft* Bern Fribourg Genève Glarus Graubünden Jura Lucerne Neuchâtel Nidwalden* Obwalden* Schaffhausen Schwyz Solothurn St. Gallen Thurgau Ticino Uri Valais Vaud Zug Zürich *These cantons, called half-cantons, are represented by one councillor (instead of two) in the Council of States and only count half (instead of one) in national votes on constitutional amendments. Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km² (Basel-Stadt) and 7,105 km² (Graubünden). The Cantons comprise a total of 2,889 municipalities. Within Switzerland there are two enclaves: Büsingen belongs to Germany, Campione d'Italia belongs to Italy. In a referendum held in the Austrian state of Vorarlberg on 11 May 1919 over 80% of those voting supported a proposal that the state should join the Swiss Confederation. However, this was prevented by the opposition of the Austrian Government, the Allies, Swiss liberals, the Swiss-Italians (persons of Swiss nationality who live in Italian Switzerland – see map) and the Romands (Swiss nationals living in the French-speaking regions of Switzerland – see map). International institutions in Switzerland An unusual number of international institutions have their seats in Switzerland, in part due to its policy of neutrality. The Red Cross was founded there in 1863 and still has its institutional centre in the country. Switzerland is not a member of the European Union; the Swiss people rejected membership in a referendum in the early 1990s. Switzerland is one of the most recent countries to have joined the United Nations, in 2002, even though Geneva is the second biggest centre for the United Nations after New York, and Switzerland was a founding member of the League of Nations. Geography A winter view of Sent in the canton of Graubünden. The Matterhorn (or Cervino) near the Swiss village of Zermatt in the canton of Valais.With an area of 41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi), Switzerland is a relatively small country. The population is about 7.5 million, resulting in an average population density of 182 people per square kilometer (472/sq mi). However, the more mountainous southern half of the country is far more sparsely populated than this average, while the northern half has a somewhat greater density, as it comprises more hospitable hilly terrain, partly forested and partly cleared, as well as several large lakes. Switzerland comprises three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps, the Swiss plateau or "middleland", and the Jura mountains along the northwestern border with France. The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country, comprising about 60 % of the country's total area. Among the high peaks of the Swiss Alps, the highest of which is the Dufourspitze at 4,634 metres (15,203 ft), countless valleys are found, many with waterfalls and glaciers. From these the headwaters of several major European rivers such as the Rhine, Rhône, Inn, Aare, and Ticino flow finally into the largest Swiss lakes such as Lake Geneva (Lac Léman), Lake Zürich, Lake Neuchâtel, and Lake Constance. The most famous mountain is the Matterhorn (4,478 m) in Valais and Pennine Alps bordering Italy. The highest mountain, the Dufourspitze (4,634 m) of Monte Rosa, is close to the Matterhorn. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen Valley containing 72 waterfalls is also well known for the Jungfrau (4,158 m), Mönch, Eiger group of peaks, and the many picturesque valleys in the region. In the southeast the long Engadin Valley, encompassing the St Moritz area in canton Graubünden, is also well known; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina (4,049 m). Morcote in the warmer southern canton of Ticino. The canton of Schwyz in the center of Switzerland.The more populous northern part of the country, comprising about 30 % of the country's total area, is called the Middle Land. It has greater open and hilly landscapes, partly forested, partly open pastures, usually with grazing herds, or vegetables and fruit fields, but it is still hilly. There are large lakes found here and the biggest Swiss cities are in this area of the country. This region, particularly the west, is also referred to as the "Seeland" (the land of lakes) and the largest lake is Lake Geneva (also called Lac Léman), in the West of Switzerland. The Rhone River is the main tributary to Lac Léman. The Swiss National Park in the canton of Graubünden. A sunset in the Swiss Alps. View from Bettmeralp, Valais.The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing. The winters in the mountains alternate with sun and snow, while the lower lands tend to be more cloudy and foggy in winter. A weather phenomenon known as the Föhn can occur at all times of the year, even in winter, and is characterized by a wind with warm Mediterranean air crossing the Alps from Italy. The driest conditions persist in the southern valleys of the Wallis/Valais above which valuable saffron is harvested and many wine grapes are grown, Graubünden also tends to be drier in climate and slightly colder, yet with plentiful snow in winter. The wettest conditions persist in the high Alps and in the Ticino canton which has much sun yet heavy bursts of rain from time to time. The east tends to be colder than the west of Switzerland, yet anywhere up high in the mountains can experience a cold spell at any time of the year. Precipitation tends to be spread moderately throughout the year, with minor variations across the seasons depending on locale. Autumn frequently tends to be the driest season, yet the weather patterns in Switzerland can be highly variable from year to year, and difficult to predict. Switzerland's eco-systems can be particularly vulnerable, due to the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains, often forming unique ecologies. The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable, with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes, and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing. The tree line in the mountains of Switzerland has advanced down 1000 ft over the years, largely due to the increasing absence of herding and grazing pressures. Economy Tourism is important in the Engadin valley. St. Moritz, pictured above, is in the canton of Graubünden.Switzerland has a stable, modern, and some of the most capitalist economies in the world, having the 2nd highest European rating (after Ireland) in the Index of Economic Freedom 2008 edition. Public sector has always been minimal and overall taxation amounted to just 29.2% of GDP in 2007, about the same as United States, Ireland, or Estonia. The nominal per capita GDP that is higher than those of the larger western European economies, Japan ranking 6th behind Luxembourg, Norway, Qatar, Iceland and Ireland. If adjusted for purchasing power parity it ranks 15th. The World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report currently ranks Switzerland's economy as the second most competitive in the world. For much of the 20th century, Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin. In 2005 the median household income in Switzerland was an estimated 95,000 CHF, the equivalent of roughly 55,000 USD in purchasing power parity, which is similar to wealthy American states like California and Vermont. Cheese making and dairying is a famous and extraordinary Swiss industry, which was liberalized in 2007.Switzerland is home to several large multinational corporations. Notable among these are Nestlé, UBS AG, Zurich Financial Services, Credit Suisse, Novartis, Roche, ABB, Swiss Re, and The Swatch Group. Switzerland is ranked as one of the most powerful economies in the world. Chemicals, health and pharmaceuticals, instruments, real estate, banking and insurance, and tourism are important industries in Switzerland. The manufacturing of precision instruments for engineering is important, as is watch-making, and the biological sciences industries all enjoy a high place in the Swiss economy. The many international organizations in Switzerland contribute to the Swiss economy and labour market. The largest exported goods are chemicals (34% of exported goods or 62 billion USD in 2006), machines/electronics (20.9%), and precision instruments/watches (16.9%). Pharmaceuticals are the largest high-technology export category at around 30 billion USD in 2006, followed by instruments at around 20 billion USD. Exported services amount to a third of exported goods. Switzerland has relatively free labor market compared to neighboring countries. Switzerland's unemployment rate increased from a low of 1.7% in June 2000 to a peak of 3.9% in September 2004. Partly due to the economic upturn which started in mid-2003, the unemployment rate is currently 2.8% as of February 2008. Average household size is a typical 2.2 persons. Net immigration is quite high at 0.52% of population in 2004, compared to 0.76% in Austria, 0.34% in UK and 0.1% in Germany. 21.8% of residents were foreigners in 2004, higher than any major Western country. According to Credit Suisse, only about 37 percent of residents own their own homes. Ownership rates are among the lowest in Europe. Housing and food price levels were 171% and 145% of the EU-25 index in 2007, compared to 113% and 104% in Germany. Food prices are particularly affected by agricultural protectionism, which keeps more competitive imports outside and swallows comparatively a lot resources. Switzerland is relatively easy place to do business, ranking 16th in the Ease of Doing Business Index. Among others, Switzerland has relatively low taxation and relatively free job market. However, OECD argues that the product market reform is still lagging behind most OECD countries. The slow growth Switzerland experienced in the 1990s and the early 2000s has brought greater support for liberalization and harmonization with the European Union. In 2004, the government launched a “growth package”, including a series of measures aimed at boosting productivity, and legislative changes are slowly taking place. Science, technology, and education Education in Switzerland is very diverse, because the constitution of Switzerland delegates the authority for the school system to the cantons. There are both public and private schools, including many private international schools. The minimum age for primary school is about six years in all cantons. Typically children choose their school depending on whether they want to speak French, German or Italian. Primary school continues until grade four or five, depending on the school. At the end of primary school (or at the beginning of secondary school), pupils are separated according to their capacities in several (often three) sections. The fastest learners are taught advanced classes to be prepared for further studies and the matura, while students who assimilate a little bit more slowly receive an education more adapted to their needs. The first university in Switzerland was founded in 1460 in Basel, with a faculty of medicine. This place has a long tradition of chemical and medical research in Switzerland. Other large universities are the ETHZ in Zürich and the EPFL in Lausanne. There are 14 Universities in Switzerland, 10 of which are maintained at cantonal level and usually offer a range of non-technical subjects. Switzerland has the second highest rate of foreign students in tertiary education, after Australia. Many Nobel prizes were awarded to Swiss scientists, for example to the world-famous physicist Albert Einstein or more recently to Heinrich Rohrer also in the field of physics. Geneva host the world's largest particle physics laboratory, the CERN. An other important research center is the Paul Scherrer Institute which belongs to the ETHZ. Switzerland and the European Union In recent years, the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the European Union in many ways, in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness. The economy has been growing most recently at around 3% per year. Full EU membership is a long-term objective of some in the Swiss government, but there is considerable popular sentiment against this supported by the conservative SVP party. The western French-speaking areas and the urban regions of the rest of the country tend to be more pro-EU. The government has established an Integration Office under the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Department of Economic Affairs. To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland's isolation from the rest of Europe, Bern and Brussels signed seven bilateral agreements to further liberalise trade ties. These agreements were signed in 1999 and took effect in 2001. This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons. A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and has since been ratified. The second series includes the Schengen treaty and the Dublin Convention. They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation. Switzerland most recently (2006) approved a billion francs supportive investment in the poorer eastern European countries in support of cooperation and positive ties to the EU as a whole. A further referendum will be needed to approve 300 million francs to support Romania and Bulgaria and their recent admission. The Swiss have also been under EU and sometimes international pressure to reduce banking secrecy and to raise tax rates to parity with the European Union. Preparatory discussions are being opened in four new areas: opening up the electricity market, participation in the European GNSS project Galileo, cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products. Switzerland voted against membership in the European Economic Area in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union and European countries through bilateral agreements. In March 2001, the Swiss people refused in a popular vote to start accession negotiations with the EU. Infrastructure and environment The Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant is located in the canton of Aargau.See also: Transport in Switzerland, Nuclear power in Switzerland, and Waste management in Switzerland Electricity generated in Switzerland is 53% from hydroelectricity and 42% from nuclear power, with 5% of the electricity generated from conventional power sources (thermal etc.) resulting in a nearly CO2-free electricity-generating network. On 18 May 2003, two anti-nuclear initiatives were turned down: Moratorium Plus, aimed at forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants (41.6% supported and 58.4% opposed), and Electricity Without Nuclear (33.7% supported and 66.3% opposed). The former ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54.5% Yes vs. 45.5% No votes. A new nuclear plant in the Canton of Bern is presently planned. The Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE) is the office responsible for all questions relating to energy supply and energy use within the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC). The agency is supporting the 2000-watt society initiative to cut the nation's energy use by more than half by the year 2050. See also SwissEnergy. Swiss private-public managed road network is funded by road tolls and vehicle taxes. The Swiss autobahn/autoroute system requires the purchase of a vignette (toll sticker) - which costs 40 Swiss francs - for one calendar year in order to use its roadways, for both passenger cars and trucks. The Swiss autobahn/autoroute network has a total length of 1,638 km (as of 2000) and has, by an area of 41,290 km², also the one of the highest motorway densities in the world. Zürich Airport, managed by Unique Airport, is Switzerland's largest international flight gateway, which handled 20.7 million passengers in 2007. The second largest Geneva Cointrin International Airport handled 10.8 million passengers and the third largest EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg 4.3 million passengers, both airports being shared with France. Switzerland is heavily active in recycling and anti-littering regulations and is one of the top recyclers in the world with 66% to 96% of the different recyclable materials being recycled. In many places in Switzerland, household rubbish disposal is charged for. Garbage (except dangerous items, batteries etc.) will only be collected if it is in bags which either have a payment sticker attached, or in official bags with the surcharge paid when the bags are purchased. This gives a financial incentive to recycle as much as possible, since recycling is free. Swiss health officials and police often open up garbage for which the disposal charge has not been paid. They search for evidence such as old bills which connect the bag to the household/person they originated from. Fines for not paying the disposal fee range from CHF 200–500. Demographics Official languages in Switzerland: Swiss German (62.7%; 72.5%) French (20.4%; 21.0%) Italian (6.5%; 4.3%) Romansh (0.5%; 0,6% ) Switzerland lies at the crossroads of several major European cultures that have heavily influenced the country's languages and culture. Switzerland has four official languages: German (63.7% total population share, with foreign residents; 72.5% of residents with Swiss citizenship, in 2000) in the north, east and centre of the country; French (20.4%; 21.0%) to the west; Italian (6.5%; 4.3%) in the south. Romansh, a Romance language spoken locally by a small minority (0.5%; 0.6%) in the southeastern canton of Graubünden, is designated by the Federal Constitution as a national language along with German, French and Italian (Article 4 of the Constitution), and as official language if the authorities communicate with persons of Romansh language (Article 70), but federal laws and other official acts do not need to be decreed in this language. The federal government is obliged to communicate in the official languages, and in the federal parliament simultaneous translation is provided from and into German, French and Italian. The German spoken in Switzerland is predominantly a group of Alemannic dialects collectively known as Swiss German, but written communication typically use Swiss Standard German, whilst a the majority of radio and TV broadcast is (nowadays) in Swiss German as well. Similarly, there are some dialects of Franco-Provençal in rural communities in the French speaking part, known as "Suisse romande", called Vaudois, Gruérien, Jurassien, Empro, Fribourgeois, Neuchâtelois, and in the Italian speaking area, Ticinese (a dialect of Lombard). Also the official languages (German, French and Italian) borrow some terms not understood outside of Switzerland, i.e. terms from other languages (German Billette from French), from similar term in another language (Italian azione used not as act but as discount from German Aktion). Learning one of the other national languages at school is obligatory for all Swiss, so most Swiss are supposed to be at least bilingual. Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 21% of the population. Most of these are from European Union and EFTA countries. Italians are the largest single group of foreigners with 18,9% of total foreign population, while people from the various nations of former Yugoslavia make up 21%, there are also many ethnic Albanians[citation needed]. Immigrants from Sri Lanka, most of them former Tamil refugees, are the largest group among people of Asian origin. Religion Cathedral Notre-Dame de Lausanne in the canton of Vaud.Switzerland has no official state religion, though most of the cantons (except Geneva and Neuchâtel) recognise official churches, in all cases including the Catholic Church and the Swiss Reformed Church. These churches, and in some cantons also the Old Catholic Church and Jewish congregations, are financed by official taxation of adherents. Christianity is the predominant religion of Switzerland, divided between various Protestant denominations (42.5% of the population) and the Catholic Church (41%). Immigration has brought Islam (4.3%, predominantly Albanians mostly from Kosovo) and Eastern Orthodoxy (1.8%) as sizeable minority religions. The 2005 Eurobarometer poll found 48% to be theist, 39% expressing belief in "a spirit or life force", 9% atheist and 4% agnostic. Notre Dame de Valère in the canton of Valais.The country is historically about evenly balanced between Catholic and Protestant, with a complex patchwork of majorities over most of the country. One canton, Appenzell, was officially divided into Catholic and Protestant sections in 1597. The larger cities (Bern, Zürich and Basel) are predominantly Protestant. Central Switzerland, as well as the Ticino, is traditionally Catholic. The Swiss constitution of 1848, under the recent impression of the clashes of Catholic vs. Protestant cantons that culminated in the Sonderbundskrieg, consciously defines a consociational state, allowing the peaceful co-existence of Catholics and Protestants. A 1980 initiative calling for the complete separation of church and state was clearly rejected, with only 21.1% voting in support. Culture This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. The culture of Switzerland is influenced by its neighbours and its international sentiment, but over the years a distinctive culture with some regional differences and an independent streak has developed. In particular, French-speaking regions have tended to orient themselves slightly more on French culture and tend to be more pro EU. In general, the Swiss are known for their long standing humanitarian tradition as Switzerland is the birth place of the Red Cross Movement and hosts the United Nations Human Rights Council. Swiss German speaking areas may perhaps be seen more oriented on German culture, although German-speaking Swiss people identify strictly as Swiss because of the difference between High German, and the Swiss German dialects. Italian-speaking areas can have more of an Italian culture. A region may be in some ways strongly culturally connected to the neighbouring country that shares its language. The linguistically isolated Rhaeto-Romanic culture in the eastern mountains of Switzerland is also robust and strives to maintain its rare linguistic tradition. Switzerland's entry to the Eurovision Song Contest of 1989 was in Romansh. Many mountain areas have a strong highly energetic ski town culture in winter, and a hiking/wandering culture in summer. Some areas throughout the year have a recreational culture that caters to tourism, yet the quieter seasons are spring and autumn when there are fewer visitors and a higher ratio of Swiss. A traditional farmer and herder culture also predominates in many areas, and this connection to the land and agriculture is a strong glue holding all the Swiss together. Even though most no longer actually farm themselves, the small farms are omnipresent outside the cities, and as well many Swiss at least have a small garden plot or many window boxes with geraniums and other flowers. Sport A game of Hornussen.Like many European nations the Swiss are big fans of football and the national team or 'Nati' is widely supported. Switzerland's most well known football clubs include Grasshoppers Zurich, Neuchatel Xamax and Basle. Swiss wrestling or "Schwingen" is an old tradition from the rural central cantons and considered the national sport. Hornussen is another indigenous Swiss sport, which is like a cross between baseball and golf. Steinstossen is the Swiss variant of stone put, a competition in throwing a heavy stone. Practiced among the alpine population since prehistoric times, it is recorded to have taken place in Basel in the 13th century. It is also central to the Unspunnenfest, first held in 1805, with its symbol the 83.5 kg Unspunnenstein. Floorball is a new sport in Switzerland that grows every year in popularity. A main factor is the professional league called Nationalliga A that draws many famous players from other countries. Over the last few years several Swiss tennis players, like Roger Federer and Martina Hingis, have been multiple Grand Slam singles champions. One of the world's best current ice skaters is Swiss Stéphane Lambiel. Many Swiss also follow hockey and support one of the 12 clubs in the league A. Two clubs are from the French speaking part, and two other from the Italian part. The canton Graubünden has HC Davos as its own club which won the 2006–2007 Swiss championship. The German speaking part of Switzerland has 7 clubs. The most known Swiss club is SCBerne. Switzerland is also the home of the successful sailing team Alinghi. Other sports where the Swiss have been successful include fencing (Marcel Fischer), whitewater slalom (Ronnie Dürrenmatt – canoe, Mathias Röthenmund – kayak), ice hockey (Swiss National League), beach volleyball (Sascha Heyer, Markus Egger, Paul and Martin Laciga), and skiing (Bernhard Russi, Pirmin Zurbriggen, Didier Cuche). Motorsport racecourses were banned in Switzerland following the 1955 Le Mans disaster, however the country has produced successful racers such as Clay Regazzoni and Jo Siffert, and leading drivers such as Michael Schumacher, Kimi Räikkönen, Fernando Alonso and now Lewis Hamilton all live there. Switzerland is also the joint venue following Austria in the Euro 2008 football tournament. |
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