歐洲:
英国 United Kingdom 爱尔兰 Ireland 比利时 Belgium 荷兰 Netherlands 法国 France 西班牙 Spain 葡萄牙 Portugal 意大利 Italy 希腊 Greece 奥地利 Austria 匈牙利 Hungary 德国 Germany 瑞士 Switzerland 罗马尼亚 Romania 俄罗斯 Russia 波兰 Poland 克罗地亚 Croatia (Hrvatska) 捷克 Czech 芬兰 Finland 瑞典 Sweden 挪威 Norway 冰岛 Iceland 土耳其 Turkey 丹麦 Denmark 阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 爱沙尼亚 Republic of Estonia 安道尔 Andorra 白俄罗斯 Belarus 保加利亚 The Republic of Bulgaria 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 Bosnia and Herzegovina 梵蒂冈 Vatican City State (Holy See) 黑山 The Republic of Montenegro 拉脱维亚 Latvia 立陶宛 Republic of Lithuania 列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 卢森堡 Luxembourg 马耳他 Republic of Malta 马其顿 The Republic of Macedonia 摩尔多瓦 The Republic of Moldova 摩纳哥 Monaco 塞尔维亚 the Republic of Serbia 斯洛伐克 The Slovak Republic 斯洛文尼亚 the Republic of Slovenia 圣马力诺 San Marino 乌克兰 Ukraine |
| 奧地利 Austria 首都:維也納 國家代碼: at |
 奥地利【國旗】 呈長方形，長與寬之比為３∶２。自上而下由紅、白、紅三個平行相等的橫長方形相連而成，旗面正中是奧地利國徽圖案。此旗的來歷可追溯到奧匈帝國時期，據說當時的巴本堡公爵在與英王理查一世激戰時，公爵的白色軍衣幾乎全被鮮血染紅，衹有佩劍處留下一道白痕。從此，公爵的軍隊采用紅白紅為戰旗顔色。１７８６年約瑟夫國王二世把紅白紅旗作為全軍戰旗，１９１９年正式定為奧地利國旗。奧地利政府機構、部長、總統等官方代表和政府駐外機構均使用帶國徽的國旗，一般場合不用帶國徽的國旗。 【國徽】 為一隻鷹。黑色的雄鷹頭戴金冠，兩爪分別握着金色的錘子和鐮刀，胸前的盾面上為國旗圖案，鷹爪上還套有被打斷的鎖鏈。鷹是奧地利的標志，璧形金冠象徵市民，鐮刀和錘子象徵農工，鎖鏈被打斷象徵奧地利人民獲得自由、解放。 【國歌】 《讓我們拉起手來》 【國花】 火絨草 【國鳥】 傢燕 【國石】 貴蛋白石 【面積】 83871平方公裏。（資料來源：2004年奧地利統計年鑒） 【人口】 805.3萬（2002年）。其中外國人75.8萬人，占9.4%。少數民族有斯洛文尼亞人、剋羅地亞人和匈牙利人，約占人口的0.52%。官方語言德語。73%的居民信奉天主教。 【首都】 維也納(Wien)，人口155萬人（2002年）。 【國傢元首】 總統海因茨·菲捨爾（Heinz Fischer），2004年4月25日當選，7月8日就任。 國傢概況 奧地利 意為“東方的國傢”。位於歐洲中部，為著名的山國，連綿起伏的阿爾卑斯山橫貫境內，美麗的多瑙河蜿蜒流淌。水力，森林，礦産豐富，經濟發達。石墨，菱鎂礦儲蓄量居世界前列。 奧地利地處歐洲中心，是歐洲重要的交通樞紐。奧地利的工業特點是國有化程度高，國有企業控製了95％的基礎工業和85％以上的動力工業,其産值及職工人數均占其總數的70％。主要工業部門是采礦、鋼鐵、機械製造、石油化工、電力、金屬加工、汽車製造、紡織、服裝、造紙、食品等，采礦業規模相對較小。鋼鐵工業在國民經濟中占有重要地位。奧地利化學工業原料豐富,如木材、石油、天然氣和煤焦油等,為化工的發展提供了有利條件。主要化工産品有纖維素,氮肥和石化産品。機械製造業主要生産工業機械成套設備,如水輪發電機、多鑽頭採煤機、鐵路築路機、木材加工機和鑽探設備等。汽車工業是奧地利機械製造業的又一主要部門。主要生産載重汽車、越野車、拖拉機、牽引車、裝甲運輸車及散件等。采礦業是奧地利的傳統工業,主要開採鐵礦、褐煤、鎢、膏、菱鎂礦、大理石、滑石、高嶺士、石英。礦産主要有石墨和鎂，另有褐煤、鐵、石油和天然氣等。森林、水力資源豐富。森林占國土面積的42％，有林場400萬公頃，木材蓄積量約9．9億立方米。農業發達，機械化程度高。農産品自給有餘。服務業從業人員約占勞動力總數的56％，其中旅遊業是最重要的服務行業，主要旅遊點是蒂羅爾州、薩爾茨堡州、剋恩頓州和維也納市。奧地利對外貿易在經濟中占重要地位。主要出口産品是鋼鐵、機械、交通工具、化工製品和食品。進口主要是能源、原料和消費品。農業發達。 自然環境 位於中歐南部的內陸國。東鄰斯洛伐剋和匈牙利，南接斯洛文尼亞和意大利，西連瑞士和列支敦士登，北與德國和捷剋接壤。屬海洋性嚮大陸性過渡的溫帶闊葉林氣候。平均氣溫1月為－2℃，7月為19℃。 國傢歷史 公元996年，史書中第一次提及“奧地利”。12世紀中葉在巴本貝格王族統治時期形成公國，成為獨立國傢。1278年開始了哈布斯堡王朝長達640年的統治。18世紀初，哈布斯堡王朝領土空前擴大。1815年維也納會議後成立了以奧為首的德意志邦聯，1866年在普奧戰爭中失敗，邦聯解散。1867年與匈牙利簽約，成立奧匈帝國。1918年第一次世界大戰結束後，帝國解體，成立共和國。1938年3月被希特勒德國吞併。二戰後被蘇、美、英、法四國占領。1945年4月成立第二共和國。1955年5月，四個占領國同奧簽訂《重建獨立和民主的奧地利國傢條約》，宣佈尊重奧的主權和獨立。10月占領軍撤出，奧地利重新獲得獨立。10月26日，奧國民議會通過永久中立法，宣佈不參加任何軍事同盟，不允許在其領土上設立外國軍事基地。自1965年起，10月26日被定為奧國慶日。 公元前400年，剋爾特人在此建立了諾裏孔王國。公元前15年被羅馬人占領。中世紀早期哥特人、巴伐利亞人、阿勒曼尼人入境居住，使這一地區日耳曼化和基督教化。公元996年，史書中第一次提及“奧地利”。12世紀中葉巴奔堡傢族統治時期形成公國，成為獨立國傢。1276年被神聖羅馬帝國侵占，1278年，開始了哈布斯堡王朝長達640年的統治。1699年獲得對匈牙利的統治權。1804年弗朗茨二世采用奧地利皇帝稱號，1806年被迫辭去神聖羅馬帝國皇帝之稱。1815年，維也納會議後，成立了以奧為首的德意志邦聯。1860─1866年嚮君主立憲製過渡。1866年在普奧戰爭中失敗，被迫解散德意志邦聯。翌年與匈牙利簽訂協議，成立二元製的奧匈帝國。第一次世界大戰中，奧軍戰敗，帝國隨即瓦解。1918年11月12日奧地利宣佈成立共和國。1938年3月被納粹德國吞併。二次大戰中作為德國的一部分參戰。同盟國軍隊解放奧地利後，奧地利於1945年4月27日成立臨時政府。同年7月，德國投降後，奧地利又被蘇、美、英、法軍占領，全境劃分為4個占領區。1955年5月，4國與奧地利簽署條約宣佈尊重奧地利的主權和獨立。1955年10月占領軍全部撤走。同年10月26日奧國民議會通過永久中立法，宣佈不參加任何軍事同盟，不允許在其領土上設立外國軍事基地。 國傢政治 2004年，奧政局基本保持穩定。政黨力量對比有所改變。人民黨和自由黨聯合政府加大各項改革力度，通過了二戰以來最大規模的一攬子稅改方案，推出養老金改革、新的難民法、安全警察法並對教育機構進行精減合併，以提高奧對外資的吸引力，減輕政府財政負擔，減員增效，改善教育管理體係等。但這些改革方案，特別是養老金改革觸動了社會各階層的實際利益，在社會及各黨內部引起爭議。在薩爾茨堡州等州選、聯邦總統選舉及歐洲議會選舉中，人民黨和自由黨得票率下降，社民黨升勢明顯，緑黨因堅持環保和可持續發展政策，在州選和歐洲議會選舉中的支持率均有較大幅度提高。 【憲法】 現行憲法1920年11月10日生效。1925年和1929年通過兩項附則。1934年憲法被廢除。1945年奧重建後宣佈1920年憲法和兩個附則繼續有效。憲法規定，奧為聯邦製共和國，總統是國傢元首，由普選産生，任期6年。總理為政府首腦。 【議會】 由國民議會和聯邦議會組成。國民議會製定法律，主持新政府的就職儀式，通過不信任表决罷免聯邦政府及其成員。聯邦議會代表各州的利益，有權將國民議會通過的法律提案駁回，但如國民議會堅持原案，聯邦議會不得再提異議。國民議會共183席，按比例代表製産生，任期4年。本屆國民議會2002年11月産生，各黨所占席位：人民黨79席，社民黨69席，自由黨18席，緑黨17席。議長任期4年，現任議長安德裏亞斯•科爾 (Andreas Kohl，人民黨)。聯邦議會共62席，由各州按人口比例選派，議長由各州多數黨議員輪流擔任，任期半年。國民議會和聯邦議會聯合組成聯邦會議，主要職能是接受總統就職宣誓以及在必要時决定對外宣戰。 【政府】2003年2月28日人民黨和自由黨再次聯合組閣。現政府組成如下：總理沃爾夫岡•許塞爾(Wolfgang Schüssel，人民黨)，副總理兼交通、創新和技術部長鬍伯特•戈爾巴赫（Hubert Gorbach，自由黨），外交部長烏蘇拉•普拉斯尼剋（Ursula Plassnik，女，人民黨）,經濟、勞動部長馬丁•巴爾滕施坦因(Martin Bartenstein，人民黨)，財政部長卡爾－海因茨•格拉瑟(Karl-Heinz Grasser，無黨派)，內政部長莉澤•普羅科普(Liese Prokop，女，人民黨)，國防部長君特•普拉特(Günther Platter，人民黨)，司法部長迪特•伯姆多夫(Dieter Boehmdorfer，無黨派)，農業、林業和環保部長約瑟夫•普呂爾（Josef Pröll，人民黨），社會保障部長烏蘇拉•豪普娜（Ursula Haubner，女，自由黨），教育、科學和文化部長伊麗莎白•蓋勒（Elisabeth Gehrer，女，人民黨），衛生、家庭與青年部長瑪利亞•勞赫—卡拉特（Maria Rauch-Kallat女，人民黨）。 【行政區劃】 全國劃為9個州，它們是：布爾根蘭、剋恩頓、上奧地利、下奧地利、薩爾茨堡、施蒂利亞、蒂羅爾、福拉爾貝格、維也納。州以下設市、區、鎮（鄉）。 【司法機構】 全國有三個法院係統：憲法法院，審理涉及憲法、特別是地方與聯邦政府糾紛的案件，院長卡爾•科裏內剋(Karl Korinek)；行政法院，審理涉及官方機構及其工作人員的行政糾紛案件，院長剋萊蒙斯•雅伯倫納(Clemens Jabloner)；最高法院，審理刑事和民事案件，院長約翰•雷舒特(Johann Rzeszut)。 【政黨】 （1）奧地利人民黨(Österreichische Volkspartei)：執政黨。前身是1887年建立的基督教社會黨，1945年改用現名。主席沃爾夫岡•許塞爾(Wolfgang Schüssel)。 （2）奧地利自由黨(Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs)：執政黨。1955年成立，前身是“獨立者聯盟”,曾於1983－1986年和社會黨組成聯合政府。主席烏蘇拉•豪普娜(Ursula Haubner, 女)。 （3）奧地利社會民主黨(Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs)：在野黨。1889年成立。1919－1920年執政，1934年被取締。1945年改名為社會黨，1991年６月改現名。主席阿爾弗雷德•古森鮑爾(Alfred Gusenbauer)。 （4）緑黨（Die Grünen）：在野黨。主要組織是“緑色選擇”和“聯合緑黨”。聯邦發言人（主席）亞力山大•梵•德•貝倫(Alexander van der Bellen)。 （5）自由論壇(Liberales Forum)：議會外反對黨。1993年２月由５名原自由黨議員成立，11月成立全國性組織。聯邦發言人（主席）亞歷山大•紮赫（Alexander Zach）。 （6）奧地利共産黨(Kommunistische Partei Österreichs)：議會外反對黨。1918年成立。實行集體領導。聯邦理事會總書記瓦爾特•拜爾(Walter Baier)。 【重要人物】 海因茨•菲捨爾：總統。1938年10月9日生於格拉茨市。1971年當選國民議會議員。1975年起歷任社民黨議會黨團主席、聯邦科研部長，並於1990年、1996年和1999年三次當選國民議會議長。2002年12月起任國民議會第二議長。2004年4月25日當選聯邦總統，7月8日就任。曾多次訪華。 沃爾夫岡•許塞爾：總理。1945年6月生於維也納，維也納大學法律係畢業，博士學位。1968至1975年任國民議會人民黨議會黨團秘書，1975至1991年任人民黨經濟聯盟秘書長，1979至1989年任國民議會議員，1987至1989年任國民議會人民黨議會黨團副主席，1995年起任奧人民黨主席。1989年起先後擔任聯邦經濟部長、聯邦副總理兼外交部長，2000年2月出任聯邦總理，2003年2月連任。曾於1995年和1998年訪華。 國傢經濟 2004年奧經濟增長率為1.9%，通膨率1.8%，失業率4.2%。2004年主要經濟數字如下： 國內生産總值：2318億歐元。 人均國內生産總值：2.87萬歐元。 國內生産總值增長率：1.9%。 國民收入：1970.9億歐元。 貨幣名稱：歐元(EURO), 1歐元=100分。 匯率（2004年12月）：1歐元=1.33美元。 通貨膨脹率：1.8%。 失業率：4.2% 【資源】 礦産主要有石墨、鎂、褐煤、鐵、石油、天然氣等。森林、水力資源豐富。森林覆蓋率42%，有林場400萬公頃，木材蓄積量約9.9億立方米。 【工業】 2002年工業産值625.9億歐元，占國內生産總值的28.7%。主要工業部門有采礦、鋼鐵、石化、機械製造、造紙和紡織等。2002年工業從業人員為116.5萬，占從業人員總數的29.6%。 主要工業品産量如下（單位：萬噸）： 2000 2001 2002 鐵礦 185 184.3 194.2 石油 105.6 105 103.2 天然氣（億立方米） 18 19.5 20.1 （資料來源：2004年奧地利統計年鑒） 【農林業】 2002年農林業産值為68.1億歐元，占國內生産總值的1.4%。農林業從業人數21.69萬，占從業人員總數的5.5%。可耕地占全國面積的18%，牧場占27%。農業發達，機械化程度高，農産品自給有餘。主要農産品産量如下（單位：萬噸）： 2000 2001 2002 小麥和黑麥 150.1 172.8 160.5 玉米 185.2 149.3 166.7 馬鈴薯 69.5 69.5 68.4 甜菜 263.4 277.3 304.3 豬牛存欄數（單位：萬頭）： 2000 2001 2002 豬 334.8 344 330.5 牛 263.4 211.8 206.7 (資料來源：同上) 【旅遊業】 旅遊業發達。2002年接待遊客2736萬人次，其中外國遊客1861萬人次。全國有各類旅館70834傢，共有床位103.2萬張。主要旅遊點是剋恩頓州、施蒂利亞州、薩爾茨堡州、蒂羅爾州和上奧州。遊客主要來自德、荷、瑞(士)、英、意等國。 【交通運輸】 奧地利地處歐洲中部，是歐洲重要的交通樞紐。近年來交通運輸情況如下： 鐵路：2002年全國鐵路總長5616公裏，客運量1.848億人次，貨運量8721.5萬噸。 公路：2001年全國各類公路總長約11萬公裏，其中高速公路和快速路1999公裏。 水運：內河航綫長350公裏。客船331艘，貨船142艘。2002年多瑙河貨運量1231.6萬噸。 空運：奧地利航空公司、蒂羅爾航空公司和勞達航空公司共同組成AUA集團,有94架飛機,飛往65個國傢129座城市。有六個機場，主要國際機場是維也納施威夏特機場。 【財政金融】 2000-2002年財政收支情況如下（單位：億歐元）： 2000 2001 2002 支出 568 604 618 收入 528 590 594 赤字 40 14 24 2002年，國債1465.5億歐元，相當於國內生産總值的67.6%。 （資料來源：奧地利聯邦財政部網站） 【對外貿易】外貿在經濟中占重要地位。同150多個國傢和地區有貿易關係。近幾年外貿情況如下（單位：億歐元）： 2000 2001 2002 進口額 1052 1112 1104 出口額 1039 1111 1152 差額 -13 -1 48 （資料來源：2004年奧地利統計年鑒） 主要出口産品是鋼鐵、機械、交通工具、化工製品和食品。進口主要是能源、原料和消費品。德國、意大利和美國是奧2002年三個最大的貿易夥伴。 【對外投資】 1991年成立“東西方基金”，鼓勵到東歐國傢投資，政府擔保風險。2002年奧在國外投資額60億歐元,其中在東歐地區直接投資約30億歐元。 【發展援助】 2003年發展援助額4.45億美元，占國內生産總值的0.2%。發展援助的重點是農業、水力、衛生、能源、基礎設施、職業培訓、科學合作和提供奬學金等。 【外國資本】 2002年外國在奧直接投資為16億歐元，比前一年減少75%，達到1995年以來的最低值。共有約400傢企業在奧投資，德國是奧最主要的投資來源國。 【人民生活】 實行全國社會保險和救濟制度，主要有醫療、失業、退休和事故四大類保險。2001年工人月平均淨工資1701歐元，職員月平均淨工資2090歐元。2000年每千人擁有小汽車688.5輛,電視機970,電冰箱980,電話870部。2000年全國共有專業醫生17445人。醫院312傢，病床72008張。 國傢軍事 奧地利防務由聯邦政府負責。總統為武裝部隊最高統帥，政府則通過國防部長對部隊實施作戰指揮。1993年起實行新的義務兵役製，新兵服完6個月的基本役後，進行1個月的綜合演習，並在此後10年內完成為期1個月的復訓。對於不能服兵役的青年實行民役製。 奧平時兵力3.5萬人，編為3個軍、維也納軍區和1個航空師。第一、第二軍下轄3個州軍區；第三軍除下轄2個州軍區外，另下轄第三、四、九裝甲兵旅；維也納軍區下轄第二輕步兵團；航空師約6000人，下轄3個航空團。奧有動員部隊（即民兵預備役）7.5萬人，編為8個步兵旅和26個本土防禦團。2003年國防預算17.2億歐元，占總預算支出的2.8%。 文化教育 【教育】 學齡兒童享受9年義務教育，學費、書費和上學交通費由國傢負擔。凡持有高中畢業文憑可免試上大學。2003年奧教育經費共計57.5億歐元，占總預算支出的9.4%。2002年有各類中小學、職業學校6715所，在校學生123.3萬人，大學19所，大學生19.7萬人。著名的維也納大學創立於1365年，係德語區最古老的大學之一。 【新聞出版】 2002年全國有各類報紙245種，其中日報31種，主要報紙2002年發行量為：《皇冠報》101.8萬份，《信使報》25.8萬份，《新聞報》12.4萬份，《標準報》11.1萬份。主要雜志三種：《新聞周刊》30.4萬份；《側面》周刊10.6萬份，《趨勢》經濟月刊8.2萬份。 奧地利通訊社：1946年建立，以嚮奧報紙和電臺提供世界各大通訊社的消息為主，有時也發佈奧官方消息。 1924年建立廣播電臺。2001年共有5傢電臺，並用德、英、法、西四種語言對外廣播。1957年開播電視節目，現有三套節目。 【文化】 談起奧地利，無人不知其音樂和歌劇。奧地利歷史上産生了衆多名揚世界的音樂傢：海頓、莫紮特、舒伯特、約翰·施特勞斯，還有出生德國但長期在奧地利生活的貝多芬等。這些音樂大師在兩個多世紀中，為奧地利留下了極其豐厚的文化遺産，形成了獨特的民族文化傳統。奧地利薩爾斯堡音樂節是世界上歷史最悠久、水平最高、規模最大的古典音樂節之一。一年一度的維也納新年音樂會可謂世界上聽衆最多的音樂會。建於１８６９年的皇傢歌劇院（現名維也納國傢歌劇院）是世界最有名的歌劇院之一，而維也納愛樂樂團則是舉世公認的世界上首屈一指的交響樂團。 奧地利學齡兒童享受九年義務教育。學費、書費和上學交通費均由國傢負擔。凡持有高中畢業文憑者可免試上大學。著名的維也納大學創立於１３６５年，係德語區最古老的大學。 在奧地利到主人傢作客或應邀赴宴，可着深色裝，也可着淺色裝；較正式的重要場合（例如有較重要的人物參加）應着深色裝，以示莊重，參加婚禮或生日慶祝活動可着淺色裝；聽音樂會、看歌劇須着深色裝。奧地利的餐館以"鴿子"作為餐館的星級標志。"鴿子"越多，餐館越高級，最高為四星級。宴請可分為工作宴請和私人宴請兩種。如係工作宴請禮物可免；私人宴請則需帶禮品。 趣聞： 日食五餐的奧地利人>>> 【名勝古跡】 維也納國傢歌劇院(State Opera Theatre of Vienna)是世界上一流的大型歌劇院，是“音樂之都”維也納的主要象徵，素有“世界歌劇中心”之稱。建於１８６９年，原是皇傢宮廷劇院，其前身是１７世紀維也納城堡廣場木結構包廂劇院，１８６９年遷到市區的環行街旁。１９１８年宮廷劇院變為國有，稱國傢歌劇院。二戰時被炸得衹剩下幾處斷垣殘壁，戰後重建，整修１０年，恢復舊觀。外貌古色古香，整個舞臺區完全現代化，配有最先進的音響設備。１９５５年１１月以演出貝多芬的費德利奧慶祝再生。歌劇院為羅馬式宏偉建築。前廳和側廳都用大理石徹成，內部繪有精美壁畫和挂有大音樂傢和名演員照片。觀衆席共有６層，可容有座觀衆１６００多人。 維也納音樂廳(Music Hall Vienna)：奧地利維也納最古老也最現代化的音樂廳，是每年舉行“維也納新年音樂會”的法定場所。始建於１８６７年，１８６９年竣工。是意大利文藝復興式建築。外墻黃紅兩色相間，屋頂上竪立着許多音樂女神雕像，古雅別緻。１８７０年１月６日，音樂廳的金色大演奏廳舉行首場演出。１８７２年到１８７５年間著名音樂傢勃拉姆斯曾負責組織音樂廳的演奏會。１９３９年開始，每年１月１日在此舉行維也納新年音樂會，後因戰爭一度中斷，１９５９年又重新恢復。廳內有收藏館，館分兩室。一間是展覽室，定期舉行收藏品展覽，供人參觀；一間是檔案室，一邊的書架 上放滿大量歷代手寫的、木刻的、鉛印的音樂書籍和樂譜，另一邊是一排鐵櫃，藏有音樂大師的樂稿、書信和其他手跡，其中有莫紮特的樂稿：最後一個交響麯等。屋子中間是一長排桌子，供研究者查閱資料之用。檔案室原為勃拉姆斯的辦公室，他臨終前一再囑咐，要把他珍藏的幾千册音樂書籍和樂譜全部捐獻給檔案室。音樂廳屬於奧地利音樂之友協會，協會擁有會員７０００多人，據說是世界上歷史最久、人數最多的音樂組織。 薩爾茨堡(Salzburg)是奧地利西北部薩爾茨堡州首府，瀕臨多瑙河支流薩爾察赫河，是奧地利北部交通、工業及旅遊中心。這裏是大作麯傢莫紮特的出生地，素有“音樂藝術中心”之稱。薩爾茨堡１０７７年設市，公元８世紀─１８世紀為天主教大主教駐地和活動中心。１８０２年薩爾茨堡脫離宗教統治，１８０９年，根據《捨恩布竜條約》歸巴伐利亞，維也納會議（１８１４—１８１５年）决定歸還給奧地利。這裏的建築藝術堪與意大利的威尼斯和佛羅倫薩相媲美，有“北方羅馬”之稱。城市分佈在薩爾察赫河兩岸，偎倚在白雪皚皚的阿爾卑斯山峰之間。城市被蒼鬱的陡山圍繞，充滿魅力。河右岸南山坡的霍爾亨薩爾茨堡（１１世紀），歷經９００年風雨，仍巍峨挺立，是中歐地區保存最完好、規模最大的一座中世紀城堡。本尼狄剋隱修道院建於７世紀末，長期以來是當地布道活動的中心。聖方濟會教堂建於１２２３年。模仿羅馬聖教堂的大教堂建於１７世紀初，是奧地利第一座意大利式的建築。大主教宅邸是１６—１８世紀的一座文藝復興式宮殿。米拉貝爾宮原是１７世紀為薩爾茨堡大主教建造的皇宮，１８世紀又經擴建，現在是包括宮殿、教堂、花園、博物館等的遊覽中心。城市南部是１７世紀建造的皇傢花園，以“水的遊戲”著稱。花園內建築物的門旁檐下，道路兩旁都有暗道水管不時噴射，水花飛濺，雨簾霧障。走進花園內一座人工堆砌的山洞，潺潺的流水發出了２６種鳥鳴的聲音，組成一麯悅耳動聽的空山鳥語。在一處由機械裝置控製的舞臺上，通過水流的作用，１５６個活動小人再現了這裏３００多年前小鎮生活的情景。走進薩爾茨堡，無處不見莫紮特的蹤跡。１７５６年１月２７日，大作麯傢莫紮特出生在城中糧食街９號。１９１７年莫紮特的故居被闢為博物館。 莫紮特故居（Mozartst Seburtuts）奧地利１８世紀著名音樂大師莫紮特出生的地方。它坐落在薩爾茨堡市糧食大街９號。這是一座金黃色的６層樓建築。公元１７５６年１月２７日莫紮特就誕生在這裏，並度過了他的童年。昔紮特１４歲被任命為宮廷樂師。１７８１年，他嚮宮廷提出辭呈，遷居維也納，從而打開維也納古典音樂的大門，直到１７９１年１月５日逝世。為了紀念他，１９１７年把這裏闢為莫紮特故居博物館。館內陳列着莫紮特生前使用過的小提琴、木琴和鋼琴、親筆寫的樂譜、書信以及親自設計的舞臺劇藍圖等。館內如今還珍藏着莫紮特的一縷金色頭髮。故居前面是莫紮特全身銅像。莫紮特故居是到薩爾茨堡的遊客們必到之處。在博物館內陳列有莫紮特的一縷金發和少年時使用的小提琴、樂譜。館前的莫紮特廣場上竪有莫紮特全身銅像。廣場附近還有莫紮特音樂專科學校等；連商店出售的巧剋力糖果等也都以莫紮特命名。薩爾茨堡歷史上就以音樂之城聞名，該城每年都舉行國際音樂節活動。包括薩爾茨堡國際音樂節（為期５周），薩爾茨堡復活節音樂節（為期２周），薩爾茨堡國際藝術節（為期５周）。其中薩爾茨堡國際音樂節的前身即１８７７至１９１０年舉行多次的莫紮特音樂節。它以維也納國立歌劇院（世界十大劇院）和維也納愛樂管弦樂團（世界三大愛樂管弦樂團之一）為主，廣泛接納世界各國的著名交響樂團、指揮傢、獨奏傢和獨唱傢。薩爾茨堡國際音樂節已成為世界音樂盛會。 維也納多瑙塔(Donau Tower in Vienna)位於市區北面的多瑙河公園內，於１９６４年建成。塔高２５２米，塔底直徑３１米。多瑙塔高聳入雲，為維也納市容劃出一條新的空中輪廓綫。塔內設有兩部高速電梯，遊人可乘電梯從塔底直升到１６５米高的電梯終點。在電梯終點上下各５米處，分別是露天咖啡館和室內咖啡館。登上１７０米高的露天咖啡館，頓感冷風撲面，寒氣逼人，但俯首下看卻有人上九天之感。進入１６０米高的室內咖啡館，頓覺溫暖如春。憑窗極目遠眺，遠方巍峨的阿爾卑斯山和穿城而過的藍色多瑙河盡收眼底。由於兩個咖啡館環塔而建，其地板構架同塔軸相連，故能以３種速度圍繞高塔轉動，形成別緻的旋轉咖啡廳，咖啡廳每隔３９分鐘自轉一周。隨着咖啡廳的轉動，窗外的景色也隨之慢慢移動。遊人可邊品嚐飲品，邊領略維也納繁華的都市風貌和城郊的田園風光。 維也納捨恩布竜宮(Schonbrunn Castle in Vienna)捨恩布竜宮位於奧地利首都維也納西南部，亦稱“美泉宮”，是奧地利哈布斯堡王室的避暑離宮。１６９４年由瑪利亞·特利薩女王下令修建。整座宮殿占地２．６萬平方米，稍遜於法國的凡爾賽宮。宮內共有１４００個房間，其中４４間是以１８世紀歐洲流行的洛可可式建築風格修裝的，纖巧華美、優雅別緻；此外，還有以東方古典樣式裝修的廳堂，如鑲嵌紫檀、黑檀、象牙的中國式和飾以泥金和塗漆的日本式。房間內部的飾品和陳設也與建築風格相一致，在琳琅滿目的陶瓷擺設中，尤以明朝萬歷年間的彩瓷大盤和描花古瓶最為珍貴。宮內有哈布斯堡王朝歷代帝王設宴的餐廳和華麗的舞廳，現在奧地利政府仍在那裏舉行舞會或款待各國外交使節。在宮內，供人參觀的幾輛瑪利亞·特利薩女王加冕大典時使用的鎏金馬車，豪華無比，引人駐足。在長廊上，挂滿了哈布斯堡王朝歷代皇帝的肖像和記錄他們生活場景的圖畫以及瑪利亞·特利薩女王１６個女兒的肖像畫，其中最惹人喜愛的是法國國王路易十六的皇后瑪麗·安東涅特少女時代的畫像，其優雅細膩的筆調將當時王朝豪華的盛景和奢麗的生活盡現於畫上。後來，在這座宮殿裏長大的瑪麗皇后同其夫君路易十六一起在法國大革命中被送上斷頭臺。在房間和回廊的拐角處是各種式樣的火爐，其中俄式的大火爐造型最為奇特，堪稱一景。在宮殿後面是一座巴羅特式的大花園，每當百花盛開之際，園中奇花異卉芬芳怡人，令人留連忘返，更增添了離宮之美。拿破侖曾兩次占領過維也納，兩次都居住在這裏。著名作麯傢莫紮特幼年時期也曾在離宮的宮廷舞臺上為女皇演奏過鋼琴。拿破侖戰敗後，１８１４年９月—１８１５年６月，這裏曾舉行過有名的瓜分歐洲的維也納會議。當時的奧地利首相梅特涅以其縱橫捭闔的手腕，在歐洲諸列強之間玩弄均勢平衡外交，顯赫一時。 【歷史名人】 沃爾夫岡·莫紮特 （Wolfgang Mozart，１７５６－１７９１)：奧地利偉大的作麯傢，維也納古典樂派的傑出代表。出身於薩爾茲堡宮廷樂師家庭，很小就顯露出極高的音樂天賦，即興演奏和作麯都十分出色，六歲即創作了一首小步舞麯，並在歐洲旅行演出獲得了成功，被譽為“神童”。1773年任薩爾斯堡大主教宮廷樂師，1781年不滿主教對他的嚴厲管束而憤然辭職，來到了維也納，走上了艱難的自由音樂傢道路。莫紮特的全部作品中洋溢着他追求民主自由的思想，並迸發出在巨大社會壓力下的明快、樂觀情緒。他廣泛采用各種樂麯形式，成功的把德、奧、意等國的民族音樂和歐洲的傳統音樂有機的聯繫在一起，賦予它們深刻的思想內容和完美的形式，為西方音樂的發展開闢了嶄新的道路。其創作手法新穎，旋律純樸優美，織體幹淨細緻，配器註重音色效果，發揮了復調音樂的積極作用，對後世音樂創作産生極大的影響。他在短促的一生中共創作了七十五部作品，留下了《費加羅的婚禮》、《唐璜》、《後宮誘逃》、《魔笛》等著名歌劇，使歌劇成為具有市民特點的新體裁。並作有大量交響麯、協奏麯、鋼琴麯和室內樂重奏。 弗朗茲·舒柏特（Franz Schubert，１７９７－１８２８）：作麯傢、浪漫主義音樂的開創者之一。生於１７９７年１月３１日，父親是維也納近郊的一所小學的校長，有１９個孩子，舒柏特最小。他自幼喜歡音樂，８歲開始隨父、兄學習提琴和鋼琴，１１歲時進入免費寄讀的神學院合唱團。１８１１年創作第一首歌麯《哈加爾的悲哀》，１６歲到他父親的小學裏當教員。他一邊教課、一邊進行音樂創作。１７歲為歌德的詩篇《紡車旁的葛萊卿》、《野玫瑰》等譜麯。１８歲那年，一天午後，他拿起歌德的敘事詩《魔王》來讀，忽然心情激蕩，一小時後，膾炙人口的世界名麯《魔王》誕生了。這首名麯，立即轟動了維也納，使他從此走上音樂創作之路。舒柏特衹活了３３歲，但他一生卻寫了６３４首藝術歌麯。此外，他還寫了８部交響麯、一些重奏、奏鳴麯，即興麯和其他音樂作品，《小夜麯》以其深情、優美為世人所贊賞。舒伯特采用和聲上的色彩變化，用各種音樂體裁形式來刻劃個人的心理活動，富有大自然的和諧和生命力的氣息，他將瞬息間的遐想行之於樂譜，把感受到的一切化為音樂形象，構成了他獨特的浪漫主義的旋律。他很崇拜貝多芬，１８２２年，舒柏特帶着新發表的作品去見貝多芬，恰好貝多芬出去了。後來貝多芬在病中發現這首麯子，說“這作品充滿了神奇的火花”。可是，當舒柏特再去拜見貝多芬時，貝多芬已病危不能說話了。舒柏特臨終時要求親友將他葬在貝多芬旁邊，現在他倆的銅像並立在維也納廣場上。 小約翰·施特勞斯（Johann Strauss，１８２５－１８９９）：老約翰·施特勞斯的兒子，奧地利著名的輕音樂作麯傢。出生在風行跳舞的維也納一個音樂傢家庭，與父親同名。其創作以《藍色的多瑙河》、《維也納森林的故事》、《藝術傢的生活》、《春之聲》等一百二十餘首維也納圓舞麯著稱，被後人冠以“圓舞麯之王”的頭銜。他曾帶領樂隊訪問歐洲各國，使維也納圓舞麯風靡全歐洲。他的圓舞麯獨具特色，旋律酣暢，柔美動聽，節奏自由，生機盎然，是每年維也納新年音樂會的主要麯目。他還作有《雷鳴電閃》等一百二十多首源自捷剋的波爾卡舞麯及幾十首其他舞麯。1870年起創作了《蝙蝠》、《羅馬狂歡節》、《阿裏巴巴與四十大盜》、《吉卜賽男爵》等十六部輕歌劇，對於歐洲輕歌劇的發展有着相當深遠的影響。 斯蒂芬·茨威格 （stephen zweig１８８１～１９４２）：奧地利著名小說傢、傳記作傢，出身於富裕的猶太家庭。青年時代在維也納和柏林攻讀哲學和文學。後去世界各地遊歷，結識羅曼·曼蘭和羅丹等人，並受到他們的影 響。第一次世界大戰時從事反戰工作，成為著名的和平主義者。二十年代赴蘇聯，認識了高 爾基。１９３４年遭納粹驅逐，先後流亡英國、巴西。１９４２年在孤寂與感覺理想破滅中與妻子雙雙自殺。茨威格在詩、短論、小說、戲劇和人物傳記寫作方面均有過人的造詣，尤以小說和人物傳記見長。代表 作有小說《最初的經歷》、《馬來狂人》、《恐懼》、《感覺的混亂》、《人的命運轉折點》、《一個陌生女人的來信》、《象棋的故事》、《一個女人一生中的二十四小時》、《危險的憐憫》等；傳記《三位大師》、《同精靈的鬥爭》、《三個描摹自己生活的詩人》等。茨威格對心理學與弗洛伊德學說感興趣，作品擅長細緻的性格刻畫，以及對奇特命運下個人遭遇和心靈的熱情的描摹。 弗洛伊德·西格蒙德（Freud Sigmund 1856-1939）：奧地利精神科、神經科醫生、心理學家，精神分析學派的創始人。１８５６年５月６日出生於摩拉維亞一猶太商人之傢，是其父母八個子女中的長子。他４歲時隨傢人遷居維也納。１７歲考入維也納大學醫學院，１８８１年獲醫學博士學位。後開業行醫，擔任臨床神經專科醫生，終生從事精神病的臨床治療工作。在探尋精神病病源方面，弗洛伊德拋棄了當時占主流的生理病因說，逐步走嚮了心理病因說，創立了心理分析學說（Psychoanalysis，又譯精神分析），認為精神病起源於心理內部動機的衝突。他思考敏銳、分析精細、推斷循回遞進、構思步步趨入，探討問題中，往往引述文學、歷史、醫學、哲學、宗教等材料，揭示出人們心靈的底層。主要著作有：《夢的解釋》（1900年）、《性學三論》（1905年）、《心理分析導論》（1910年）、《文明及其缺陷》（1929年）。１８８６年與馬莎·伯萊斯結婚，育有三男三女，女兒Ａ·弗洛伊德後來也成為著名的心理學家。 卡夫卡 （Franz Kafka，1883～1924）：奧地利小說傢。１８８３年７月３日生於布拉格一個猶太商人家庭，１８歲入布拉格大學學習文學和法律，１９０４年開始寫作，主要作品為４部短篇小說集和３部長篇小說。可惜生前大多未發表，３部長篇也均未寫完。卡夫卡是歐洲著名的表現主義作傢。他生活在奧匈帝國行將崩潰的時代，又深受尼采、柏格森哲學影響，對政治事件也一直抱旁觀態度，故其作品大都用變形荒誕的形象和象徵直覺的手法，表現被充滿敵意的社會環境所包圍 的孤立、絶望的個人。成為席捲歐洲的“現代人的睏惑”的集中體現，並在歐 洲掀起了一陣又一陣的“卡夫卡熱”。其最著名的作品有藉小動物防備敵害的膽戰心理，表現資本主義社會小人物時刻難以自保的精神狀態和在充滿敵意的環境中的孤立絶望情緒的短篇小說《地洞》（１９２３年）；通過小職員薩姆沙突然變成一隻使傢人都厭惡的大甲蟲的荒誕情節，表現現代社會把人變成奴隸乃至“非人”的“異化”現象的短篇小說《變形記》（１９１２年）；寫土地丈量員Ｋ在象徵神秘權力或無形枷鎖統治的城堡面前欲進不能，欲退不得，衹能坐以待斃的長篇小說《城堡》；藉銀行職員約瑟夫· Ｋ莫明其妙被“捕”，又莫明其妙被殺害的荒誕事件，揭露資本主義社會司法制度腐敗及其反人民本質的長篇小說《審判》等。 對外關係 2004年，奧對外關係發展平穩。奧堅持以歐盟為外交依托，積極推動歐盟深化和東擴，大力鞏固和發展與中東歐國傢關係。5月歐盟東擴後，奧從昔日冷戰前沿和歐盟東部邊界轉而成為歐洲的中心地帶。如今奧外交已更多地與歐盟整體外交聯繫在一起，在國際事務中，尤其在事關奧和歐盟整體利益問題上，須與歐盟協調一致。奧積極尋求加強與中東歐鄰國的關係，推動開展與東歐鄰國的區域合作，維護該地區的穩定，為本國發展創造良好的政治、經濟環境。此外。奧還積極拓展與美、俄、中等大國關係。奧主張歐盟與美消除分歧，建立新型的平等夥伴關係。同時，奧還積極推動歐盟與俄發展長期穩定的戰略夥伴關係。 【對當前重大國際問題的態度】 關於歐盟一體化問題。認為歐盟應加強共同外交和安全政策建設，盡快建立歐盟獨立安全防務體係，加強歐洲在面臨局部衝突時的幹預能力。歐盟應提高决策和行動能力，製定統一憲法，並最終成為高度一體化的聯邦。強調大小成員國應一律平等，中小國傢衹有結成利益共同體才能更有效地維護各自在聯盟內的利益。主張歐盟各機構間權力平衡，維持歐盟輪值主席製，各新老成員國在歐盟委員會擁有一個表决席位。 關於歐盟東擴問題。認為歐盟東擴將長久確保歐洲的和平與穩定，對維護和促進歐盟周邊地區乃至世界的和平、穩定與發展具有重要戰略意義。東擴將進一步增強歐盟綜合實力，擴大其在國際舞臺上的發言權。歐盟還應嚮東歐、東南歐和地中海地區擴大。東擴將使奧安全環境得到根本改善，也將給奧帶來經濟利益。 關於中東問題。認為中東問題的核心是巴勒斯坦問題，關係到地區穩定乃至世界和平，衹要中東問題存在，恐怖主義問題就不可能得到根本解决。中東問題應以談判方式解决，以巴分別建國、和平相處是解决巴以問題的唯一途徑，“土地換和平”原則應予以堅持。支持美、俄、歐盟和聯合國四方為解决中東問題所做的努力，認為應推動實現中東“路綫圖”計劃。 關於反恐問題。堅决反對各種形式的恐怖主義，認為世界各國應共同努力加強反恐，聯合國應在國際反恐鬥爭中承擔領導責任。但同時認為，應防止以反恐為名侵犯民主權利。主張將反恐防恐與維護人權相結合，積極培養共同的政治文化和價值觀，促進不同文明間的對話。 關於伊拉剋問題。不贊成美英等國在沒有聯合國授權的情況下對伊使用武力，認為美英應盡早結束占領並將主權歸還給伊人民。聯合國應在伊重建問題上起主導作用。表示願在歐盟和聯合國框架內積極參與伊戰後重建，並嚮伊提供人道主義援助。 關於朝核問題。認為朝核問題源自朝鮮違背所作的國際承諾，尋求發展和製造核武器。支持國際原子能機構的立場，要求朝必須徹底放棄核武研發計劃。認為應以和平方式解决朝核問題，對北京六方會談持積極肯定態度，認為中國在穩定朝鮮半島及地區局勢中起到了重要的積極作用。 【同中國的關係】 1971年5月28日同中國建立外交關係，建交後兩國關係發展正常。 2003年，中奧兩國關係良好。最高法院院長肖揚（1月）、中共中央政治局委員、書記處書記、組織部部長賀國強（7月）訪奧。奧聯邦議會常務副議長哈塞爾巴赫（4月）、奧外長費雷羅－瓦爾德納(11月)、聯邦議會議長阿格爾(11月)和奧社會保障部部長豪普特(11月)相繼訪華。經貿關係保持較快增長，教育、科技、文化等各領域的交流與合作進一步加強。2003年雙邊貿易額為17.79億美元，同比增加29.4％。其中中方向奧出口6.74億美元，進口11.05億美元。4月，奧聯邦商會主席萊特爾訪華。 2004年兩國關係繼續保持良好發展勢頭，兩國高層互訪頻繁。全國人大常委會副委員長王兆國（7月）、全國政協主席賈慶林（8月）相繼率團訪奧。奧司法部長伯姆道爾夫（2月）、經濟勞動部長巴爾滕施泰因（3月）、財政部長格拉瑟（5月）、國民議會第二議長普拉默（7月）、副總理兼交通、創新和科技部長戈爾巴赫（11月）等分別訪華。2004年兩國貿易總額為22.9億美元，比上年增長28.8%。其中我出口7.8億美元，增長15.8%；進口15.1億美元，增長36.8%。 中國駐奧地利大使：盧永華。中國駐奧大使館館址：Metternichgasse 4,1030 Wien。電話：（431）714314948。電傳：135794ＣＨＩＮＢＡ。傳真：（431）7136816。商務處電話：（431）714314921。傳真：（431）714314922。簽證處電話：（431）7103648。 奧地利駐華大使：史偉（Hans Dietmar Schweisgut）。館址：100600，北京建外秀水南街5號。電話：65322061。電傳：22258，傳真：65321505。商務處電話：65321677。電傳：22270，傳真：65321149。簽證處電話：65322061 【同美國的關係】 重視與美國關係。奧雖對美單邊主義傾嚮時有批評，但認為美是世界唯一超強，歐美有廣泛共同利益，註意在伊戰等問題上不頂撞美，加強與美“夥伴關係”符合奧根本利益。對美貿易額：2002年奧出口40 億歐元，進口37.4億歐元。美是奧在歐盟以外最大的貿易夥伴。 【同俄羅斯及東歐國傢的關係】 十分看重俄在實現歐洲和平、穩定和發展方面的“關鍵作用”，以及俄市場潛力和自然資源，在推動歐盟與俄建立全面合作關係的同時，謀求加強奧俄雙邊關係。2003年，奧總理許塞爾和外長瓦爾德納相繼訪俄。兩國經貿關係發展較快。2002年奧嚮俄出口9.58億歐元，進口10.32億歐元。俄是奧第17 大出口國和第15大進口國。 重視與中東歐國傢的關係，主張以傳統關係為基礎，以歐盟東擴為契機，與中東歐國傢建立“戰略夥伴關係”。2002年，奧對中東歐地區貿易出口額135.87億歐元，占其總出口額的17.6%;進口額為101.91億歐元，占其總進口額的13.2%。奧70%的對外投資流嚮該地區。 【同歐盟的關係】 1995年正式加入歐洲聯盟，1999年1月1日成為首批歐元國。2000年2月4日奧人民黨與右翼政黨自由黨聯合上臺執政，歐盟14國即對奧采取了凍結雙邊高層往來、降低外交接觸級別和停止在國際機構中對奧人選支持的政治製裁。同年9月，歐盟在對奧內外政策進行評估後解除製裁。奧與歐盟及其成員國關係隨之逐步恢復正常。奧外貿主要集中在歐盟國傢。2002年奧對歐盟貿易出口額為465.17億歐元，占其出口總額的60.1%；進口額為506.78億歐元，占其進口總額的65.7%。 【同德國的關係】 由於德在2000年奧右翼政黨自由黨入閣一事上在歐盟內帶頭對奧製裁，雙邊關係一度變冷。隨着2001年5月德國總理施羅德訪奧，兩國交往增多，關係逐漸恢復正常。德是奧最大的貿易夥伴，2002年奧與德貿易額占奧外貿總額的36.2%，奧嚮德出口247.8億歐元，從德進口310.9億歐元。 The origins of modern Austria date back to the ninth century, when the territory of Upper and Lower Austria became increasingly populated. The name "Ostarrichi" is first documented in an official document from 996. Since then this word has developed into the Österreich. Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states and is one of six European countries that have declared permanent neutrality and one of the few countries that includes the concept of everlasting neutrality in its constitution. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955 and joined the European Union in 1995. Etymology The German name Österreich is derived from Old German Ostarrîchi "Eastern Territory". The name was Latinized as "Austria", thus it has no direct etymological connection with the name of Australia, which derives from Latin Australis meaning The South (however, both words ultimately derive from Proto-Indo-European *aust- "dawn"). Reich can also mean "empire," and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the Austrian/Austro-Hungarian Empire, Holy Roman Empire, although not in the context of the modern Republic of Österreich. The term probably originates in a vernacular translation of the Medieval Latin name for the region: Marchia orientalis, which translates as "eastern marches" or "eastern borderland", as it was situated at the eastern edge of the Holy Roman Empire, that was also mirrored in the name Ostmark, for a short period applied after the Anschluss to Germany. However, Friedrich Heer, one the most important Austrian historians in the 20th century, stated in his book Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität (The Struggle Over Austrian Identity), that the Germanic form ostarrîchi was not a translation of the Latin word, but both resulted from a much older term originating in the Celtic languages of ancient Austria: More than 2,500 years ago, the major part of the actual country was called Norig by the Celtic population (Hallstatt culture); No- or Nor- meant East or Eastern, whereas Rig is the related to the modern German Reich; realm (among other things). Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean ostarrîchi and Österreich, thus Austria. The Celtic name was eventually Latinized to noricum, when the Romans conquered and Romanized the country that later became Austria. The name of Noricum was then used to designate the Roman province. The current official designation is the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich). It was originally known after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1918 as the Republic of German Austria (Republik Deutschösterreich) , but the state was forced to change its name to "Republic of Austria" in 1919 by the Treaty of Saint-Germain. The name was changed again during the Austro-fascist regime (1934–1938) , into Federal State of Austria (Bundesstaat Österreich) , but restored after regaining independence and the birth of the Second Austrian Republic (1955–present). During the period of monarchy, Austria was known as the Austrian Empire (Kaisertum Österreich) ; however no official designation existed since the empire was strongly multiethnic. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the empire became known as Austria-Hungary reflecting the dual monarchy character. History Prehistory and the Middle Ages Coats of arms of the Habsburg EmperorSettled in prehistoric times, the central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes. The Celtic kingdom of Noricum was claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province. After the fall of the Roman Empire, of which most of Austria was part (all parts south of the Danube), the area was invaded by Bavarians, Slavs and Avars. Charlemagne conquered the area in 788 and encouraged colonization and Christianity. As part of Eastern Francia, the core areas that now encompass Austria were bequeathed to the house of Babenberg. The area was known as the marchia Orientalis and was given to Leopold of Babenberg in 976. The first record showing the name Austria is from 996 where it is written as Ostarrîchi, referring to the territory of the Babenberg March. The term Ostmark is not historically ascertained and appears to be a translation of marchia orientalis that came up only much later. The following centuries were characterized by the settlement of the country. In 1156 the Privilegium Minus elevated Austria to the status of a duchy. In 1192, the Babenbergs also acquired the Duchy of Styria. With the death of Frederick II in 1246, the line of the Babenbergers went extinct. Otakar II of Bohemia effectively controlled the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia after that. His reign came to an end with his defeat at Dürnkrut at the hand of Rudolf I of Germany in 1278. Thereafter, until World War I, Austria's history was largely that of its ruling dynasty, the Habsburgs. Rise of the Habsburgs In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria. In 1438, Duke Albert V of Austria was chosen as the successor to his father-in-law, Emperor Sigismund. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year, from then on, every emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was a Habsburg, with only one exception. The Habsburgs began also to accumulate lands far from the Hereditary Lands. In 1477, Archduke Maximilian, only son of Emperor Frederick III, married the heiress Maria of Burgundy, thus acquiring most of the Low Countries for the family. His son Philip the Fair married the heiress of Castile and Aragon, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian, African, and New World appendages for the Habsburgs. In 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, Austrian rulers expanded their territories, bringing Bohemia and the part of Hungary not occupied by the Ottomans under their rule. Ottoman expansion into Hungary led to frequent conflicts between the two powers, particularly evident in the so-called Long War of 1593 to 1606. Austria as a European Power The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey, 1819.See also: Congress of Vienna, Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, and Austria-Hungary The long reign of Leopold I (1657–1705) saw the culmination of the Austrian conflict with the Turks. Following the successful defense of Vienna in 1683, a series of campaigns resulted in the return of all of Hungary to Austrian control by the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. The later part of the reign of Emperor Charles VI (1711–1740) saw Austria relinquish many of these fairly impressive gains, largely due to Charles's apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg. Charles was willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of the Pragmatic Sanction that made his daughter Maria Theresa his heir. With the rise of Prussia the Austrian–Prussian dualism began in Germany. Map of Austria-HungaryAustria became engaged in the war with Revolutionary France, which lasted until 1797 and at the beginning proved unsuccessful for Austria. Defeats by Napoleon meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Just two years before the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, in 1804 the Empire of Austria was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the dual-monarchy Austria-Hungary. However, in 1814 Austria was part of the Allied forces invading France and conquering it. Following the Napoleonic wars Austria emerged from the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as one of four of the continent's dominant powers (together with Russia, Prussia and defeated France). In 1815 the German Confederation, (German: Deutscher Bund) was founded under the presidency of Austria. Austria and Prussia were the leading powers of the German Confederation. Its central institution was the Bundesversammlung in Frankfurt. Because of unsolved social, political and national conflicts some of the German inhabitants took part in the 1848 revolution to create a unified Germany. The Frankfurt Parliament in the St. Paul's Church elected the arch duke Johann of Habsburg as a Reichsverweser, an administrator of the German Empire. For a new German empire would have been possible three options: a Greater Germany, Großdeutschland, with the German-speaking territories of the Habsburg Empire; a Greater Austrian solution, Großösterreich, the German Confederation with the whole Habsburgian territories; and a smaller German solution, Kleindeutsche, the German Confederation without Austria at all. As Austria was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to what would become the German Empire of 1848 the parliament offered the crown to the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Austria grew out of Germany; Prussia grew in. In 1864 Austria and Prussia fought together against Denmark, to free the independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Austria and Prussia could not agree on a solution to the administration of Schleswig and Holstein, which led to the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Austria, together with most of the other German states, was defeated by Prussia in the Battle of Königgrätz in Bohemia. Austria had to leave the German Confederation and subsequently no longer took part in German politics. After 1871, it was one of two Empires: the German Empire to the north and Austria-Hungary to the south. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Ausgleich, provided for a dual sovereignty, the empire of Austria and the kingdom of Hungary, under Franz Joseph I, who ruled until his death on 21 November 1916. The Austrian-Hungarian rule of this diverse empire included various Slav groups such as Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Serbs and Croats, as well as large Italian and Romanian communities. As a result, ruling Austria-Hungary became increasingly difficult in an age of emerging nationalist movements. Yet the central government tried its best to be accommodating in some respects; minorities were entitled to schools in their own language, for example. World War I and its aftermath The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 by Gavrilo Princip (a member of the Serbian nationalist group the Black Hand) was the immediate cause for the outbreak of World War I, leading to the downfall and the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. War left the country in political chaos and economic ruin, the Central Powers (being Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany and Turkey) having been defeated in 1918. The Empire was broken up - Austria, with most of the German-speaking parts became a republic (see Treaty of Saint-Germain) and the remaining subordinate territories became independent states. However, over 3 million German Austrians found themselves living outside of the Allied inspired borders of the Austrian Republic in the nations of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Italy. A particular large German minority was found in the newly-established Czechoslovakia with the entire historic German populations of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia cut off from their motherland of Austria. Austria was also deprived of half of Tyrol, which was awarded to Italy as a prize for entering the war on the Allied side. Austria has sustained this loss to the present day and this had been a major source of friction with Italy until the 1980s. Today the situation in Alto Adige/South Tyrol is resolved, serving as a model for inter-ethnic and transnational cooperation in Europe. Between 1918 and 1919, Austria was officially known as the Republic of German Austria (Republik Deutschösterreich). Many territories it claimed under its control included regions that were later assigned to neighboring nations. Not only did the Entente powers forbid German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name; it was therefore changed to the Republic of Austria. The monarchy was dissolved in 1919 and a parliamentary democracy was set up under the constitution of 10 November 1920. In the autumn of 1922, Austria was granted an international loan supervised by the League of Nations. The purpose of the loan was to avert bankruptcy, stabilize the currency, and improve its general economic condition. With the granting of the loan, Austria passed from an independent state to the control exercised by the League of Nations. At the time, the real ruler of Austria became the League, through its commissioner in Vienna. The commissioner was a Dutchman not formally part of the Austrian government. Austria had fallen under an international receivership, which had not been seen openly since Lord Cromer became the financial adviser to the bankrupt Khedivial Government of Egypt a little less than half a century earlier. Austrofascism and the Third Reich The First Austrian Republic, lasted until 1933 when Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss dissolved parliament and established an autocratic regime tending towards Italian fascism, (Austrofascism) in order, partly, to check the power of Nazis who were still advocating union with Germany. The two big parties at this time —the Social Democrats and the Conservatives— had paramilitary armies, which fought each other. The "Heimwehr" (later integrated into the "Vaterländische Front"), the paramilitary arm of the Conservative party supported Dollfuss's Fascist regime; the "Republikanischer Schutzbund", was the military arm of the Social Democrats which was outlawed in 1933 but still existed underground - civil war was to break out. After the Austrian Civil War in February 1934, several members of the Schutzbund were executed, the Social Democratic party was outlawed and many of its members were imprisoned or emigrated. In May of that year the Fascists introduced a new constitution ("Maiverfassung") which cemented Dollfuss's power but on 25 July he was assassinated in a Nazi coup attempt. His successor Kurt Schuschnigg, struggled to keep Austria independent (even a restoration of the Habsburgs was contemplated), but on 12 March 1938 German troops occupied the country and established a plebiscite confirming union with Germany. Hitler was himself a native of Austria who had lost Austrian citizenship in 1925. Hitler proclaimed the annexation (Anschluss) of Austria by Germany. Austria was incorporated into the Third Reich and ceased to exist as an independent state. The Nazis called Austria "Ostmark" until 1942 when it was again renamed and called "Alpen-Donau-Reichsgaue." Some Austrians joined the resistance, but many more joined the German armed forces (Wehrmacht). Vienna fell on 13 April 1945 during the Soviet Vienna Offensive. This was just before the total collapse of the Third Reich, the defeat of Nazi Germany, the fall of Berlin, and the end of the war in May. Karl Renner astutely set up a Provisional Government in Vienna in April with the tacit approval of the victorious Soviet forces, and declared Austria's secession from the Third Reich. After the defeat of Germany, Allied Occupation Much like Germany, Austria, too, was divided into a British, a French, a Soviet and an American Zone and governed by the Allied Commission for Austria. Largely owing to Karl Renner's action on April 27th in setting up a Provisional Government, however, there was a subtle difference in the treatment of Austria by the Allies. The Austrian Government was recognized and tolerated by the Four Powers. Austria, in general, was treated as though it had been originally invaded by Germany and liberated by the Allies. Although the Eastern part of Austria, including the greater Vienna area, lay in the Soviet Zone, the capital itself was equally divided into four occupational zones. Outside of Vienna, however, travel across zone borders, in particular leaving or entering the Soviet zone, was difficult and time-consuming if possible at all. During the time of the Berlin Air Lift, Soviet military pressure was increased further, but could be successfully overcome by skillful military, political and diplomatic influence on the part of the other Allies. On 15 May 1955 Austria regained full independence by concluding the Austrian State Treaty with the Four Occupying Powers. On 26 October 1955 Austria was declared "permanently neutral" by act of Parliament, which it remains to this day. Recent history The political system of the Second Republic came to be characterized by the system of Proporz, meaning that most posts of some political importance were split evenly between members of the Social Democrats (Labour Party) and the People's Party (Conservatives). Interest group representations with mandatory membership (e.g. for workers, businesspeople, farmers etc.) grew to considerable importance and were usually consulted in the legislative process, so that hardly any legislation was passed that did not reflect widespread consensus. The Proporz and consensus systems largely held even during the years between 1966 and 1983, when there were non-coalition governments, but this era has now passed. Austria today has five major political parties: The SPÖ (Labour Party) , the ÖVP (Conservatives) , the "Greens" (Environmental, social-liberal) and FPÖ/BZÖ (both right-wing, nationalist). SPÖ and ÖVP share about 75% of the parliamentary mandates, while the remaining 25% are divided between the other three parties. Austria became a member of the European Union in 1995 and retained its constitutional neutrality, like some other EU members, such as Sweden. The major parties SPÖ and ÖVP have contrary opinions about the future status of Austria's military neutrality: While the SPÖ supports a neutral role in the EU (together with other neutral EU members like Sweden), the ÖVP argues for stronger integration into the EU's security policy; even a future NATO is not ruled out by some ÖVP politicians. Since the "permanent neutrality" forms part of the Austrian constitution, a two-thirds majority in the Austrian parliament would be needed for such a change in policy. Politics Austrian Parliament in ViennaMain article: Politics of Austria Political system The Parliament of Austria is located in Vienna, the nation's largest city and capital. Austria became a federal, parliamentarian, democratic republic through the Federal Constitution of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine states of the Federal Republic. The head of state is the Federal President, who is directly elected by popular vote. The chairman of the Federal Government is the Federal Chancellor, who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by vote of no confidence in the lower chamber of parliament, the Nationalrat. The Parliament of Austria consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every five years by a general election in which every citizen over 16 years (since 2007) is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A recent extension of that term from four to five years will become effective after the next election. While there is a general threshold of 4 percent for all parties at federal elections (Nationalratswahlen) , there remains the possibility to gain a direct seat, or Direktmandat, in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the Bundesrat has a limited right of veto (the Nationalrat can — in almost all cases — ultimately pass the respective bill by voting a second time. This is referred to as 'Beharrungsbeschluss, lit. "vote of persistence"). A convention, called the Österreich -Konvent was convened in June 30, 2003 to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. However, some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented. Recent political developments In February 2000 the conservative People's Party formed a coalition with the controversial nationalistic Freedom Party, headed by Jörg Haider. The (at that time) 14 other member states of the European Union - but not the EU itself - condemned Austria's new coalition and froze diplomatic contacts. These measures were commonly referred to as "sanctions" although they were more or less just motions of diplomatic unfriendliness. Given the controversy, Haider chose not to join the government, but he continued to wield influence from the sidelines. This was not, however, the first time that the Republic of Austria had displeased international opinion. In 1986, the population voted for Kurt Waldheim as president despite his revelation that he had been active in the Wehrmacht as an intelligence officer during World War II. In September 2002, the coalition between the People's Party and the Freedom Party dissolved after a shake-up in the Freedom Party. In November 2002, the People's Party made large gains in general elections again. After a lot of coalition talks with other parties, the People's Party again formed a government with the Freedom Party in February 2003 with Wolfgang Schüssel as Chancellor. After general elections held in October 2006, the Social Democrats emerged as the largest party, whereas the People's Party lost about 8% in votes. Political realities prohibited any of the two major parties from forming a coalition with smaller parties. In January 2007 the People's Party and Social Democrats formed a Grand Coalition with the social democrat Alfred Gusenbauer as Chancellor. Foreign policy The 1955 Austrian State Treaty ended the occupation of Austria following World War II and recognized Austria as an independent and sovereign state. In October 1955, the Federal Assembly passed a constitutional law in which "Austria declares of her own free will her perpetual neutrality." The second section of this law stated that "in all future times Austria will not join any military alliances and will not permit the establishment of any foreign military bases on her territory." Since then, Austria has shaped its foreign policy on the basis of neutrality. Austria began to reassess its definition of neutrality following the fall of the Soviet Union, granting overflight rights for the UN-sanctioned action against Iraq in 1991, and, since 1995, contemplating participation in the EU's evolving security structure. Also in 1995, it joined the Partnership for Peace and subsequently participated in peacekeeping missions in Bosnia. Austria attaches great importance to participation in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and other international economic organizations, and it has played an active role in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Energy politics In 1972, the country began construction of a nuclear-powered electricity-generation station at Zwentendorf on the River Danube, following a unanimous vote in parliament. However, in 1978, a referendum voted approximately 50.5% against nuclear power, 49.5% for, and parliament subsequently unanimously passed a law forbidding the use of nuclear power to generate electricity. Austria currently produces more than half of its electricity by hydropower. Together with other renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass powerplants, the electricity supply from renewable energy amounts to nearly 80% of total use in Austria. The rest is produced by gas and oil powerplants. Military The manpower of the Austrian Armed Forces ("Bundesheer") mainly relies on conscription. All males who have reached the age of eighteen and are found fit get recruited for a six months long military service, which can be postponed under some circumstances. Conscientious objection is legally possible and obliges to serve an institutionalized nine months civilian service instead. Only since 1998, women can volunteer to become professional soldiers. The main sectors of the Bundesheer are Joint Forces (Streitkräfteführungskommando, SKFüKdo) which consist of Land Forces (Landstreitkräfte) , Air Forces (Luftstreitkräfte) , International Missions (Internationale Einsätze) , and Special Forces (Spezialeinsatzkräfte) ; next to Mission Support (Kommando Einsatzunterstützung; KdoEU) and Command Support (Kommando Führungsunterstützung; KdoFüU). In 2004, Austria expends about 0.9% of its GDP for defense. The Army currently has about 45,000 soldiers, of which about half are conscripts. As head of state, Austrian President (currently Heinz Fischer) is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the Bundesheer. In practical reality, however, command of the Austrian Armed Forces is almost exclusively exercised by the Minister of Defense, currently Norbert Darabos. With the end of the Cold War, and more importantly the removal of the former heavily guarded "Iron Curtain" separating Austria and Hungary, the Austrian military have been assisting Austrian border guards in trying to prevent border crossings by illegal immigrants. This assistance came to an end when Hungary joined the EU Schengen area in 2008, for all intents and purposes abolishing "internal" border controls between treaty states. Some politicians have called for a prolongation of this mission, but the legality of this is heavily disputed. In accordance with the Austrian constitution, armed forces may only be deployed in a limited number of cases, mainly to defend the country and aid in cases of national emergencies, such as in the wake of natural disasters etc. They may generally not be used as auxiliary police forces. Despite, or perhaps because of, its self-declared status of permanent neutrality, Austria has a long and proud tradition of engaging in UN-led peacekeeping and other humanitarian missions. The Austrian Forces Disaster Relief Unit (AFDRU) , in particular, an all-volunteer unit with close ties to civilian specialists (rescue dog handlers, etc) enjoys a reputation as a quick (standard deployment time is 10 hours) and efficient SAR unit. Currently, larger contingents of Austrian forces are deployed in Bosnia, Kosovo and, since 1974, on the Golan Heights. States As a federal republic, Austria is divided into nine states (German: 'Bundesländer'). These states are then divided into districts (Bezirke) and cities (Statutarstädte). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (Gemeinden). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government. State (Bundesland) Capital Population Rank 1 Burgenland Eisenstadt 280,350 9 2 Carinthia (Kärnten) Klagenfurt 560,753 6 3 Lower Austria (Niederösterreich) St. Pölten 1,588,545 2 4 Upper Austria (Oberösterreich) Linz 1,405,986 3 5 Salzburg Salzburg 529,085 7 6 Styria (Steiermark) Graz 1,203,986 4 7 Tyrol (Tirol) Innsbruck 698,472 5 8 Vorarlberg Bregenz 364,611 8 9 Vienna (Wien) Vienna (Wien) 1,660,534 1 Geography Austria is a largely mountainous country due to its location in the Alps. The Central Eastern Alps, Northern Limestone Alps and Southern Limestone Alps are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84 000 km² or 32,000 sq. mi) , only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 meters (1,640 ft). The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country. Austria can be divided into five areas. The biggest area are the Austrian Alps, which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the Alps and the Carpathians account for around 12% of its area. The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian granite plateau, it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the Vienna basin comprises the remaining 4%. Phytogeographically, Austria belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Austria can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, Alps conifer and mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests. Climate The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate climate zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the Alps the alpine climate is the predominant one. In the East, in the Pannonian Plain and along the Danube valley, the climate shows continental features with less rain than the alpine areas. Although Austria is cold in the winter, in the summer temperatures can be relatively warm reaching 20-35 degrees Celsius. The six highest mountains in Austria are: Name Height (m) Height (ft) Range Großglockner &0000000000003797.0000003,797 &0000000000012457.00000012,457 Hohe Tauern Wildspitze &0000000000003768.0000003,768 &0000000000012362.00000012,362 Ötztal Alps Weißkugel &0000000000003739.0000003,739 &0000000000012267.00000012,267 Ötztal Alps Großvenediger &0000000000003674.0000003,674 &0000000000012054.00000012,054 Hohe Tauern Similaun &0000000000003606.0000003,606 &0000000000011831.00000011,831 Ötztal Alps Großes Wiesbachhorn &0000000000003571.0000003,571 &0000000000011715.00000011,715 Hohe Tauern Economy Modern ViennaAustria is one of the 10 richest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita, has a well-developed social market economy, and a very high standard of living. Until the 1980s, many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised; in recent years, however, privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. Next to a highly-developed industry, international tourism is the most important part of the national economy. Germany has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the German economy. But since Austria became a member state of the European Union it has gained closer ties to other European Union economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Growth in GDP accelerated in recent years and reached 3.3% in 2006. Education Responsibility for educational oversight in Austria lies partly at the Austrian states (Bundesländer), and partly with the federal government. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between the ages of three and six years. School attendance is compulsory for nine years, i.e. usually to the age of fifteen. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Austria's education as the 18th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average. Primary education lasts for four years. Alongside Germany, secondary education includes two main types of schools based on a pupil's ability as determined by grades from the primary school: the Gymnasium for the more gifted children which normally leads to the Matura which is a requirement for access to universities and the Hauptschule which prepares pupils for vocational education but also for further education (HTL = institution of higher technical education; HAK = commercial academy; HBLA = institution of higher education for economic business; etc.), where you also get the Matura. The Austrian university system had been open to any student who passed the Matura examination until recently. A 2006 bill allowed the introduction of entrance exams for studies such as Medicine. Currently all EU students are charged a fee of about €370 per semester for all university studies. A recent OECD report criticized the Austrian education system for the low number of students attending universities and the overall low number of academics compared to other OECD countries. Demographics Austria's population estimate in October 2006 was 8,292,322. The population of the capital, Vienna, exceeds 1.6 million (2.2 million with suburbs) , representing about a quarter of the country's population and is known for its vast cultural offerings and high standard of living. In contrast to the capital, other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants: the second largest city Graz is home to 250,099 inhabitants, followed by Linz (188,968), Salzburg (150,000), and Innsbruck (117,346). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. German-speaking Austrians, by far the country's largest group, form roughly 90% of Austria's population. The Austrian federal states of Carinthia and Styria are home to a significant indigenous Slovenian speaking minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of up to 50,000). In the east-most Bundesland, Burgenland (formerly part of the Hungarian half of Austria-Hungary) about 20,000 Austrian citizens speak Hungarian and 30,000 speak Croatian. The remaining number of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former East Bloc nations. So-called guest workers (Gastarbeiter) and their descendants, as well as refugees from Yugoslav wars and other conflicts, also form an important minority group in Austria. Since 1994 the Roma-Sinti (gypsies) are an officially recognized ethnic minority in Austria. According to census information published by Statistik Austria for the year 2001 there were a total of 710,926 foreign nationals living in Austria. Of these, 124,392 speak German as their mother tongue (presumably immigrants from Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, the Slovenes and also the South Tyrolian part of northern Italy.) The next largest populations of linguistic and ethnic groups are 240,863 foreign nationals from the former Yugoslavia (Serbian being the largest number of these at 135,376, followed by Croatian at 105,487); 123,417 Turkish nationals; 25,155 whose native tongue is English; 24,446 Albanian; 17,899 Polish; 14,699 Hungarian; 12,216 Romanian; 7,982 Arabs; 6,902 Slovenes (not including the autochthonous minority); 6,891 Slovaks; 6,707 Czech; 5,916 Persian; 5,677 Italian; 5,466 Russian; 5,213 French; 4,938 Chinese; 4,264 Spanish; 3,503 Bulgarian. The populations of the rest fall off sharply below 3,000. The mother tongue of the population by prevalence, is German (88.6%) followed by Turkish (2.3%) , Serbian (2.2%) , Croatian (1.6%) , Hungarian (0.5%) and Bosnian (0.4%). The official language, German, is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the country, however, belong to Austro-Bavarian groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its western-most Bundesland, Vorarlberg, which belongs to the group of Alemannic dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for Austrian German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany. As of 2006, some of the Austrian states introduced standardised tests for new citizens, to assure their language ability, cultural knowledge and accordingly their ability to integrate into the Austrian society. Politics concerning ethnic groups (Volksgruppenpolitik) An estimated 13,000 to 40,000 Slovenes in the Austrian state of Carinthia (the Carinthian Slovenes) as well as Croats (around 30,000) and Hungarians in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. The Slovenes in the Austrian state of Styria (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27, 1955 states otherwise. The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene- and Croat-Austrians live alongside the Germanic population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases show parts of Carinthia as Slovenian cultural territory. The current governor, Jörg Haider, has made this fact a matter of public argument in autumn 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called "Windischen-Theorie" stating that the Slovenes can be split in two groups: actual Slovenes and Windische (a traditional German name for Slavs) , based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenes, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenes who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. The term Windische was applied to the latter group as a means of distinction. This theory was never generally accepted and fell out of use some decades ago. Religion Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, also Charles I of Spain, Austrian Habsburg ruler and one of the major figures of the Counter-Reformation.At the end of the twentieth century, about 74% of Austria's population were registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% considered themselves Protestants. Both these numbers have been in decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicism, which has suffered an increasing number of seceders from the church. Austrian Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income —about 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which might (have) act(ed) as an incentive to leave the church. About 12% of the population declare that they have no religion. Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of Eastern Orthodox Churches and about 8,100 are Jewish. It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000 - was reduced to solely 4,000 to 5,000 after the Second World War. The influx of Eastern Europeans, especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from Turkey largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria — around 340,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities. Buddhism, which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983 has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 census). According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 54% of Austrian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God". 34% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force". 8% answered that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". While northern and central Germany was the origin of the Reformation, Austria (and Bavaria) was the heart of the Counter-Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the absolute monarchy of Habsburg imposed a strict regime to maintain Catholicism's power and influence among Austrians. The Habsburgs viewed themselves as the vanguard of Roman Catholicism and all other confessions and religions were oppressed. In 1781, Emperor Joseph II issued a Patent of Tolerance that allowed other Christian confessions a limited freedom of worship. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right in the Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich in 1867 thus paying tribute to the fact that the monarchy was home of numerous religions beside Roman Catholicism such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian Orthodox Christians (Austria neighboured the Ottoman empire for centuries) , and both Calvinist and Lutheran Protestants. Austria continued to remain largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918, First Republic Catholic leaders such as Theodor Innitzer and Ignaz Seipel took leading positions within or close to Austria's government and increased their influence during the time of the Austrofascism —Catholicism was treated much like a state religion by Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg. Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the Anschluss of Austria into Germany, Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of Nazism later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the Third Reich. After 1945, a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria, and religious influence on politics declined. Music Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791).Austria's past as a European power and its cultural environment have generated a broad contribution to various forms of art, most notably among them music. Austria has been the birthplace of many famous composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. and Gustav Mahler as well as members of the Second Viennese School such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg. Vienna has long been especially an important center of musical innovation. Eighteenth and nineteenth century composers were drawn to the city due to the patronage of the Habsburgs, and made Vienna the European capital of classical music. During the Baroque period, Slavic and Hungarian folk forms influenced Austrian music. Vienna's status began its rise as a cultural center in the early 1500s, and was focused around instruments including the lute. Ludwig van Beethoven spent the better part of his life in Vienna. Austria's current national anthem was chosen after World War II to replace the traditional Austrian anthem by Joseph Haydn. The composition, which was initially attributed to Mozart, was most likely not composed by Mozart himself. Austria has also produced one notable jazz musician, keyboardist Josef Zawinul who helped pioneer electronic influences in jazz as well as being a notable composer in his own right. Falco was an internationally acclaimed pop and rock musician. Art and architecture The Belvedere Palace, an example of Baroque architecture.Among Austrian Artists and architects one can find painters Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele and Friedensreich Hundertwasser, photographer Inge Morath or architect Otto Wagner. Science, philosophy and economics Sigmund Freud in 1938Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists with international reputations. Among them are Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess and Christian Doppler, prominent scientists in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, contributions by Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger and Wolfgang Pauli to nuclear research and quantum mechanics were key to these areas' development during the 1920s and 1930s. A present-day quantum physicist is Anton Zeilinger, noted as the first scientist to demonstrate quantum teleportation. In addition to physicists, Austria was the birthplace of two of the greatest philosophers of the twentieth century, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper. In addition to them biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel and engineers such as Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Marcus were Austrians. A focus of Austrian science has always been medicine and psychology, starting in medieval times with Paracelsus. Eminent physicians like Theodore Billroth, Clemens von Pirquet, and Anton von Eiselsberg have built upon the achievements of the 19th century Vienna School of Medicine. Austria was home to psychologists Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Paul Watzlawick and Hans Asperger and psychiatrist Viktor Frankl. The Austrian School of Economics, which is prominent as one of the main competitive directions for economic theory, is related to Austrian economists Joseph Schumpeter, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, and Friedrich Hayek. Other noteworthy Austrian-born émigrés include the management thinker Peter Drucker and the 38th Governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger. Literature Complementing its status as a land of artists and scientists, Austria has always been a country of poets, writers, and novelists. It was the home of novelists Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Bernhard, Franz Kafka, and Robert Musil, of poets Georg Trakl, Franz Werfel, Franz Grillparzer, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Adalbert Stifter, and of writer Karl Kraus. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are Nobel prize winner Elfriede Jelinek and writer Peter Handke. Cuisine Austria's cuisine is derived from the cuisine of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In addition to native regional traditions, it has been influenced above all by Hungarian, Czech, Jewish, Italian and Bavarian cuisines, from which both dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed. The Austrian Cuisine is therefore one of the most multi and transcultural cuisines in Europe. Typical Austrian dishes include Wiener Schnitzel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. There are also Kasnockn, a macaroni dish with fresh Pinzgauer cheese and parsley, and Eierschwammerl (chanterelle) dishes. The Eierschwammerl are the native yellow, tan mushrooms. These mushrooms are delicious, especially when in a thick Austrian soup, or on regular meals. The candy PEZ was invented in Austria. Austria is also famous for its Apfelstrudel. Sports Skiing slopes at Sankt Anton am ArlbergThe most popular sport in Austria is alpine skiing and Austria shows constant dominance in the Nations-Cup. Similar sports such as snowboarding or ski-jumping are also widely popular. The most popular team sport in Austria is football. However, Austria rarely has international success in this discipline, though the 2008 UEFA European Football Championship is jointly being held with Switzerland. Besides football, Austria also has professional national leagues for most major team sports including ice hockey and basketball. Bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton are also popular events with a permanent track located in Igls, which hosted bobsleigh and luge competitions for the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics held in Innsbruck. |
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