| 姓： | 刘 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 名： | 彻 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 字： | 通 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 网笔号： | 汉孝武皇帝 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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汉武帝汉武帝创造了六个“第一”；第一：第一个用儒家学说统一思想的皇帝。第二：第一个创立太学培养人才的皇帝。第三：第一个大力拓展中国疆土的皇帝。第四：第一个开通西域的皇帝.第五：第一个用皇帝年号来纪元的皇帝。第六：第一个用罪己诏形式进行自我批评的皇帝。
正如历史正剧《汉武大帝》所云：他建立了一个国家前所未有的尊严;他给了一个族群挺立千秋的自信;他的国号成了一个伟大民族永远的名字.
汉武帝创立年号同时也是中国第一个使用年号的皇帝。他登基之初，继续他父亲生前推行的养生息民政策，进一步削弱诸侯的势力，颁布大臣主父偃提出的推恩令，以法制来推动诸侯分封诸子为侯，使诸侯的封地不得不自我缩减。同时他设立刺史，监察地方。在军队和经济上则加强中央集权，将冶铁、煮盐、酿酒等民间生意编成由中央管理，同时禁止诸侯国铸钱，使得财政权集于中央。他采用董仲舒的建议，“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”，为儒学成为封建正统地位地位铺平了道路。不过事实上汉武帝时期从来不曾缺少法治思想，在宣扬儒学的同时汉武帝亦采用法规和刑法来巩固政府的权威和显示皇权的地位，因此汉学家认为这更应该是以法为主以儒为辅，内法外儒的一种体制，对广大百姓宣扬儒道以示政府的怀柔，而对政府内部又施以严酷的刑法来约束大臣。而宣儒并不等于弃法，法依然是汉武帝时期的最终裁决手段，当时积极启用的汲黯和对司马迁用宫刑即是其中著名的例子。
春节始于太初改历，汉武帝改正朔。汉武帝时期，卫青霍去病三次大规模出击匈奴，封狼居胥。张骞出使西域，开辟丝绸之路。从此西域成为几大文明交汇之地，汉武帝被称为“冠于百王”。
（注：汉武帝的确生于公元前157年，这在《史记》中有记载，详见后文。）
【名臣名将】
丞相：窦婴 许昌 田蚡 庄青翟 石庆 公孙贺 刘屈犛 田千秋
太尉大司马：田蚡 卫青 霍去病 霍光
御史大夫：庄青翟 韩安国 公孙弘 张汤 石庆 卜式 儿宽 杜周 桑弘羊
列将军： 霍去病 金日磾（bi) 上官桀
奉常太常：王臧 孔臧 韩延年
郎中令： 王臧 李广 李敢
卫尉： 李广 韩安国 张骞 路博得
太仆： 灌夫 公孙贺 公孙敬声
廷尉： 张汤 赵禹 杜周 郭居
太行令大鸿胪： 王恢 李息 张骞 田千秋
宗正大农令：韩安国 郑当时 刘受 颜异 桑弘羊
中尉少府执金吾：韩安国 赵禹 李息 王温舒 尹齐 颜异 桑弘羊
都尉： 汲黯 朱买臣 江充
内史：石庆 郑当时 公孙弘 汲黯 儿宽 减宣
还有东方朔 主父偃 司马迁 苏武 董仲舒 司马相如 李陵
晚年生活
知天命的汉武帝亦感到自己晚年政治决策的失误带来的恶果，安抚流民的同时，在登泰山、祀明堂之后，武帝在轮台宫殿(并非新疆轮台)里下《罪己诏》：《轮台罪己诏》“朕即位以来，所为狂悖，使天下愁苦，不可追悔。自今事有伤害百姓，糜费天下者，悉罢之！”以表示承认自己的错误。天下也因此又逐渐归于和谐，为昭宣中兴的盛世奠定了基础。
史书《罪己诏》记载：「朕自即位以来，所为狂悖，使天下愁苦，不可追悔。自今事有伤害百姓、靡费天下者，悉罢之。」强调「当今务在禁苛暴，止擅赋，力本农。修马政复令以补缺，毋乏武备而已。」
公元前88年，汉武帝叫画工画了一张“周公背成王朝诸侯图”送给霍光，意思是让霍光辅佐他的小儿子刘弗陵作皇帝。子幼母壮，为了防止太子的年轻母亲钩弋夫人重演吕后称制的局面，汉武帝狠下心找借口处死了她。公元前87年二月丁卯，汉武帝驾崩于五柞宫，享年七十岁。三月甲申葬于茂陵，庙号是世宗。
【相关音像】
中华民族发展史上汉武帝创造了数个第一：
一独尊儒术；听取董仲舒的建议，“罢黜百家，独尊儒术” 开创中国传统主流文化之正统，在中华传统文化舞台上独领风骚两千余年，受到历代统治者所推崇。这里要说明的是，汉武帝并非限制其他各家的发展，致使大力提倡儒家的发展儒法结合。例如夏侯始昌既研习儒家又通晓阴阳五行家；宰相公孙弘兼治儒法两家；主父偃以纵横家起家；耿直的汲黯司马谈司马迁以黄老学说起家。
二设立中朝 抑制外朝；
在惠文景帝期间，丞相大多主要是随刘邦打天下的功臣丞相受到礼遇，武帝和丞相多有不合，为贯彻自己的命令，于是设立中朝，尚书台也是这一时期出现的。
三建立年号；
中国历史上第一位使用年号的皇帝，公元前113年武帝以当年为元鼎四年，并追改以前为建元，元光，元朔 元狩，每一年号六年。
四太初改历；
太初元年（前104）改太初历，以正月为岁首，色上黄。
五盐铁官营；
盐铁官营自汉代延续至今，今天盐铁茶主要仍由政府及国企控制。
六通西域；
中国传出了冶铁术、凿井术、丝绸制造、漆器制造等技术，西方（域）传入胡（黄）瓜 胡萝卜 葡萄 汗血马 核桃 天马等 历史意义重大
七开疆拓土。
西北：霍去病、 卫青、 李广利 张骞以及细君解忧等人的前赴后继的努力西域首次与中国联系紧密，为后来把西域并入中国版图奠定基础。
西南：使者军队的接连出现使西南边陲第一次并入中国版图
北方：卫青霍去病的出击使北疆长时间稳定，保护了京师的稳定。
【大一统措施】
汉武帝即位之初，一方面政治形势比较稳定，国家经济状况也相当好，另一方面诸侯王国的分裂因素依然存在，潜在威胁还不小。所以，他在继续推行景帝各项政策的同时，采取了一系列强化中央集权的措施。
政治：在政治方面，采纳主父偃的建议，颁布“推恩令”，削弱汉初分封的诸侯国势力，加强监察制度等。汉武帝还变古创制，包括收相权、设刺史、立平准均输等重大改革与创制，建立了一套系统完整的政治制度。这种法制传统，成为此后二千年间中华帝国制度的基本范式。
军事，对外友好：在军事方面，主要是集中兵权，充实了中央的军事力量；改革兵制。派卫青，霍去病出击匈奴，使北部边郡得以安定，派张骞出使西域，开括了西北边疆：开通了西汉联系西域以至中亚给地通道
经济：在经济方面，采取重农轻商，整顿财政，颁布“算缗”、“告缗”令，征收商人资产税，大力打击奸商；又采取桑弘羊建议，将冶铁、煮盐收归官营，禁止郡国铸钱，统一铸造五铢钱；设置平准官、均输官，由官府经营运输和贸易，大大增强了国家经济实力。同时兴修水利，移民西北屯田，实行“代田法”，有利于农业生产的发展。在经济方面还有一条重要的举措，就是将当时的货币进行统一。
思想：在思想方面，采纳董仲舒的建议．罢黜百家，独尊儒术的建议，使儒学成为了中国社会的统治思想，大力推行儒学，在长安设太学。儒家学说成为中国封建统治正统思想，一直延续了两千多年，对后世中国政治、社会、文化产生了深远的影响。
人事：汉武帝也非常注重人才的开发，他确立了察举制度，是中国有系统选拔人才制度之滥觞，对后世影响很大。
汉武帝进行了人类历史上第一次人口统计。
意义：西汉进入鼎盛时期，也是中国封建时代的第一个鼎盛局面。
【对外关系】
·发动对匈奴战争
汉武帝对外采取软硬兼施的手段，一方面自前133年马邑之战起结束高祖以来对匈奴的和亲政策，开始对匈奴正式宣战，先后派李广、卫青、霍去病征伐，解除了匈奴威胁，夺回河套和河西走廊地区，扩张了西域版图，将匈奴置于被动称臣的局面，保障了北方经济文化的发展。
·派张骞出使西域
汉武帝在发动对匈奴战争同时，他派张骞出使西域，打通了著名的丝绸之路，进一步加强了与西域的联系，并发展了中西经济文化的交流。
·对东北方和南方用兵，扩充疆土
在东北方，他派兵灭卫氏朝鲜（今朝鲜北部），置乐浪、玄菟、临屯、真番四郡，汉帝国的版图至此基本成形。
同时使南方的夜郎、南越政权归附汉朝，在西南先后设立了七个郡，最南端超过今天越南胡志明市，这也使得今天的两广地区自秦朝后重归中国版图。
·后果
汉武帝由于连年对匈奴和西域用兵，并由于举行封禅，祀神求仙，挥霍无度，加以徭役加重，捐税增高，致使农民大量破产流亡。天汉二年（前99年），齐、楚、燕、赵和南阳等地均爆发了不同规模的农民起义。但对匈奴的打击使匈奴再无力与西汉政府相对抗，保证了北方边郡乃至全国的安全。
【个人生活】
后妃子女
皇后
陈皇后 陈阿娇，父堂邑侯陈午，母刘嫖既馆陶大长公主，“金屋藏娇”的典故由来，无子，后被废黜。
卫皇后 卫子夫，后亦被废黜，汉宣帝重新追封为孝武卫思后，生刘据、卫长公主、石邑公主、诸邑公主。
李皇后 李夫人，由霍光追封为孝武皇后，李延年的妹妹，生刘髆。
赵太后 赵婕妤（勾弋夫人）， 生汉昭帝刘弗陵。
妃嫔
王夫人 生齐怀王刘闳。
尹夫人 尹婕妤
邢夫人 邢娙娥
李姬，生盖长公主、刘旦、刘胥。
某氏，生夷安公主。
儿子
长子 戾太子刘据 母皇后卫子夫
次子 齐怀王刘闳 母王夫人 元狩六年立，18岁驾薨
三子 燕剌王刘旦 母李姬
四子 广陵厉王刘胥（与齐怀王刘闳同时立）
五子 昌邑哀王刘髆 母李夫人 ，天汉四年立（其子刘贺当过27天皇帝）
六子 汉昭帝刘弗陵 母钩弋夫人赵婕妤，在位十三年，21岁驾崩
女儿
由于历史记载不详，汉武帝之女未有明确排序。
盖长公主 （鄂邑长公主）
卫长公主 （当利公主），是汉武帝和卫皇后的长女，也是汉武帝最喜欢的女儿。
汉武帝为求长生不老，派人到处寻访方士。最著名的方士栾大，被封为五利将军、天道将军、地道将军、乐通侯，“赐列侯甲第，僮千人、乘舆斥车马帷帐器物以充其家”，汉武帝还将卫长公主嫁给了他（卫长公主原先嫁给曹寿的儿子曹襄，可能是因为丈夫早死，再嫁栾大），后来武帝发现栾大是个骗子，怒火中烧，派人把栾大活活烧死，以泻心头之恨。从此卫长公主再无事迹见于史料。只知道她的儿子曹宗在“巫蛊之祸” 中遇害身亡，汉宣帝时她的孙子曹喜恢复了列侯爵位，这个爵位一直延续到东汉。 “巫蛊之祸”的发生，首先从卫长公主的两个妹妹阳石公主、诸邑公主案拉开序幕。
征和二年(前91)，有人举报丞相公孙贺的儿子公孙敬声与阳石公主私通，又派人用巫术诅咒汉武帝，并且在汉武帝经常经过的甘泉宫驰道埋偶人，祝诅之言十分恶毒。于是公孙贺父子死于狱中，整个家族都被处死。数月之后，阳石公主和诸邑公主都因为巫蛊罪而被处死。
石邑公主 司马贞《索引》认为石邑公主是卫子夫三个女儿之一，另外两位是卫长公主和诸邑公主。
阳石公主 （德邑公主） 唯一的记载是“巫蛊之祸”，《史记》和《汉书》只说其是帝女，并未交代其母亲身份。因为和诸邑公主同时因巫蛊罪被处死，所以现在一些注解把她当成了卫子夫的女儿。
诸邑公主
夷安公主 嫁汉武帝姊妹隆虑公主子昭平君。
汉代只有皇后的女儿才有专门的记载，汉武帝是否有其他女儿还有待发现。
【相关音像】
中国大陆：
电视剧《汉武帝》，由周里京饰演汉武帝。
[汉武帝]
汉武帝
电视剧《汉武大帝》，由陈宝国饰演汉武帝。
电视剧《司马迁》，由许还山饰演汉武帝。
电视剧《大汉天子》系列，由黄晓明饰演汉武帝。
电视剧《凤求凰》，由刘小锋饰演汉武帝。
电视剧《东方朔》，由靳东 饰演汉武帝。
电视剧《剑行天下》，又名大汉英雄，由郑国林饰演汉武帝。
【历史记载】
·《史记》之《孝武本纪》(节选)
【正文（1）】
[汉武帝刘彻]
汉武帝刘彻
孝武皇帝者，①孝景中子也。②母曰王太后。孝景四年，以皇子为胶东王。
孝景七年，栗太子（刘荣）废为临江王，以胶东王为太子。孝景十六年崩，太子即位，为孝武皇帝。③孝武皇帝初即位，尤敬鬼神之祀。
【注解】
注①集解汉书音义曰：“讳彻。” 正义谥法云：“克定祸乱曰武。” 注②索隐按：景十三王传广川王已上皆是武帝兄，自河闲王德以至广川，凡有八 人，则武帝第九也。注③集解张晏曰：“武帝以景帝元年生，七岁为太子，为太子十岁而景帝崩，时年十六矣。”
【正文（1）】
元年，汉兴已六十余岁矣，①天下乂安，②荐绅③之属皆望天子封禅改正度也。而上乡儒术，招贤良，赵绾﹑王臧等以文学为公卿，欲议古立明堂城南，④以朝诸侯。草巡狩封禅改历服色事未就。会窦太后治黄老言，不好儒术，使人微得赵绾等奸利事，⑤召案绾 ﹑臧，绾﹑臧自杀，⑥诸所兴为者皆废。
【注解】
注①集解徐广曰：“六十七年，岁在辛丑。” 注②正义乂音鱼废反。注③索隐上音搢。搢，挺也。言挺笏于绅带之闲，事出礼内则。今作“荐”者，古字假借耳。汉书作“缙绅”，臣瓒云“缙，赤白色”，非也。注④索隐城南，长安城南门外也。案：关中记云明堂在长安城门外，杜门之西也。 注⑤集解徐广曰：“纤微伺察之。” 注⑥正义汉书孝武帝二年，御史大夫赵绾坐请无奏事太皇太后，及郎中令王臧皆下狱，自杀。应劭云：“王臧儒者，欲立明堂﹑辟雍，太后素好黄老术，非薄五经，因故绝奏事太后，太后怒，故令杀。”
【正文（3）】
后六年，窦太后崩。其明年，上征文学之士公孙弘等。
明年，上初至雍，郊见五畤。后常三岁一郊。是时上求神君，舍之上林中缟氏观。神君者，长陵女子，以子死悲哀，故见神于先后宛若。宛若祠之其室，民多往祠。
平原君往祠，其后子孙以尊显。及武帝即位，则厚礼置祠之内中，闻其言，不见其人云。
是时而李少君亦以祠醦﹑谷道﹑却老方见上，上尊之。少君者，故深泽侯入以主方。匿其年及所生长，常自谓七十，能使物，却老。其游以方篃诸侯。无妻子。人闻其能使物及不死，更馈遗之，常余金钱帛衣食。人皆以为不治产业而饶给，又不知其何所人，愈信，争事之。少君资好方，善为巧发奇中。尝从武安侯饮，坐中有年九十余老人，少君乃言与其大父游射处，老人为儿时从其大父行，识其处，一坐尽惊。少君见上，上有故铜器，问少君。少君曰：“此器齐桓公十年陈于柏寝。”已而案其刻，果齐桓公器。一宫尽骇，以少君为神，数百岁人也。
少君言于上曰：“祠醦则致物，致物而丹沙可化为黄金，黄金成以为饮食器则益寿，益寿而海中蓬莱仙者可见，见之以封禅则不死，黄帝是也。臣尝游海上，见安期生，①食臣枣，大如瓜。安期生仙者，通蓬莱中，合则见人，不合则隐。”于是天子始亲祠醦，而遣方士入海求蓬莱安期生之属，而事化丹沙诸药齐为黄金②矣。
【注解】
注①索隐服虔曰：“古之真人。”案：列仙传云安期生，琅邪人，卖药东海边，时人皆言千岁也。正义列仙传云：“安期生，琅邪阜乡亭人也。卖药海边。秦始皇请语三夜，赐金数千万，出，于阜乡亭，皆置去，留书，以赤玉舄一量为报，曰‘后千岁求我于蓬莱山下’。” 注②索隐齐音剂。
【正文（4）】
居久之，李少君病死。①天子以为化去不死也，而使黄锤②史宽舒③受其方。求蓬莱安期生莫能得，而海上燕齐怪迂之方士多相效，更言神事矣。
【注解】
注①正义汉书起居云：“李少君将去，武帝梦与共登嵩高山，半道，有使乘龙时从云中云‘太一请少君’，帝谓左右‘将舍我去矣’。数月而少君病死。又发棺看，唯衣冠在也。” 注②集解韦昭曰：“人姓名。”正义音直伪反。 注③集解汉书音义曰：“二人皆方士。”正义姓史，名宽舒。
【正文（5）】
亳人薄诱忌①奏祠泰一方，曰：“天神贵者泰一，②泰一佐曰五帝。③古者天子以春秋祭泰一东南郊，用太牢具，七日，④为坛开八通之鬼道。”于是天子令太祝立其祠长安东南郊，常奉祠如忌方。其后人有上书，言“古者天子三年一用太牢具祠神三一：天一，地一，泰一”。天子许之，令太祝领祠之忌泰一坛上，如其方。后人复有上书，言“古者天子常以春秋解祠，祠黄帝用一枭破镜；⑤冥羊⑥用羊；祠马行⑦用一青牡马；泰一﹑皋山山君﹑地长⑧用牛；武夷君⑨用干鱼；阴阳使者⑩以一牛”。令祠官领之如其方，而祠于忌泰一坛旁。
【注解】
注①集解徐广曰：“一云亳人谬忌也。”索隐亳，山阳县名。姓谬，名忌，居亳，故下称薄忌。此文则衍“薄”字，而“谬”又误作“诱”矣。注②索隐天神贵者太一。案：乐汁微图云“紫微宫北极天一太一”。宋均以为天一﹑太一，北极之别名。春秋纬“紫宫，天皇曜魄宝之所理也”。注③索隐其佐曰五帝。河图云苍帝神名灵威仰之属也。正义五帝，五天帝也。国语云“苍帝灵威仰，赤帝赤熛怒，白帝白招矩，黑帝睰光纪，黄帝含枢纽”。尚书帝命验云“苍帝名灵威仰，赤帝名文祖，黄帝名神斗，白帝名显纪，黑帝名玄矩”。佐者，谓配祭也。 注④集解徐广曰：“一云日一太牢具，十日。” 注⑤集解孟康曰：“枭，鸟名，食母。破镜，兽名，食父。黄帝欲绝其类，使百物祠皆用之。破镜如貙而虎眼。或云直用破镜。”如淳曰：“汉使东郡送枭，五月五日为枭羹以赐百官。以恶鸟，故食之。” 注⑥集解服虔曰：“神名也。” 注⑦正义神名也。 注⑧正义丁丈反。三并神名。 注⑨正义神名。注⑩集解汉书音义曰：“阴阳之神也。”
【正文（6）】
其后，天子苑有白鹿，以其皮为币，①以发瑞应，造白金焉。②
【注解】
注①索隐案：食货志皮币以白鹿皮方尺，缘以缋，以荐璧，得以黄金一斤代之。又汉律皮币率鹿皮方尺，直黄金一斤。注②索隐案：食货志白金三品，各有差也。正义白金三品，武帝所铸也。如淳曰：“杂铸银锡为白金也。”平准书云：“造银锡为白金。以为天用莫如龙，地用莫如马，人用莫如龟，故曰白金三品。其一曰重八两，圆之，其文龙，名曰白选，直三千；二曰重差小，方之，其文马，直五百；三曰复小，隋之，其文龟，直三百。” 钱谱云：“白金第一，其形圆如钱，肉好圆，文为一龙。白银第二，其形方小长，肉好亦小长，好上下文为二马。白银第三，其形似龟，肉好小，是文为龟甲也。”
【正文（7）】
其明年，郊雍，获一角兽，若麃然。①有司曰：“陛下肃祗郊祀，上帝报享，锡一角兽，盖麟云。”②于是以荐五畤，畤加一牛以燎。③赐诸侯白金，以风符应合于天地。④
【注解】
注①集解韦昭曰：“楚人谓麋为麃。”索隐麃音步交反。韦昭曰“体若□而一角，春秋所谓‘有□而角’是也。楚人谓麋为麃”。又周书王会云麃者若鹿。尔雅云麋，大鹿也，牛尾一角。郭璞云汉武获一角兽若麃，谓之麟是也。注②正义汉书终军传云“从上雍，获白麟”。一角戴肉，设武备而不为害，所以为仁。 注③正义力召反，焚也。注④集解晋灼曰：“符瑞也。”瓒曰：“风示诸侯以此符瑞之应。”
【正文（8）】
于是济北王以为天子且封禅，乃上书献泰山及其旁邑。天子受之，更以他县偿之。常山王有谸，迁，天子封其弟于真定，以续先王祀，而以常山为郡。然后五岳皆在天子之郡。
其明年，齐人少翁①以鬼神方见上。上有所幸王夫人，②夫人卒，少翁以方术盖夜致王夫人及醦鬼之貌云，天子自帷中望见焉。于是乃拜少翁为文成将军，赏赐甚多，以客礼礼之。文成言曰：“上即欲与神通，宫室被服不象神，神物不至。”乃作画云气车，及各以胜日③驾车辟恶鬼。又作甘泉宫，中为台室，画天﹑地﹑泰一诸神，而置祭具以致天神。居岁余，其方益衰，神不至。
乃为帛书以饭牛，④详弗知也，言此牛腹中有奇。杀而视之，得书，书言其怪，天子疑之。有识其手书，问之人，果*(为)**[伪]*书。于是诛文成将军⑤而隐之。
【注解】
注①正义汉武故事云少翁年二百岁，色如童子。注②集解徐广曰：“齐怀王闳之母也。”骃案：桓谭新论云武帝有所爱幸姬王夫人，窈窕好容，质性嬛佞。正义汉书作“李夫人”。注③集解汉书音义曰：“如火胜金，用丙与丁日，不用庚辛。” 注④正义饭，房晚反。书绢帛上为怪言语，以饲牛。注⑤正义汉武故事云：“文成诛月余，有使者藉货关东还，逢之于漕亭，还见言之，上乃疑，发其棺，无所见，唯有竹筒一枚，捕验闲无踪迹也。”
【巫蛊之祸】
巫蛊之祸是汉武帝末年封建统治集团内部发生的重大政治事件，巫蛊为一种巫术。当时人认为使巫师祠祭或以桐木偶人埋于地下，诅咒所怨者，被诅咒者即有灾难。
征和二年（公元前９１），丞相公孙贺之子公孙敬声被人告发为巫蛊咒武帝，与阳石公主奸，贺父子下狱死，诸邑公主与阳石公主、卫青之子长平侯卫伉皆坐诛。武帝命宠臣江充为使者治巫蛊，江充与太子刘据有隙，遂与案道侯韩说、宦官苏文等人诬陷太子，太子起兵抵抗，与同为皇族的丞相刘屈髦激战五日，最终，太子势孤力弱而兵败，唯有逃离长安。汉武帝诏遣宗正刘长乐、执金吾刘敢奉策收皇后玺绶，卫子夫选择了自杀。太子逃到湖县（今河南灵宝西）一户贫家，新安（今河南渑池东）县令李寿得知太子的下落，就带领人马来捉拿他。太子上吊自杀。他的两个儿子和那一家的主人，也被李寿手下的张富昌等人杀死，至此，太子的妻子儿女全部遇害，只留下一位孙子刘询，又称刘病已，也就是后来的汉宣帝。
久之，巫蛊事多不信。田千秋等上书讼太子冤，武帝得知太子的冤屈，乃族灭江充家，焚苏文于横桥上，追捕太子的官吏被族灭。征和三年，刘屈髦因与李广利密谋拥立李广利外甥昌邑哀王（李夫人之子刘髆）被杀，其家人亦被杀，加上被太子杀死的韩说，此时巫蛊之祸中的主要人物皆已亡故。武帝后来修建“思子宫”，于太子被害处作“归来望思之台”，以志哀思。但是因巫蛊之祸牵连受死的，前后达数万人。
【年号列表】
建元 前140年—前135年
元光 前134年—前129年
元朔 前128年—前123年
元狩 前122年—前117年
元鼎 前116年—前111年
元封 前110年—前105年
太初 前104年—前101年
天汉 前100年—前97年
太始 前96年—前93年
征和 前92年—前89年
后元 前88年—前87年
传记 《史记·孝武本纪》
《汉书·武帝纪》
【相关诗词】
念奴娇 汉武巡朔方
宋:李纲
茂陵仙客，算真是、天与雄才宏略。
猎取天骄驰卫霍，如使鹰鹯驱雀。
鏖战皋兰，犁庭龙碛，饮至行勋爵。
中华疆盛，坐令夷狄衰弱。
追想当日巡行，勒兵十万骑，横临边朔。
亲总貔貅谈笑看，黠虏心惊胆落。
寄语单于，两君相见，何苦逃沙漠。
英风如在，卓然千古高著。
秋风辞（刘彻）
秋风起兮白云飞，草木黄兮雁南归。
兰有秀兮菊有芳，怀佳人兮不能忘。
泛楼船兮济汾河，横中流兮扬素波。
萧鼓鸣兮发棹歌，欢乐极兮哀情多。
少壮几时兮奈老何！
【鉴赏】秋风吹拂，白云飞舞，草木枯黄，叶片飘落，雁鸟都飞回南方去了。刘彻：是汉武帝的名字。武帝见秋风吹起而愁绪满怀，颇有一种感叹年华老去的意味。
金铜仙人辞汉歌 唐 李贺
魏明帝青龙九年八月，
诏宫官牵车西取汉孝武捧露盘仙人，欲立置前殿。
宫官既拆盘，仙人临载乃潸然泪下。
唐诸王孙李长吉遂作《金铜仙人辞汉歌》。
茂陵刘郎秋风客 夜闻马嘶晓无迹 画栏桂树悬秋香 叁十六宫土花碧
魏官牵车走千里 东关酸风射眸子 空将汉月出宫门 忆君情泪如铅水
衰兰送客咸阳道 天若有情天亦老 携盘独出月荒凉 渭城已远声波小
【背景】诗人有感于此，因而借金铜仙人辞汉的史事，来抒发兴亡之感、家国之痛和身世之悲。它设想奇特，而又深沉感人；形象鲜明，而又变幻多姿；词句奇峭，而又妥帖绵密：是李贺的代表作品之一。特别是“天若有情天亦老”一句，已成为传诵千古的名句。
瓠子歌（刘彻）
“瓠子决兮将奈何，浩浩洋洋兮虑殚为河。
殚为河兮地不得宁，功无已时兮吾山平。
吾山平兮巨野溢，鱼弗郁兮柏冬日。
正道弛兮离常流，蛟龙骋兮放远游。
归旧川兮神哉沛，不封禅兮安知外。
皇谓河公兮何不仁，泛滥不止兮愁吾人。
啮桑浮兮淮泗满，久不反兮水维缓。”
【千秋功过】
【旷世武功】
[汉武帝刘彻]
汉武帝刘彻
汉武帝是第一个奠定中国辽阔疆域的皇帝。
千古一帝秦始皇统一六国，建立了秦王朝。但是，以秦帝国的版图之辽阔，不过是汉武帝时代版图的二分之一。
汉武帝对匈奴用兵44年，如此大事武功，在中国历代帝王中，前无古人，后无来者。
建元元年（前140年），武帝执政。其时匈奴气焰嚣张，西域神秘莫测。
汉武帝绝不能忍受乃父乃祖的“和亲外交”，忍气吞声，换取短暂和平。他有足够的财力和人力，持久的雄心和野心，去征服，去开拓。
汉武帝即位第二年（建元二年，前139），派遣张骞出使大月氏，希望借此形成反击匈奴的战略联盟，压缩匈奴的生存空间，实现对匈奴的战略包围。年仅18岁的帝王竟有如此眼光，历朝历皇，谁可比拟？张骞出使西域，开辟了千古丝绸之路，促进了东西方经济与文化的交流；中原汉族政权力量延伸到了今天新疆以西。
即位第八年（元光二年，前133），汉武帝第一次运筹帷幄征战匈奴，马邑之战失利。但是，短暂的失利，丝毫不能影响24岁天子的征战豪情，反而促使汉武帝破釜沉舟，毅然抛弃汉王朝施行近七十年的和亲国策，全力出击匈奴！变和平体制为战争体制，弃祖宗制度启现实制度。其间的勇气和魄力，令人叹为观止！
汉武帝曾在一篇求贤《诏》中说：盖有非常之功，必待非常之人。这篇踌躇满志、殷情恳切的求贤《诏》，收录在萧统《文选》中，千百年来，英雄传诵，志士吟咏。当年汉武帝以此“广延天下人才”，今日反观汉武帝一生功过，此语更是恰如其分！汉武帝之所以立下非常之功，皆因他就是非常之人！
《史记·卫将军骠骑列传》记载汉武帝曾打算亲自教霍去病兵法（天子尝欲教之《孙吴兵法》），霍去病虽未学，但可见汉武帝深通兵法，这是他成为卓越的战略军事家的基础。
论及汉武帝一朝的军事战役，人们往往言必称卫青、霍去病、李广，没有人注意到璀璨四射的将星、帅才背后，远在庙堂之上，那位足以与西方亚历山大、恺撒、拿破仑相匹敌的最高统帅——汉武帝。
当年，汉武帝决意改变祖制、对匈开战，韩安国、汲黯等前朝老臣，公孙弘、主父偃等当朝新锐，纷纷高唱反调。群臣应者寥寥，首战无功而返，年轻的总指挥却岿然不动。此后，河南之战、漠南之战、漠北之战，对匈奴作战的三大重要战役，都由汉武帝亲自决策部署，选将调兵。至于具体的用兵时间、出兵地点、兵力部署、攻击方向，汉武帝都事无巨细，总揽无遗。
与此同时，汉武帝又剑指东方、南方、东南方、东北方，使汉朝的势力到达今天西方的中亚，西南的云贵川，东北的黑吉辽，南方的海南与福建，勾勒出了现代中国版图的基本框架。
但44年旷日持久的征战杀伐，毕竟劳民伤财。对于汉武帝的军事外交战略，司马迁也非常矛盾。《史记·匈奴列传》是中国历史上第一篇少数民族史，司马迁给匈奴立传，把匈奴看作炎黄子孙之一，表达了他对这场战争的性质定位：这是中华民族内部的一场悲剧，战争使双方付出了极高的代价。
虽然当时的汉帝国，还无法形成统一的多民族背景，两个民族最好的办法也应该是和平相处。可惜，到了汉武帝时代，和亲政策已走入绝路，不得已而对匈用兵，司马迁对此是理解的；而战线越拉越长，汉武帝偶有任人失当，司马迁也是痛心疾首。
为了宠幸李夫人，汉武帝任命李广利为贰师将军，率领数万人出征，讨伐大宛，不过艳羡其汗血宝马。结果，打了两年，军队损失十分之八。如此轻率，可谓草菅人命！
欲侯宠姬李氏，拜李广利为贰师将军。发属国六千骑，及郡国恶少年数万人，以往伐宛。期至贰师城，取善马，故号贰师将军。
时间是抚平创痛的良药。和平年代，人心思定，我们早已无法体察战争带来的切肤之痛；所以，今人的评价理智多于感情。而两千多年前，司马迁与天下百姓一道，亲历家园变废墟，忍看朋辈成新鬼；一代史家的良心，使司马迁不可能面对战争之害无动于衷，必然会对汉武帝连年征战，导致民生凋敝有所批评。
【千古文治】
汉武帝是第一个用儒家学说统一中国思想文化的皇帝。
一统江山容易，聚拢人心困难。秦皇汉武深解其中三昧。秦始皇“焚书坑儒”，汉武帝则“独尊儒术”。
窦太后去世前，汉武帝就暗度陈仓，设立五经博士，为尊儒打基础。即位之初，汉武帝迫不及待，举国推选贤良方正直言敢谏。一位寂寞书生董仲舒，凭《天人三策》，石破天惊，脱颖而出。从此，本为民间一家的儒学被指定为官方思想，与政治、皇权紧密相连。
据此，汉武帝创建太学、乡学，设立举贤制度，形成了中国独特的文官制度。秦代至汉初，选拔人才用的是军功爵制；到了汉武帝时代，逐渐转变为察举征辟制，从根本上解决了大汉人才匮乏的局面。
文景崇黄老，宽厚无为，垂拱而治；汉武帝则一反祖宗定法，尊儒术以约束官吏，效法家而严惩贪官，王道霸道，交错为用。而其中尊儒兴教，首立太学，尤予后世以至深影响。倘非此举，儒家学说何以成“教”？倘非此举，华夏文明何以存续？倘非此举，学而优则仕何以体现？
然而，后世不乏对《天人三策》，对“独尊儒术”深恶痛绝者，他们的批评并非毫无道理。
儒家对中国政治：以人为本，民为重，君为轻，社稷次之。水可载舟，亦可覆舟。“独尊儒术”让人们都懂得礼义教化，精忠报国等一个臣子应该做的事。儒家对人才素质：穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下。儒家把“道德”作为衡量一个人的品质，将“从政”作为实现人生价值的一种途径。汉武帝时代，对应内在的儒家统治思想，就是中央集权体制。秦始皇首创了中央集权的政治体制；但是，秦朝短命，未能设计一整套执政方针。西汉王朝，到了汉武帝，彻底肃清了诸侯王分裂势力，巩固了中央政权。
对此，司马迁击节称道！《淮南衡山列传》中，太史公曰：
淮南衡山，亲为骨肉，疆土千里，列为诸侯。不务遵蕃臣职以承辅天子，而专挟邪僻之计谋为畔逆，仍父子再亡国，各不终其身，为天下笑。
秦行郡县，不王不藩，是真正社会政治学意义上的封建体制。刘邦建汉，首封异姓诸王，后封同姓诸王。从政治体制的发展着眼，无疑是一种社会的倒退。继而，吕后大封诸吕，终酿祸乱。因此，直到景帝朝，乃有吴楚七国之乱。汉武帝上接秦始皇，行郡县以推行国家政令，此后两汉四百年，虽有外戚、党锢之祸，但无藩镇之患。
不仅如此，汉武帝在强化中央集权上多方探索，利用酷吏打击权贵即其大手笔之一。
打击不法豪强与贪官污吏，势在必行。但是，酷吏政治走到极端，难免会带来各种后遗症。
司马迁对此直言不讳：其好杀伐行威不爱人如此，天子闻之，以为能，迁为中尉。
汉武帝称赞这样的杀人魔王，提拔他担任中尉，赐予更多的生杀大权。惨遭宫刑、深受酷吏之苦的司马迁，能不有非议吗？
【毁誉参半】
汉武帝是第一个用“罪己诏”进行自我批评的皇帝。
征和四年（前89年），汉武帝向天下人昭告：自己给百姓造成了痛苦，从此不再穷兵黩武、劳民伤财，甚至表白内心悔意。这就是《轮台罪己诏》。这份诏书，是中国历史上第一份帝王罪己诏。
敢于罪己，置自己过失于天下舆论中心，汉武帝无疑是第一人！至此，后代皇帝犯了大错，也会下“罪己诏”，公开认错，展示明君姿态。
直言敢谏的汲黯曾批评汉武帝：皇上杀人太多，即使平日信任的人，也不予宽恕，这样搞下去，天下人才早晚都会被杀光。汉武帝不为所动，漠然一笑：何世无才，只是人主没有识得人才的慧眼，如果能够辨明人才，何必担心天下无才？（上招延士大夫，常如不足。然性严峻，群臣虽素所爱信者，或小有犯法，或欺罔，辄按诛之，无所宽假。汲黯谏曰：陛下求贤甚劳，未尽其用，辄已杀之。以有限之士，恣无已之诛，臣恐天下贤才将尽，陛下谁与共为治乎？黯言之甚怒。上笑而谕之曰：何世无才？患人不能识之耳。苟能识之，何患无人？夫所谓才者，犹有用之器也，有才而不肯尽用。与无才同，不杀何施？）
就是这样一位视人才如草芥的汉武帝，一方面又极端地爱才、惜才。
封建专制体制下，人才使用有两大陋习：一是任人唯亲，只用自己熟悉亲信的人；二是论资排辈，必须按“三十九级台阶”，一级一级往上爬，不能“乱”了规矩。而汉武帝一不会因言废人：只要有才华，主父偃持不同政见，汉武帝照样求贤若渴；二是敢于破格提拔：因为有能力，卫青家奴出身，汉武帝竟然破格提拔。
不仅如此，汉武帝甚至摈弃正统，容纳异类，慧眼发现东方朔，将庄严的朝堂变成一个充满温情和快乐的休息室，君臣之间宛如玩伴；同时，他不以狎亵而丧失原则，对东方朔的诤言击节赞叹，言听计从。
他初读《子虚赋》，即大为倾慕；得见作者司马相如，如获至宝，让他享受与自己同等的写作待遇。能识人、能容人、能用人，汉武帝千古无二。秦始皇、汉高祖视文人为腐儒，唐太宗、清高宗或能知人，终究雅量阙如。
而他生平中的一个错误，就是阉割了中国历史上最伟大的史家——司马迁。汉武帝因此备受误解和争议。
司马迁在《史记》中对他褒有贬，班固的《汉书·武帝纪》对他的文治大加赞扬：
班固赞曰：孝武初立，卓然罢黜百家，表章六经，遂畴咨海内，举其俊茂，与之立功。兴太学，修郊祀，改正朔，定历数，协音律，作诗乐，建封禅，礼百神，绍周后，号令文章，焕然可述，后嗣得遵洪业，而有三代之风。如武帝之雄材大略，不改文景之恭俭以济斯民，虽诗书所称，何有加焉。
班固绝口不提汉武帝的武功，表明对汉武帝的武功是有保留的。
到了司马光的《资治通鉴》，也是表扬、批评兼而有之：
臣光曰：孝武穷奢极欲，繁刑重敛，内侈宫室，外事四夷。信惑神怪，巡游无度。使百姓疲敝起为盗贼，其所以异于秦始皇者无几矣。然秦以之亡，汉以之兴者，孝武能尊先王之道，知所统守，受忠直之言。恶人欺蔽，好贤不倦，诛赏严明。晚而改过，顾托得人。此其所以有亡秦之失而免亡秦之祸乎？
为什么人们对汉武帝的评价分歧如此之大呢？
首先，汉武帝是一个非常多面的人。他是一个政治家，非常有政治头脑；但又是一个普通人，喜怒哀乐俱备。他是一位明君，深知自己的历史责任；但他又是一位暴君，杀伐任性；他既立下盖世之功，又给天下苍生带来巨大灾难；他宠爱他喜欢的女人，可是，他不仅移情别恋，还为了江山，杀掉了自己最宠幸的女人。他绝顶聪明，又异常糊涂；为了传说中的宝马，居然不惜牺牲数万人的生命。当更近地走近他时，我们会发现，在这些对立的角色中，他不是简单地非此即彼。两难之地，非常之时，他也会犹豫不定，甚至异常痛苦；同样有普通人的欢喜和哀愁、小气和算计、失眠和焦虑。在平常人眼里他果决、自信、雄才大略。然而，我们在对他盖棺论定时，往往流于偏激，说好时千古一人；说坏时罄竹难书。这样，分歧就在所难免了。
我们无法使用单一的标准评价任何人。人性本就复杂，更何况封建帝王！或许他的好发自本心，也可能是笼络人心的手段；或许他的坏是皇权使然，不得已而为之，也可能是天性如此，薄情寡恩。因此，既然我们无法剥离他身上的帝王枷锁，我们的评价，就只能在他的帝王与凡人两种身份之间游移。当年天真无邪的“彘儿”，如何蜕变成一个既可爱又可怕的皇帝？怎么可能一言蔽之、一书尽之？
正所谓：
天风浩荡，瀚海阑干，金戈铁马，万死千伤，俱往矣；
长城巍然，丝路悠长，大赋煌煌，美人凄凉，俱往矣；
唇枪舌剑，纵横捭阖，君臣相倾，千秋家国，俱往矣；
威加四海，功震八荒，千载以往，意气飞扬，俱往矣。
唯有孤星冷月，晨钟暮鼓，青灯黄卷，村社戏场，在年年评说，岁岁兴叹。
【汉武帝25项历史性首创】
1、汉武帝是第一位使用年号的皇帝，于公元前113年创建了年号，先是六年一个年号（前140—前104），后来四年一个年号（前104—前87）。
2、汉武帝是第一位在统一的国家制定、颁布太初历的皇帝，以正月为岁首这一点，一直用到现在。
3、汉武帝时期写出了我国第一部纪传体的史书《史记》，对后世的史学产生了巨大影响。
4、汉武帝时期出现了秦统一后我国见于史籍记载的《舆地图》，元狩四年四月丙申，“太仆臣公孙贺行御史大夫事……奏舆地图，请所立国名。”《汉书·武帝纪》载元鼎六年秋“遣浮沮将军公孙贺出九原”，注引臣王赞曰：“ 浮沮，井名，在匈奴中，去九原二千里，见汉舆地图。”据颜师古说，臣王赞生活的时代“在晋初”。这说明汉代的舆地图晋初臣王赞还见过。这也说明汉代已明确出现了关于国家的地域概念。这对后世自然地理研究有不可忽视的影响。
5、举贤良方正直言极谏之士对策，武帝亲自策问，选拔人材做官。就是所谓的察举征召制度。
6、汉武帝独尊儒术，以儒家思想作为国家的统治思想始于此。
7、元朔五年为五经博士置弟子五十人，复其身；地方郡国可按一定条件选送一些人，可受业如弟子。经考试，能通一艺以上，可用作官吏。从国立太学生中选拔官吏始于此。
8、汉武帝在独尊儒术时，又“悉延(引)百端之学”，形成了在以儒家思想为统治思想的同时，又兼用百家的格局。这点对后世也影响巨大。
9、元封二年(前109年)，汉武帝亲临现场督察堵塞黄河瓠子决口。自秦朝统一后，皇帝亲临现场治理黄河，这是第一次。
10、汉武帝时推广耧车(土法播种机)下种，此后这一方法在中国用了两千多年。
11、汉武帝派张骞通西域，打通了丝绸之路，促进了中、西双方的经济、文化交流。这在中国史上属首次。
12、汉武帝元封六年(前105年)以宗世女细君为公主嫁乌孙和亲。这是中国历史上首次与西域国家和亲。
13、在轮台、渠犁屯田，并置使者、校尉。这是中国历史上首次在今中国新疆地区屯田。
14、汉武帝时用井渠法作龙首渠，后传入今中国新疆地区，并进而入波斯等地。
15、从西域引进葡萄、苜蓿种植，从大宛引进了良种马———天马，西域的乐曲、魔术传至中国，中国的铸铁技术、丝织品、丼渠法、漆器传至大宛等地。
16、汉武帝外施仁义，实行德治；同时又重视法治，用严刑峻法治理国家。这在历史上也是首次。
17、元封五年(前106年)，为加强对诸侯王和地方高官的监察，置十三州部刺史，令六百石级别的刺史督察二千石级别的郡国守相。
18、为加强皇权，改革丞相制度，设立中朝(内朝)，对后来的丞相制度演变发生了重大影响。
19、元鼎二年(前115年)禁郡国铸钱，专令国家所属上林三官铸钱，非三官钱不得流通，郡国以前所铸钱皆废销。对后世影响重大。
20、汉武帝通过大量移民在西北边郡屯田，这对反击匈奴战争的胜利、经营西域起了重大作用。对后世也有重大影响，曹操在《置屯田令》中曾说“孝武以屯田定西域，此先代之良式也”，就说明了这一点。
21、汉武帝时任用官吏是多元化的。二千石以上官吏可通过任子制度使子孙当官；有钱人可通过“ 赀选”当官；先贤的后裔可以受照顾，如贾谊的两个儿子就被关照当了郡守。然而，尤为突出的是武帝用人惟才是举、不拘一格。如皇后卫子夫是从奴婢中选拔出来的。卫青、霍去病分别是从奴仆和奴产子中选拔出来的。而丞相公孙弘、御史大夫儿宽，以及严助、朱买臣等人都是从贫苦平民中选拔上来的；御史大夫张汤、杜周和廷尉赵禹则是从小吏中选拔出来的。尤其值得注意的是汉武帝任用的一些将军是越人、匈奴人。而金日磾（音:jin'mi'di）这样一位匈奴的俘虏在宫中养马的奴隶，竟然与霍光、上官桀一齐被选拔为托孤的重臣。这些情况说明汉武帝选拔人才是不受阶级出身与民族差别限制的。然而，这不是说汉武帝用人没有标准，标准还是有的，标准就是“博开艺能之路，悉延百端之学”，“州郡察吏民有茂材异者，可为将相及使绝国者”。这就是说，只要愿为汉朝事业奋斗，有艺能、有才干的人，能为将相和可以出使遥远国度的人都可任用。一句话，用人的标准是惟才是举。正因如此，汉武帝时人才济济。班固就惊叹地说：“汉之得人，于此为盛!”这种现象的出现是值得认真研究的。
22、汉武帝是中国历史上第一位派大军深入匈奴腹地进行决战的皇帝。
23、汉武帝是中国历史上第一位提出要北方游牧民族———匈奴臣服于中原王朝的皇帝，为此又在今内蒙筑受降城。武帝生前虽未达此目的，但在宣、元时期，匈奴归服汉朝为藩臣。
24、李广利伐大宛后，西域南道诸国多臣服于汉，宣帝神爵二年(前60年)，匈奴日逐王降汉，匈奴不敢争西域，罢僮仆都尉。宣帝任命郑吉为西域督护，管理西域南、北道诸国，西域诸国臣服于汉。至此，西边直达里海，都成为了汉朝的疆域，这在中国历史上是首次。
25、汉武帝平定南越后，首次在今海南岛置儋耳郡、珠崖郡，统治了今天的海南岛与南海诸岛的地区。
【武帝男宠】
史记卷百二十五·佞幸列传第六十五
今天子中宠臣，士人则韩王孙嫣，宦者则李延年。嫣者，弓高侯孽孙也。今上为胶东王时，嫣与上学书相爱。及上为太子，愈益亲嫣。嫣善骑射，善佞。上即位，欲事伐匈奴，而嫣先习胡兵，以故益尊贵，官至上大夫，赏赐拟於邓通。时嫣常与上卧起。江都王入朝，有诏得从入猎上林中。天子车驾跸道未行，而先使嫣乘副车，从数十百骑，骛驰视兽。江都王望见，以为天子，辟从者，伏谒道傍。嫣驱不见。既过，江都王怒，为皇太后泣曰：「请得归国入宿卫，比韩嫣。」太后由此嗛嫣。嫣侍上，出入永巷不禁，以奸闻皇太后。皇太后怒，使使赐嫣死。上为谢，终不能得，嫣遂死。而案道侯韩说，其弟也，亦佞幸。
李延年，中山人也。父母及身兄弟及女，皆故倡也。延年坐法腐，给事狗中。而平阳公主言延年女弟善舞，上见，心说之，及入永巷，而召贵延年。延年善歌，为变新声，而上方兴天地祠，欲造乐诗歌弦之。延年善承意，弦次初诗。其女弟亦幸，有子男。延年佩二千石印，号协声律。与上卧起，甚贵幸，埒如韩嫣也。久之，寖与中人乱，出入骄恣。及其女弟李夫人卒后，爱弛，则禽诛延年昆弟也。
自是之后，内宠嬖臣大底外戚之家，然不足数也。卫青、霍去病亦以外戚贵幸，然颇用材能自进。
《史记·佞幸列传》这一章集中介绍了以色侍君的男人（“谚曰「力田不如逢年，善仕不如遇合」，固无虚言。非独女以色媚，而士宦亦有之”）。根据以上描述，刘彻还是一位双性恋者。明确记载于史书上的男宠有韩嫣、李延年、韩说，以及为武帝弄儿的金日磾之子。这一章节虽然列出了卫青、霍去病，但是司马迁也承认虽然一开始卫青、霍去病是因为裙带关系受到宠信的，不过他们凭借自己的才能建功立业，成了汉朝的名将，与前者是不同的。
【汉武帝生年考】
根据《史记.外戚列传》记载：男方在身时，王美人梦日入其怀。以告太子，太子曰：“此贵徵也。”未生而孝文帝崩，孝景帝即位，王夫人生男。即武帝也。孝景帝即位是公元前157年7月14日，所以汉武帝生于公元前157年，崩于公元前87年3月29日，享年70岁
【金屋藏娇】
【解释】娇：原指汉武帝刘彻的表姐陈阿娇。汉武帝幼小时喜爱阿娇，并说要让她住在金屋里。指以华丽的房屋让所爱的妻妾居住。也指取妾。
【出处】汉·班固《汉武故事》：“若得阿娇作妇，当作金屋贮之也。”
【典故】
·陈阿娇与汉武帝的政治色彩
在汉武帝时代，陈阿娇（陈皇后）实际上是一个历史悲剧人物。
其实陈皇后的悲剧遭遇还有政治的因素。当初武帝被立为太子，靠的是其姑母长公主刘嫖。条件是刘彻娶长公主独女陈阿娇为妻。长公主自恃拥立皇帝有功，而武帝深患之。而陈皇后也极为骄悍，于是刘彻疏远阿娇。而刘彻的母亲王太后立即警告他说：你新即皇位，大臣未服。先为改制，太皇太后已怒。现“又忤怒长公主，必重得罪，宜深慎之！”所谓“大臣未服”，即指公卿权贵中反对刘彻的暗流。所谓“必重得罪”，就是皇帝要当不成了。武帝此时还没有力量和窦氏较量，在他任命的重臣赵绾提出窦氏不应再干涉朝政时，惹恼了窦氏。窦氏逼迫武帝废除了刚刚实行的一系列的改革措施，自己任命的丞相和太尉也被迫罢免，有的大臣被逼死狱中。而刘彻是极其聪明之人，马上转而恩礼长公主、陈皇后。从建元二年至建元六年间，他四处游浪射猎，不再过问大政方针。由于长公主的保护与刘彻的韬光养晦，才使他的帝位得以保全。
【庙号谥号】
庙号“世宗”，谥号“孝武”，葬“茂陵”（前139—前87年间修建）。
【后人评价】
班固（32—92）
汉承百王之弊，高祖拨乱反正，文、景务在养民，至于稽古礼文之事，犹多阙焉。孝武初立，卓然罢黜百家，表章《六经》。遂畤咨海内，举其俊茂，与之立功。兴太学，修郊祀，改正朔，定历数，协音律，作诗乐，建封礻亶，礼百神，绍周后，号令文章，焕焉可述。后嗣得遵洪业，而有三代之风。如武帝之雄材大略，不改文、景之恭俭以济斯民，虽《诗》、《书》所称，何有加焉！
——《汉书·武帝纪》
司马贞
孝武纂极，四海承平。志尚奢丽，尤敬神明。坛开八道，接通五城。朝亲五利，夕拜文成。祭非祀典，巡乖卜征。登嵩勒岱，望景传声。迎年祀日，改历定正。疲秏中土，事彼边兵。日不暇给，人无聊生。俯观嬴政，几欲齐衡。
——《史记索隐》
石剑（1995年5月20日—，江苏省南京市雨花台区梅山街道人）
历史学家对汉武帝感情复杂。一方面他被公认为打击了匈奴并大大扩张了中国版图的皇帝，在他的统治时期中国疆土扩大了两倍，大部分他新纳入版图的领土都成为中国固有疆域的永久组成部分。他缔造的帝国超过了同时期的罗马帝国并领先于整个世界，无论在经济方面还是军事方面。他更大的成就是促进了儒学，儒学成为中国占统治地位的学说直到1912年君主制被推翻。另一方面，许多历史批评家指责他的奢侈、迷信和他加在人民身上的沉重政治负担。他经常被人与秦始皇相提并论，世人将之合称为“秦皇汉武”。他的确和秦始皇一样，他用严厉的刑罚系统统治整个国家，却又是一个富传奇性色彩的人物。
He ordered the first census in recorded history of China to take place in his reign.
While establishing an autocratic and centralized state, Emperor Wu adopted the principles of Confucianism as the state philosophy and code of ethics for his empire and started a school to teach future administrators the Confucian classics. These reforms would have an enduring effect throughout the existence of imperial China and an enormous influence on neighboring civilizations. Emperor Wu's reign lasted 54 years — a record that would not be broken until the reign of the Kangxi Emperor more than 1800 years later.
Background, birth, and years as crown prince
Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite concubines, Consort Wang Zhi in 156 BC. His mother had initially been married once, to a commoner called Jin Wangsun (金王孫) and had a daughter from that marriage. However, her mother Zang Er (臧兒) (a granddaughter of one-time Prince of Yan, Zang Tu (臧荼), under Emperor Gao) was told by a fortuneteller that both Wang Zhi and her sister would one day become extremely honored. Zang got the idea to offer them to Crown Prince Liu Qi (later Emperor Jing) and forcibly divorced Wang Zhi from her husband in the process. A son was born shortly after Prince Qi succeeded the throne from his deceased father Emperor Wen.
When Consort Wang was pregnant, she claimed that she dreamed of a sun falling into her womb. It was also said that Emperor Jing dreamed of a crimson boar descending from the cloud into the palace. The young, newly born prince was therefore named Liu Zhi (劉彘), with Zhi literally meaning "boar", but also implying the dragon — a mystical sign of nobility and fortune. In 153 BC, Prince Zhi was made the Prince of Jiaodong.
As Emperor Jing's formal wife Empress Bo had no children, his oldest son Liu Rong (劉榮), born to his another favorite concubine Consort Li (栗姬), was created crown prince in 153 BC. Consort Li was arrogant and easily jealous, and she hoped to become empress after Empress Bo was deposed in 151 BC. However, her lack of tact and bad personality would give Consort Wang a break. When Consort Li, out of a grudge to Emperor Jing's sister Princess Piao (劉嫖), refused to let her son marry Princess Piao's daughter Chen Jiao, Consort Wang took the opportunity and had Chen Jiao betrothed to Prince Zhi. Princess Piao then began incessantly criticize Consort Li for her jealousy — pointing out that if Consort Li became empress dowager, many concubines might suffer the fates of Consort Qi, Emperor Gao's favorite concubine who was tortured, mutilated and killed by Emperor Gao's wife Empress Dowager Lü (呂后) after Emperor Gao's death. Emperor Jing was shocked upon the suggestion, and decided that such risk must be prevented. He deposed Prince Rong from the successor position in 150 BC. Consort Li, enraged and humiliated with the turn of event, died very soon after. Prince Rong later was charged with committing misconducts, and committed suicide in custody.
That year, Consort Wang was created empress, and Prince Zhi became the crown prince, with his name changed to Liu Che. Given his young age, there was not much record of any accomplishments by him while being the Crown Prince. When Emperor Jing died in 141 BC, Crown Prince Che succeeded to the throne as Emperor Wu at age 15.
Early reign: the young years
After Emperor Wu ascended the throne, his grandmother Empress Dowager Dou became the Grand Empress Dowager, and his mother Empress Wang became the Empress Dowager. He made his wife (and cousin, with Empress Chen being the daughter of his aunt) Chen Jiao empress.
In 140 BC, Emperor Ju of Szak conducted an imperial examination of over 100 young scholars recommended by officials, most of them commoners with no noble background. This event would prove to have a major impact on Chinese history, as it was the official start of the establishment of Confucianism as official imperial doctrine. This came about because a young Confucian scholar, Dong Zhongshu, was evaluated to have submitted the best essay, in which he advocated the establishment of Confucianism. It is unclear whether Emperor Wu, in his young age, actually determined this, or whether this was the result of machinations of the prime minister Wei Wan (衛綰), who was himself a Confucian. However, the fact that several other young scholars who scored highly on the examination (but interestingly enough, not Dong) later became trusted advisors for Emperor Wu would appear to suggest that Emperor Wu himself at least had some actual participation.
The first few years of Emperor Wu's reign saw the administration dominated by three figures — his grandmother Grand Empress Dowager Dou, his mother Empress Dowager Wang, and her half-brother Tian Fen (田蚡), who was created Marquess of Wu'an and made the commander of the armed forces after Emperor Wu became emperor. However, even during these years, Emperor Wu found chances to assert himself at times but found himself occasionally curbed by them. For example, in 139 BC, when Confucian officials Zhao Wan (趙綰) and Wang Zang (王臧), who were disliked by the grand empress dowager because she was an adherent to Taoism rather than Confucianism, advised the emperor to no longer consult the grand empress dowager, she had them tried for corruption, and resulting them committing suicide in prison. Emperor Wu was forced to submit to his grandmother, with his throne under jeopardy for years, sustained only by mediation through his aunt/mother-in-law, Princess Piao.
However, Emperor Wu was far from giving up. Disappointed totally over the lack of foresight displayed by older, conservative generations of nobles, he decided to create his own thinktanks. He was constantly on the look out for young, capable officials around his age, whose suggestions for governing the state that he agreed with, and he took them into a close circle and promoted them out of normal seniority rotations. Unlike some other emperors in history who carried out these techniques, he was also not hesitant to remind these advisors that he was their overlord — including punishing them severely or even executing them if they were found to have been corrupt or have hidden petty, ugly secrets from him. On the other hand, he respected those officials who did not flatter him and would honestly rebuke him when they saw fit, the most famous of whom was Ji An (汲黯), whose offensive and brutal comments often gave Emperor Wu fears of staying in front of him, but he respected Ji's integrity sincerely. He also showed typical young male rebelliousness at times, often sneaking out of the capital disguised as an ordinary marquess, for hunting and sightseeing.
Emperor Wu's marriage to Empress Chen was initially a happy one — so much so that he once boasted to her mother, Princess Piao, that he would build a golden house for Empress Chen. (This led to the Chinese idiom "putting Jiao in a golden house" (金屋藏嬌), which, however, became a term for keeping a mistress rather than a wife.) However, this did not last, at least partly because Empress Chen never bore him a son, even after she was treated by physicians. Later, while visiting his sister Princess Pingyang, he was entertained by a female singer/dancer Wei Zifu, the daughter of one of the princess' lowly lady servants, and Princess Pingyang offered Wei to become one of Emperor Wu's consorts. She became his favorite. Empress Chen was so jealous that she attempted suicide several times, but each time she failed; each attempt made Emperor Wu more angry at her. Princess Piao, in order to avenge her daughter, tried to have Consort Wei's brother Wei Qing kidnapped and secretly executed, but Wei Qing was saved just in time by his friends. Emperor Wu promoted both Consort Wei and Wei Qing in front of the Empress and her mother, initially out of protest, but later he discovered qualities in Wei Qing and made him one of his closest attendants, and later a general.
In 135 BC, after Grand Empress Dowager Dou died, Emperor Wu began to assert himself even more. While Empress Dowager Wang and Tian Fen were still influential, they found that they no longer had as much control over the emperor as they formerly did.
Around the same time, Emperor Wu started to show will and aptitude for territorial expansion. The first example came in 138 BC, when Minyue (modern Fujian) attacked Donghai (modern Zhejiang) and Donghai sought help from Han, Emperor Wu acted quickly to try to relieve Donghai, over Tian's opposition. Upon hearing news of Han's expedition force being dispatched, Minyue withdrew. Fearful of another Minyue attack, Luo Wang (駱望), the King of Donghai, purportedly requested that his people be allowed to relocate into China proper, and Emperor Wu relocated them to the region between the Yangtze and Huai Rivers. In 135 BC, when Minyue attacked Nanyue, Nanyue also sought assistance from Han even though it probably had enough strength to defend itself — a sign of submission to the emperor's authority. Emperor Wu was greatly pleased by this gesture, and he dispatched an expedition force to attack Minyue, over the objection of one of his key advisors, Liu An, a royal relative and the Prince of Huainan. Minyue nobles, fearful of the massive Chinese force, assassinated their king Luo Ying (駱郢) and sought peace. In a stroke of genius, Emperor Wu imposed a dual-monarchy system on Minyue by creating kings out of Luo Ying's brother Luo Yushan (駱餘善) and grandson Luo Chou (駱丑), thus ensuring internal discord in Minyue. As to Xiongnu, he maintained heqin for sometime.
Maturity in reign and territorial expansion
The peace with Xiongnu would not last, however, because Emperor Wu was not satisfied with what he saw as appeasement of the Xiongnu. In 133 BC, at the suggestion of Wang Hui (王恢), the minister of vassal affairs, he had his generals set a trap for the Xiongnu Chanyu Junchen (軍臣). Under the plan, a power local gentleman, Nie Yi (聶壹) from Mayi (馬邑, in modern Shuozhou, Shanxi) falsely claimed to offer Mayi to Xiongnu after killing the county magistrate to try to entice Chanyu Junchen into advancing on Mayi, while Han forces hid around Mayi to be ready to surprise the chanyu. The plan failed when a soldier captured by Xiongnu disclosed the entire plan to Chanyu Junchen, who then withdrew quickly before the Han forces could ambush him. This ended the peace between Han and Xiongnu, and for years there were continued border skirmishes even though, oddly, the states remained trade partners.
Emperor Wu dispatching Zhang Qian to Central Asia from 138 to 126 BCE, Mogao Caves mural, 618-712 CE.Another major battle was pitched in 129 BC when Xiongnu attacked the Commandery of Shanggu (上谷, roughly modern Zhangjiakou, Hebei), Emperor Wu dispatched four generals, Li Guang, Gongsun Ao (公孫敖), Gongsun He (公孫賀) and Wei Qing, each leading a 10,000-strong cavalry against Xiongnu. Both Li Guang and Gongsun Ao suffered major losses at Xiongnu's hands, and Gongsun He failed to find and engage the enemy, but Wei Qing distinguished himself with a long-distance raid on a Xiongnu holy site and was promoted to a larger command. In 127 BC, a force commanded by Wei defeated a substantial Xiongnu force and allowed Han to occupy the Shuofang (朔方) region (modern western central Inner Mongolia centering Ordos), the region was immediately settled with 100,000 Chinese colonists. The city of Shuofang (朔方) was built, and would later become a key post from which offensives against Xiongnu would be launched. When Xiongnu tried to attack Shuofang in 124 BC, Wei surprised them by attacking them from the rear and took about 15,000 captives — and at this battle, his nephew Huo Qubing (霍去病) distinguished himself in battle and was given his own command. In 121 BC, Huo had a major victory over the Xiongnu Princes of Hunxie (渾邪王) and Xiutu (休屠王) — which had unforeseen good results for Han. When Chanyu Yizhixie (伊稚邪) heard of the loss, he wanted to punish those princes harshly. The Prince of Hunxie, fearful of such punishment, after being unable to persuade the Prince of Xiutu, killed the Prince of Xiutu and surrendered his forces, which then controlled the Gansu region, to Han, and this turned out to be a major blow to Xiongnu, robbing Xiongnu of a major grazing region and other natural resources. Emperor Wu established five commanderies over the region and encouraged Chinese to relocate to the Gansu region, which has remained in Chinese hands ever since. The region would also become important staging grounds for the subjugation of Xiyu (西域, modern Xinjiang and former Soviet central Asia).
The exploration into Xiyu was first started in 139 BC, that Emperor Wu commissioned Zhang Qian to seek out the Kingdom of Yuezhi, which had been expelled by Xiongnu from the modern Gansu region, to entice it to return to its ancestral lands with promises of Han military assistance, in order to fight against Xiongnu together. Zhang was immediately captured by Xiongnu once he ventured into the desert, but was able to escape around 129 BC and eventually made it to Yuezhi, which by then had relocated to Samarkand. While Yuezhi refused to return, it and several other kingdoms in the area, including Dayuan (Kokand) and Kangju, established diplomatic relationships with Han. Zhang was able to deliver his report to Emperor Wu when he arrived back in the capital Chang'an in 126 BC after a second and shorter captivity by Xiongnu. After the Prince of Hunxie surrendered the Gansu region, the path to Xiyu became clear, and regular embassies between Han and the Xiyu kingdoms commenced.
Han Wudi sent ambassadors to the Dian Kingdom in Yunnan. Bronze sculpture depicting Dian people, 3rd century BCE.Another expansion plan, this one aimed at the southwest, was soon initiated as well. The impetus for this expansion was aimed at eventual conquest of Nanyue, which was viewed as an unreliable vassal, by first obtaining the submission the southwestern tribal kingdoms — the largest of which was Yelang (modern Zunyi, Guizhou) — so that a route for a potential back-stabbing attack on Nanyue could be made. The Han ambassador Tang Meng (唐蒙) was able to secure the submission of these tribal kingdoms by giving their kings gifts, and Emperor Wu established the Commandery of Jianwei (犍為, headquarters in modern Yibin, Sichuan) to govern over the tribes, but eventually abandoned it after being unable to cope with native revolts. Later, after Zhang Qian returned from the western region, part of his report indicated that by going through the southwestern kingdoms, embassies could reach Shendu (India) and Anxi (Parthia) easier. Encouraged by the report, in 122 BC, Emperor Wu sent ambassadors to try to again persuade Yelang and Dian (滇, modern eastern Yunnan) into submission.
Emperor Wu also made an aborted expansion into the Korean Peninsula by establishing the Commandery of Canghai (蒼海), but abandoned it in 126 BC.
It was also during this time that Emperor Wu began to show a fascination with immortality, and he began to associate with magicians who claimed to be able to, if they could find the proper ingredients, create divine pills that would confer immortality. However, he himself punished others' use of magic severely. In 130 BC, for example, when Empress Chen was found to have retained witches to curse Consort Wei and to try to regain Emperor Wu's affections, he had her deposed and the witches executed.
In 128 BC, Consort Wei bore Emperor Wu his first-born son, Liu Ju. She was created empress later that year, and he was created crown prince in 122 BC.
In 122 BC, Liu An, the Prince of Huainan (a previously trusted advisor of Emperor Wu), and his brother Liu Ci (劉賜), the Prince of Hengshan, were accused of plotting treason. Both of them committed suicide, and their families and alleged coconspirators were executed.
Emperor Wu worshipping two statues of Golden Man (or Buddha) in 120 BC, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, ca. 8th century CE. (However, note that there is no historical record of Emperor Wu actually being aware of Buddhism. The first confirmed contact between a Chinese emperor and Buddhist doctrines would not happen until a century later, during the reign of Emperor Ming.)In 119 BC, Emperor Wu broke the normal pattern of reacting against Xiongnu attacks, by making a major excursion against Xiongnu's headquarters. Wei and Huo's forces were able to make a direct assault on Chanyu Yizhixie's forces, nearly capturing him and annihilating his army. It was at this battle, however, that the famous general Li Guang, whose fortunes had been effectively sabotaged by Wei's strategic plan (who, as the supreme commander, had ordered Li to take a flanking route through a region without Xiongnu forces but which lacked food and water, resulting in Li's forces becoming lost and unable to join the main forces), committed suicide after being told that he would be court-martialed for his failures. Even though both Wei and Huo were successful, Emperor Wu particularly praised Huo and rewarded him with many others; it was from this point on that Huo began to receive primacy over the forces over his uncle Wei. After Xiongnu suffered these heavy losses, the Chanyu sought heqin peace with Han again, but broke off peace talks after Han made it clear that it wanted Xiongnu to become a vassal instead.
Around the same time, perhaps as a sign of what would be to come, Emperor Wu began to trust governing officials who were harsh in their punishments. For example, one of those officials, Yi Zong (義縱), when he became the governor of the Commandery of Dingxiang (part of modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), executed 200 prisoners even though they had not committed capital crimes — and then executed their friends who happened to be visiting as well. Emperor Wu came to believe that this would be the most effective method to maintain social order and so put these officials in power. A famous wrongful execution happened in 117 BC, the victim of which was the minister of agriculture Yan Yi (顏異). Yan had previously offended the emperor by opposing a plan to effectively extort double tributes out of princes and marquesses — by requiring them to place their tributes on white deer skin, which the central government would sell them at an exorbitantly high price. Later, Yan was falsely accused of committing a crime, and during the investigation, it became known that once, when a friend of Yan's criticized a law promulgated by the emperor, Yan, while not saying anything, moved his lips. Yan was executed for "internal defamation" of the emperor, and this caused the officials to be fearful and willing to flatter the emperor.
Further territorial expansion, old age, and paranoia
Starting about 113 BC, Emperor Wu appeared to begin to display further signs of abusing his power. He began to incessantly tour the commanderies, initially nearby Chang'an, but later extending to much farther places, worshipping the various gods on the way, perhaps again in the search of immortality. He also had a succession of magicians whom he honored with great things, even, in one case, making one a marquess and marrying a daughter to him. (That magician, Luan Da (欒大), after he was exposed to be a fraud, however, was executed.) Emperor Wu's expenditures on these tours and magical adventures put a great strain on the national treasury and caused difficulties on the locales that he visited, twice causing the governors of commanderies to commit suicide after they were unable to supply the emperor's entire train.
In 112 BC, a crisis in the Kingdom of Nanyue (modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam) would erupt that would lead to military intervention by Emperor Wu. At that time, the King Zhao Xing (趙興) and his mother Queen Dowager Jiu (樛太后) — a Chinese woman whom Zhao Xing's father Zhao Yingqi (趙嬰齊) had married while he served as an ambassador to Han — were both in favor of becoming incorporated into Han. This was opposed by the senior prime minister Lü Jia (呂嘉), who wanted to maintain the kingdom's independence. Queen Dowager Jiu tried to goad the Chinese ambassadors into killing Lü, but the Chinese ambassadors were hesitant to do so. When Emperor Wu sent a 2,000-men force, led by Han Qianqiu (韓千秋) and Queen Dowager Jiu's brother Jiu Le (樛樂), to try to assist the king and the queen dowager, Lü staged a coup d'etat and had the king and the queen dowager killed. He made another son of Zhao Yingqi, Zhao Jiande (趙建德), king. He then annihilated the Han forces under Han and Jiu. Several months later, Emperor Wu commissioned a five-pronged attack against Nanyue. In 111 BC, the Han forces captured the Nanyue capital Panyu (番禺, modern Guangzhou) and annexed the entire Nanyue territory into Han, establishing nine commanderies.
Later that year, one of the co-kings of Minyue (modern Fujian), Luo Yushan, fearful that Han would next attack his kingdom, made a preemptive attack against Han, capturing a number of towns in the former Nanyue and in the other border commanderies. In 110 BC, under Han military pressure, his co-king Luo Jugu (駱居古) assassinated Luo Yushan and surrendered the kingdom to Han. However, Emperor Wu did not establish commanderies in Minyue's former territory, but moved its people to the region between Yangtze and Huai Rivers.
Later that year, Emperor Wu, at great expense, carried out the ancient ceremony of fengshan (封禪) at Mount Tai — ceremonies to worship heaven and earth, and to offer a secret petition to the gods of heaven and earth, presumably seeking immortality. (He decreed that he would return to Mount Tai every five years to repeat the ceremony, but only did once, in 98 BC; still, many palaces were built for him and the princes to accommodate the anticipated cycles of the ceremony.)
It was around this time that, in reaction to the large expenditures by Emperor Wu that had exhausted the national treasury, his agricultural minister Sang Hongyang (桑弘羊) conceived of a plan that many dynasties would repeat later, by creating national monopolies for salt and iron. The national treasury would further purchase other consumer goods when the prices were low and sell them when the prices were high at profit, thus replenishing the treasury while at the same time making sure the price fluctuation would not be too great.
In 109 BC, Emperor Wu would start yet another territorial expansion campaign. Nearly a century ago, a Chinese general Wei Man had established a kingdom, which he named Chaoxian or Joseon at Wangxian (王險, modern Pyongyang), which became a nominal Han vassal. A conflict would erupt in 109 BC, when Wei Man's grandson Wei Youqu (衛右渠, 위우거) refused to permit Jin's ambassadors to reach China through his territories. When Emperor Wei sent an ambassador She He (涉何) to Wangxian to negotiate right of passage with King Youqu, King Youqu refused and had a general escort She back to Han territory — but when they got close to Han borders, She assassinated the general and claimed to Emperor Wu that he had defeated Joseon in battle, and Emperor Wu, unaware of his deception, made him the military commander of the Commandery of Liaodong (modern central Liaoning). King Youqu, offended, made a raid on Liaodong and killed She. In response, Emperor Wu commissioned a two-pronged attack, one by land and one by sea, against Joseon. Initially, Joseon offered to become a vassal, but peace negotiations broke down by the Chinese forces' refusal to let a Joseon force escort its crown prince to Chang'an to pay tribute to Emperor Wu. The two forces attacking Joseon were unable to coordinate well with each other and eventually suffered large losses. Eventually the commands were merged, and Wangxian fell. Han took over the Joseon lands and established four commanderies.
Also in 109 BC, Emperor Wu sent an expeditionary force against the Kingdom of Dian (modern eastern Yunnan), planning on conquering it, but when the King of Dian surrendered, Dian was incorporated into Han territory with the King of Dian being permitted to keep his traditional authority and title. Emperor Wu established five commanderies over Dian and the other nearby kingdoms.
In 108 BC, Emperor Wu sent general Zhao Ponu (趙破奴) on a campaign to Xiyu, and he forced the Kingdoms of Loulan (on northeast border of the Taklamakan Desert and Cheshi (modern Turpan, Xinjiang) into submission. In 105 BC, Emperor Wu gave a princess from a remote collateral imperial line to Kunmo (昆莫), the King of Wusun (Issyk Kol basin) in marriage, and she later married his grandson and successor Qinqu (芩娶), creating a strong and stable alliance between Han and Wusun. The various Xiyu kingdoms would also strengthen their relationships with Han, in general. An infamous Han war against the nearby Kingdom of Dayuan (Kokand) would soon erupt in 104 BC. Dayuan refused to give in to Emperor Wu's commands to surrender its best horses, Emperor Wu's ambassadors were then executed when they insulted the King of Dayuan after his refusal. Emperor Wu commissioned Li Guangli (李廣利), the brother of a favorite concubine Consort Li, as a general against Dayuan. In 103 BC, Li Guangli's army of 26,000 men (20,000 Chinese & 6,000 steppe cavalry), without adequate supplies, suffered a humiliating loss against Dayuan, but in 102 BC, Li with a new army of 60,000 men, was able to put a devastating siege on its capital by cutting off water supplies to the city, forcing Dayuan's surrender 3,000 of its prized horses. This Han victory further intimidated the Xiyu kingdoms into submission.
Emperor Wu also made attempts to try to intimidate Xiongnu into submission, but even though peace negotiations were ongoing, Xiongnu would never actually submit to becoming a Han vassal during Emperor Wu's reign. In 103 BC, indeed, Chanyu Er would surround Zhao Ponu and capture his entire army — the first major Xiongnu victory since Wei Qing and Huo Qubing nearly captured the chanyu in 119 BC. Following Han's victory over Dayuan in 102 BC, however, Xiongnu became concerned that Han could then concentrate against it, and made peace overtures, but peace negotiations would be destroyed when the Han deputy ambassador Zhang Sheng (張勝) was discovered to have conspired to assassinate Chanyu Qiedihou (且鞮侯). The ambassador, the later-famed Su Wu would be detained for two decades. In 99 BC, Emperor Wu commissioned another expedition force aimed at crushing Xiongnu, but both prongs of the expedition force would fail — Li Guangli's forces became trapped but was able to free itself and withdraw, while Li Ling (李陵), Li Guang's grandson, surrendered at the end after being surrounded and inflicting large losses on Xiongnu forces. One year later, receiving an inaccurate report that Li Ling was training Xiongnu soldiers, Emperor Wu had Li's clan executed. Li's friend, the famed historian Sima Qian (whom Emperor Wu already bore a grudge against because Sima's Shiji was not as flattering to Emperor Wu and his father Emperor Jing as Emperor Wu wanted), who tried to defend Li's actions, was castrated.
In 106 BC, in order the further better organize the territories, including both the previously-existing empire and the newly conquered territories, Emperor Wu divided the empire into 13 Regions (zhou, 州), but without governors or prefectural governments at this time — that would come later. Rather, he assigned a supervisor to each prefecture, who would visit the commanderies and principalities in the prefecture on a rotating basis to investigate corruption and disobedience with imperial edicts.
In 104 BC, Emperor Wu built the luxurious Jianzhang Palace (建章宮) — a massive structure that was intended to make him closer to the gods. He would later reside at that palace exclusively rather than the traditional Weiyang Palace (未央宮), which Xiao He had built during the reign of Emperor Gao.
About 100 BC, due to the heavy taxation and military burdens imposed by Emperor Wu's incessant military campaigns and luxury spending, there were many peasant revolts throughout the empire. Emperor Wu issued an edict that was intended at suppressing the peasant revolts, by making officials whose commanderies saw unsuppressed peasant revolts liable with their lives — but which had the exact opposite effect, since it became impossible to suppress all of the revolts, and the officials would merely cover up the existence of the revolts.
In 96 BC, a series of witchcraft persecutions would begin. Emperor Wu, who was paranoid over a nightmare of being whipped by tiny stick-wielding puppets and a sighting of a traceless assassin (possibly a hallucination), ordered extensive investigations with harsh punishments. Large numbers of people, many of whom were high officials, were accused of witchcraft and executed, usually with their entire clans. The first trial began with Empress Wei's elder brother-in-law Gongsun He (公孫賀, the Prime Minister at the time) and his son Gongsun Jingsheng (公孫敬聲, also an imperial official, but under corruption charges), quickly leading to the execution of their entire clan. Also caught in this disaster were Crown Prince Ju's two elder sisters Princess Yangshi (陽石公主, who was said to have a romantic relationship with her cousin Gongsun Jingsheng) and Princess Zhuyi (諸邑公主), as well as his cousin Wei Kang (衛伉, the eldest son of the deceased general Wei Qing), who were all accused of witchcraft and executed in 91 BC. Soon, these witchcraft persecutions would become intertwined in the succession struggles and erupt into a major catastrophe.
The Crown Prince Ju revolt
In 94 BC, Emperor Wu's youngest son Liu Fuling was born to a favorite concubine of his, Consort Zhao. Emperor Wu was ecstatic in having a child at such an advanced age (62 years old), and because Consort Zhao purportedly had a post-term pregnancy that lasted 14 months long — same as the mythical Emperor Yao — he named Consort Zhao's palace gate "Gate of Yao's mother". This led to speculations that the Emperor, due to his favor for Consort Zhao and Prince Fuling, wanted to make Liu Fuling the crown prince instead. While there was no evidence that he actually intended to do anything as such, over the next few years, there began to be conspirators against Crown Prince Ju and Empress Wei under the inspiration of such rumors.
Up to this point, there had been a cordial but somehow fragile relationship between Emperor Wu and his crown prince. Even though Emperor Wu, as he grew older, had less and less attraction to Empress Wei, he continued to respect her. Whenever Emperor Wu was outside the capital, he would leave important affairs for Crown Prince Ju to handle, and when he got back to the capital, Emperor Wu usually had no disagreements with Prince Ju's decisions and would not overrule them. However, as Emperor Wu grew older and became more trusting of harsh (sometimes corrupt) officials, Prince Ju, who favored more lenient policies, often advised his father to consider changes to the way he ran the country. This created some annoyance for Emperor Wu as he was disappointed that his son were not as ambitious as he was. Further, after Wei Qing's death in 106 BC and Gongsun He's execution, Prince Ju had no strong allies left in the government, and the officials who disagreed with his lenient attitudes began to publicly defame him and plot against him. Also around this time, Emperor Wu was becoming more and more isolated, spending time mostly with young concubines, away from his sons and Empress Wei, who were often unable to reach him.
One of the conspirators against Prince Ju would be Jiang Chong (江充), the newly appointed head of secret intelligence, who once had a run-in with Prince Ju after arresting one of Prince Ju's assistants for improper use of an imperial right of way. It appears likely that Jiang was behind many of the witchcraft accusations and persecutions against important persons in the Han court. One other conspirator was Su Wen (蘇文), a chief eunuch in charge of caring for imperial concubines. He had previously made false accusations against Prince Ju, that he joyed over the Emperor Wu's illness and committed adultery with the Emperor's junior concubines.
Jiang and Su decided on using witchcraft as the excuse to move against Prince Ju. Jiang, with approval from Emperor Wu, who was then at his summer palace in Ganquan (甘泉, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi), searched through various palaces, ostensibly for witchcraft items, eventually reaching Prince Ju's and Empress Wei's palace. While completely trashing up the palaces with intensive digging, he secretly planted witchery dolls and pieces of cloth with mysterious writings, and then announced that he found them there during the search. Prince Ju was shocked, knowing that he was framed. He considered his options, and his teacher Shi De (石德), invoking the story of Ying Fusu and raising the possibility that Emperor Wu might already be deceased, suggested that Prince Ju start an uprising to fight the conspirators. Prince Ju initially hesitated, and wanted to speedily proceed to Ganquan Palace so he could defend himself in front of his father. When he found out that Jiang's messengers were already ahead on their way, he decided to accept Shi's suggestion.
Prince Ju then sent an individual to impersonate a messenger from Emperor Wu to lure and arrest Jiang and his coconspirators — except for Su, who escaped. After they were arrested, Prince Ju accused Jiang of sabotaging the relationship between him and his father, and killed Jiang personally. He then went to Empress Wei's palaces, and with the support of his mother, led his guards and enlisted civilians and prisoners in preparation to defend himself.
Su fled to Ganquan Palace and accused Prince Ju of treason. Emperor Wu, not believing it to be true and correctly (at this point) believing that Prince Ju had merely been angry at Jiang, sent a messenger back to Chang'an to summon Prince Ju. The messenger did not dare to proceed to Chang'an, but instead returned and gave Emperor Wu the false report that Prince Ju was conducting a coup. By now enraged, Emperor Wu ordered his nephew, Prime Minister Liu Qumao (劉屈犛), to put down the rebellion.
The two sides battled in the streets of Chang'an for five days, but Liu Qumao's forces prevailed after it became clear that Prince Ju did not have his father's authorization. Prince Ju was forced to flee the capital following the defeat, accompanied only by two of his sons and some personal guards. Apart from a grandson Liu Bingyi, who was barely a month old and thrown into prison, all other members of his family were left behind and killed, and his mother Empress Wei committed suicide when Emperor Wu sent officials to depose her. Their bodies were carelessly buried in suburban fields without proper tomb markings. Prince Ju's supporters were brutally cracked down, and civilians aiding the Crown Prince were exiled. Even Tian Ren (田仁), an official City Gatekeeper who did not stop Prince Ju's escape, and Ren An (任安), an army commander who chose not to actively participate in the crackdown, were accused of being sympathizers and executed.
Emperor Wu continued to be enraged and ordered that Prince Ju be tracked down, but after a junior official Linghu Mao (令狐茂) risked his life and spoke on Prince Ju's behalf, Emperor Wu's anger began to subside, but he had not yet issued a pardon for Prince Ju. This would later be proven to cost the Crown Prince's life.
Prince Ju fled to Hu County (湖縣, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan) and took refuge in the home of a poor peasant family. Knowing that their good-hearted hosts could never afford the daily expenditure of so many people, the Prince decided to seek help from an old friend who lived nearby. However, this move exposed their whereabouts, and was soon tracked down by local officials eager for rewards. Surrounded by troops and see no chance of escape, the Prince committed suicide by hanging. His two sons and the family housing them died with him after the government soldiers eventually broke into the yard and killed everyone. The two local officials who led the raid, Zhang Fuchang (張富昌) and Li Shou (李寿), wasted no time to take the Prince's body to Chang'an and claim rewards from Emperor Wu. Emperor Wu, although greatly saddened to hear the death of his son, had to keep his promise and rewarded the officials contributed in the crackdown.
Late reign and death
Even after Jiang Chong and Prince Ju both died, however, the witchcraft affairs would continue. One final prominent victim was the general Li Guangli, who was Consort Li's brother and had prior victories over Dayuan and Xiongnu despite causing unnecessary losses with his military incompetence. In 90 BC, while Li was assigned to a campaign against Xiongnu, a eunuch named Guo Rang (郭穰) exposed that Li and his political ally, Prime Minister Liu Qumao, conspired to use witchcraft on Emperor Wu. Liu and his family were immediately arrested and later executed, and Li's family was also under custody. Li, after knowing the news, realised that going home is no longer an option, so he used risky tactics to attempt a major victory against Xiongnu in order to build up a future standoff against Emperor Wu, but failed when some of his senior officers mutinied. On his retreat, he was ambushed by Xiongnu forces, and he defected to Xiongnu. His clan was executed by Emperor Wu not long after. Li himself later fell victim to the infighting with older Han traitors in Xiongnu, especially one named Wei Lü (衛律), who was extremely jealous of the amount of Chanyu's favor Li gained as a new, high-profile defector.
By this time, however, Emperor Wu had begun to realize that the witchcraft accusations were often false accusations, especially in relation to the Crown Prince rebellion. In 89 BC, when Tian Qianqiu (田千秋), then the superintendent of Emperor Gao's temple, wrote a report claiming that Emperor Gao told him in a dream that Prince Ju should have only been whipped at most, not killed, Emperor Wu had a revelation about what happened, and he had Su burned and Jiang's family executed. He also made Tian prime minister. However, although he claimed to miss Prince Ju greatly (he even built a palace and an altar for his deceased son as a sign of grief and regret), he did not at this time rectify the situation where Prince Ju's only surviving progeny, Liu Bingyi, languished in prison as a child.
The political scene now greatly changed. Emperor Wu publicly self-criticized and apologized to the whole nation about his past policy mistakes, a gesture known to history as the Repenting Edict of Luntai (輪台悔詔). The Prime Minister Tian he appointed was in favor of resting the troops and the people and promoting agriculture, and under his recommendation, several agricultural experts were made important members of the administration. Wars and territorial expansion generally ceased. These policies and ideals were those supported by Crown Prince Ju, and was finally realised years after he was dead.
By 88 BC, Emperor Wu was terminally ill, but with Prince Ju dead, there was no clear successor. Liu Dan, the Prince of Yan, was Emperor Wu's oldest surviving son, but Emperor Wu considered both him and his younger brother Liu Xu, the Prince of Guangling, to be unsuitable, since neither respected laws. He decided that the only one suitable was his youngest son, Liu Fuling, who was only six at that time. He therefore also chose a potential regent in Huo Guang, whom he considered to be capable and faithful, and entrusted Huo with the regency of Fuling. He also ordered the execution of Prince Fuling's mother Consort Zhao, in fear that being at her prime age she would become an uncontrollable empress dowager like the previous Empress Lü. At Huo's suggestion, he also made ethnic Xiongnu official Jin Midi and general Shangguang Jie co-regents. He died in 87 BC, shortly after creating Prince Fuling crown prince. Crown Prince Fuling then succeeded to the throne as Emperor Zhao for the next 13 years.
Because Emperor Wu did not create anyone empress after Empress Wei committed suicide, and left no instruction on who should be enshrined in his temple with him, Huo, after Emperor Wu's death, considered what his wishes would have been, chose to enshrine Consort Li with Emperor Wu. They lie buried in the Maoling mound, the most famous of the so-called Chinese pyramids.
Legacy
Historians generally treated Emperor Wu with ambivalence. On the one hand, he is recognized for neutralizing the Xiongnu threat and expanding the Chinese territory. During his reign, China roughly doubled her size, and most of the territories he annexed became part of China proper permanently. The empire that Emperor Wu created surpassed in size the contemporaneous Roman Empire, and was the greatest in the world, both militarily and economically. His other, perhaps greater, legacy was the promotion of Confucianism. For the first time in history, Confucianism became the dominant thought in the Chinese government, and it remained so until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1911.
On the other hand, many historians criticize Emperor Wu for his extravagance, superstition, and the burdens his policies forced on the population. As such he is often compared to Qin Shi Huang. Just like Qin Shi Huang he used a legalist system of rewards and punishments to govern his empire. The punishment for perceived failures and disloyalty was often exceedingly harsh. Out of the twelve prime ministers appointed by Emperor Wu, three were executed and two committed suicide while holding the post; another was executed in retirement. Castration as a way of punishment was also applied relatively frequently during Emperor Wu's reign.
Emperor Wu's political reform resulted in the strengthening of the Emperor's power at expense of the prime minister's authority. Also, the post of Shangshu (court secretaries) was elevated from merely managing documents to that of the Emperor's close advisor, and it stayed this way until the end of monarchy era.
TV and Film
Emperor Wu, one of the most famous emperors of ancient China, has made appearances in quite a lot of Chinese TV dramas, like:
Da Han Tian Zi
Han Wu Da Di
Possible Bisexuality
Early in his reign, Emperor Wu greatly favored Han Yan (韓嫣) for no apparent reason, and he gave Han much wealth (although no official position at court). This, coupled with later references by officials trying to persuade Emperor Ai against giving his male lover Dong Xian too much authority — during which those officials analogized Han's position to Dong's — has led to speculation that Emperor Wu had a homosexual relationship with Han. It is quite possible, but also hardly proven based on available evidence. It should be noted that this relationship could have led to Han's death. As part of his favors on Han, Emperor Wu permitted him to ride in imperial wagons even when he was not with Han. On one occasion, Han was riding such a wagon when Emperor Wu's brother, Liu Pengzu (劉彭祖), the Prince of Zhao, encountered the wagon and, believing that Emperor Wu was inside, prostrated himself. Later, when he found out that Han, not Emperor Wu, was inside, he was greatly humiliated and complained to Empress Dowager Wang, who then had Han executed.
Poetry
Although Emperor Wu wasn't known as a poet to many historians, he wrote many wonderful pieces. The following work is on the death of Li Fu-ren, one of his favorite concubines.
The sound of her silk skirt has stopped.
On the marble pavement dust grows.
Her empty room is cold and still.
Fallen leaves are piled against the doors.
How can I bring my aching heart to rest?
Personal information
Father
Emperor Jing of Han (10th son of)
Mother
Empress Wang Zhi
Wives:
Empress Chen Jiao, deposed 130 BC for witchcraft
Empress Wei Zifu, mother of Crown Prince Li and Princesses Wei the Eldest, Yangshi and Zhuyi
Concubines:
Consort Li Furen, mother of Prince Bo
Consort Wang, mother of Prince Hong
Consort Li Ji, mother of Princes Dan and Xu
Consort Zhao, mother of Emperor Zhao
Children
Princess Wei the Eldest (衛長公主)
Princess Yangshi (陽石公主, executed 91 BC)
Princess Zhuyi (諸邑公主, executed 91 BC)
Liu Ju (劉據), initially Crown Prince Li (戾太子, b. 128 BC, created 122 BC, committed suicide 91 BC after failed uprising)
Liu Bo (劉髆), Prince Ai of Changyi (created 97 BC, d. 86 BC)
Liu Hong (劉閎), Prince Huai of Qi (created 117 BC, d. 109 BC)
Liu Dan (劉旦), Prince La of Yan (created 117 BC, committed suicide 80 BC)
Liu Xu (劉胥), Prince Li of Guangling (created 117 BC, committed suicide 53 BC)
Liu Fuling (劉弗陵), later Emperor Zhao of Han (b. 94 BC, d. 74 BC)
Grandchildren
Liu Jin (劉進) (killed 91 BC), son to Liu Ju initially Crown Prince Li and father to Liu Bingyi, later Emperor Xuan of Han
Liu He (劉賀), Prince He of Changyi (d. 59 BC), son to Liu Bo, ascension for throne 74 BC and deposed 27 days later for committing 1127 misconducts
Great Grandchildren
Liu Bingyi (劉病已), later Emperor Xuan of Han (b. 91 BC, d. 49 BC), son to Liu Jin, son of Liu Ju (劉據), initially Crown Prince Li mommy
Era names
Jianyuan (建元 py. jiàn yuán) 140 BC-135 BC
Yuanguang (元光 py. yuán guāng) 134 BC-129 BC
Yuanshuo (元朔 py. yuán shuò) 128 BC-123 BC
Yuanshou (元狩 py. yuán shòu) 122 BC-117 BC
Yuanding (元鼎 py. yuán dĭng) 116 BC-111 BC
Yuanfeng (元封 py. yuán fēng) 110 BC-105 BC
Taichu (太初 py. tài chū) 104 BC-101 BC
Tianhan (天漢 py. tiān hàn) 100 BC-97 BC
Taishi (太始 py. tài shĭ) 96 BC-93 BC
Zhenghe (征和 py. zhēng hé) 92 BC-89 BC
Houyuan (後元 py. hòu yuán) 88 BC-87 BC
References
Zizhi Tongjian by Sima Guang, Modern Chinese Edition edited by Bo Yang (Taipei, 1982-1989).
Shi Ji by Sima Qian: Biography of Han Wudi.
Han Shu by Ban Gu: Biography of Han Wudi.
Han Ji by Xun Yue
Morton, W. Scott. China: "Its History and Culture". ISBN 0-07-043424-7.
Notes
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Emperor Wu of Han^ His date of birth is sometimes noted as being August 27.
^ Bo Yang's commentary in the Modern Chinese edition of Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 7, and Zhao Yi (趙翼)'s commentary included therein.
^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 17.
^ C. Peers, Imperial Chinese Armies: 200 BC - 589 AD, 7
^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 45.
^ C. Peers, Imperial Chinese Armies: 200 BC - 589 AD, 7
^ C. Peers, Imperial Chinese Armies: 200 BC - 589 AD, 8
^ C. Peers, Imperial Chinese Armies: 200 BC - 589 AD, 8
^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 22.
^ Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 35.
^ Morton, W. Scott. China: "Its History and Culture", 54. ISBN 0-07-043424-7.