公元前２２１年，秦始皇完成古中原的統一大業並建立了中國歷史上第一個統一的封建王朝。“秦王掃六合，虎視何雄哉!”秦王趙政建都鹹陽，成為中國封建王朝中第一個皇帝。秦朝初立便北擊匈奴；南下百越。疆域迅速擴展並進一步完善炎黃地圖，但因為秦二世而完，所以沒能對北方遊牧民族進行收復統一。然其當時疆域西部已達到今甘肅、四川；西南到雲南、廣西；北到陰山。作為一個封建大帝國，在輻員廣大的統治區域內，創立了高度集中的中央集權的政治制度。具體為：1.政治方面:確立至高無上的皇權.皇帝擁有至高無上的權利,凡行政、軍事、經濟等一切大權,均由皇帝總攬;建立從中央到地方的官製和行政機構即三公九卿製。三公分別為丞相(幫助皇帝處理全國的政事)、太尉(負責管理軍事)、御史大夫(執掌群臣奏章，下達皇帝召令,兼理國傢監察事務)，互相沒有統屬關係，由皇帝掌握最終决斷權。地方實行郡縣製，皇室任免郡縣的主要官吏;2經濟方面:實行土地私有製,按畝納稅;統一度量衡，統一貨幣;統一車軌, 修馳道.3文化方面:書同文,將小篆作為標準文字;焚書坑儒,加強思想控製;以吏為師,嚴禁私學.秦朝創下的
一套封建國傢政治制度在以後中國封建社會的歷史中，衹有修修補補，基本框架不變。為了鞏固統治，秦始皇下令把原來六國的兵器收繳銷毀，然後鑄成１２個銅人。為了加強控製，原六國的貴族被強行遷到鹹陽附近居住。秦朝還頒布了嚴苛的法律，對農民實行什伍編製。統一貨幣，統一度量衡，統一文字，對於後世影響極大。他接受丞相李斯的主意，除少數幾種書籍之外，大量詩書、典籍、諸子百傢著述一律燒掉，並將４６０多名儒生、方士活埋，留下了一個駭人聽聞的“焚書坑儒”的歷史事件。秦始皇還在全國修築道路，尤其是開通了通往東方和東南的馳道。
秦始皇自號“始皇帝”的時候，一心想讓秦朝的天下千秋萬代延伸不休，但他决沒想到，僅僅１５年之後，纔傳到第二個皇帝時秦朝就滅亡了。儘管他采取了種種鞏固統治的措施，但他的獨裁專製、橫徵暴斂，早已埋下了禍根。他徵發了７０多萬人修造阿房宮，動用大量人力財力修造驪山陵，“孟薑女哭長城”的故事就是對他殘酷賦役的控訴。頻繁的戰爭、龐大的官僚機構、連續的大興土木，動搖了統治基礎，人民不堪重負，痛苦到了極點。前209年陳勝吳廣農民起義爆發，前207年11月左右，秦朝被推翻。
秦朝是由戰國時代後期的秦國發展起來的統一王朝，是中國歷史上第一個多民族的統一的中央集權的帝國。秦始皇在歷代秦國的國王蠶食其它諸侯國之上，完成了統一六大諸侯國的事業，實現了從分封製到郡縣製的轉變。他所建立的中央集權制度，及其所采取的旨在鞏固統一的措施，為後世帝王所取用。
秦朝急徵暴虐，導致速亡。末年陳勝、吳廣領導的農民起義，是中國歷史上的第一次農民起義，影響極為深遠。由於過去的割據局面所造成的影響，反秦過程中重新出現了分裂的傾嚮。在接踵而來的爭奪統治權的楚漢之爭(前206～前202年)中，漢勝楚敗，使分裂形勢得到控製，統一了國傢，一個中央集權的王朝就這樣建立了。
國號釋義
據《史記》記載，秦，本為古部落，其首領非子為周孝王牧馬有功，被周孝王賜姓為“嬴”，並賜給了一小塊土地秦（今天水隴西縣秦亭，一說秦州清水縣𠔌名）。後來秦襄公又救周有功，被封為諸侯，秦始皇統一六國，始建“秦”朝。
秦滅六國年表
秦王政十七年（前230年），韓國降將內史騰率秦軍滅韓國，俘韓王安，韓亡。所得韓地置潁川郡。
秦王政十九年（前228年），秦軍王翦攻入趙國國都邯鄲，趙王遷被迫降秦，趙破。置邯鄲郡、鉅鹿郡、太原郡公子嘉率宗族百人逃亡代城。
秦王政二十年（前227年），燕國太子丹派荊軻刺殺秦王未遂，秦王立即派王翦領兵攻燕。
秦王政二十一年（前226年），王翦攻破燕都薊，燕王喜退守遼東，殺太子丹以求和。
秦王政二十二年（前225年），秦軍王賁率領10萬大軍攻打魏國，包圍魏都大梁，引黃河鴻溝水灌大梁，3個月後大梁城破，魏王假投降，魏亡。
同年，王翦率領60萬大軍攻打楚國，屯兵練武、堅壁不戰、以逸待勞。
秦王政二十三年（前224年），王翦率領60萬大軍渡過淮水，圍攻楚國楚都壽春。
秦王政二十四年（前223年），楚軍鬥志渙散、糧草不足，遂從前綫撤軍。王翦乘機追擊，消滅楚軍主力，占領楚都壽春，俘虜楚王負芻，楚人復立昌平君為王。王翦又率軍渡過長江，平定了江南，置會稽郡，楚亡。
秦王政二十五年（前222年），王賁打下遼東，俘燕王喜；接着打下代城，俘代王嘉。燕、趙徹底滅亡，秦始皇於代地設置雁門郡
秦王政二十六年（前221年），王賁率軍南下攻打齊國，齊王建不戰而降，齊亡。
至此秦滅六國，一統天下。
專製主義中央集權制度的建立
公元前221年，秦王趙政（前247—前210年在位）統一六國，結束了長期的諸侯割據局面，建立了一個以鹹陽為首都的幅員遼闊的國傢。這個國傢的疆域，東起遼東，西至玉門關、隴西，北抵長城，南達越南北部及中部一帶，面積超過500萬平方公裏。秦王政兼采傳說中三皇五帝的尊號，宣佈自己為這個國傢的第一個皇帝，即始皇帝，後世子孫代代相承，遞稱二世、三世皇帝。他認為帝王死後以其行為為謚的制度，是“子議父，臣議君”，有損於帝王的尊嚴,所以宣佈取消。他規定皇帝自稱曰“朕”，並製定了一套尊君抑臣的朝儀和文書制度。這些都是為了顯示皇帝的無上權威，表示秦的統治將萬世一係，長治久安。
[秦朝(前221—前206)]
秦朝(前221—前206)
周朝以來建藩建國的封建制度，與皇權專製和統一國傢是不相容的，所以必須加以改變。始皇二十六年（前221年），丞相王綰請封諸皇子為燕、齊、楚王，得到群臣的贊同。廷尉李斯力排衆議，主張廢除分封諸侯的制度，全面推行郡縣制度。秦始皇接受了李斯的建議，把全國分成三十六郡，以後又陸續增設至四十餘郡。這些郡完全由中央和皇帝控製，是中央政府轄下的地方行政單位。中央集權的制度從此確立。始皇二十八年（前219年）的嶧山刻石辭說：“追念亂世，分土建邦，以開爭理”；“乃今皇傢，壹傢天下，兵不復起”。這說明秦始皇認為廢分封行郡縣是消除各地兵爭所必須的。
秦始皇以戰國時期秦國官製為基礎，把官製加以調整和擴充，建成一套適應統一國傢需要的新的政府機構。在這個機構中，中央設丞相、太尉、御史大夫。丞相有左右二員，掌政事。太尉掌軍事，不常置。御史大夫是丞相的副貳，掌圖籍秘書，監察百官。丞相、太尉、御史大夫以下，是分掌具體政務的諸卿，其中有掌宮殿掖門戶的郎中令，掌宮門衛屯兵的衛尉，掌京畿警衛的中尉，掌刑闢的廷尉，掌𠔌貨的治粟內史，掌山海池澤之稅和官府手工業製造以供應皇室的少府，掌治宮室的將作少府，掌國內民族事務和外事的典客，掌宗廟禮儀的奉常，掌皇室屬籍的宗正，掌輿馬的太僕等。丞相、太尉、御史大夫與諸卿議論政務，皇帝作裁决。
地方行政機構分郡、縣兩級。郡設守、尉、監（監御史）。郡守掌治其郡。郡尉輔佐郡守，並典兵事。郡監司監察。縣，萬戶以上者設令，萬戶以下者設長。縣令、長領有丞、尉及其他屬員。郡、縣主要官吏由中央任免。縣以下有鄉，鄉設三老掌教化，嗇夫掌訴訟和賦稅，遊徼掌治安。鄉下有裏，是最基層的行政單位。裏有裏典，後代稱裏正、裏魁，以"豪帥"即強有力者為之。此外還有司治安、禁盜賊的專門機構，叫做亭，亭有長。兩亭之間，相距大約十裏。
早在秦獻公十年（前375年），秦國就建立了以“告姦”為目的的“戶籍相伍”制度。後來商鞅規定，不論男女，出生後都要列名戶籍，死後除名；還“令民為什伍”，有罪連坐。秦律載明遷徙者當謁吏轉移戶籍，叫做“更籍”。秦王政統治時期,戶籍制度趨於完備。秦王政十六年（前231年）令男子申報年齡，叫做“書年”。據雲夢秦簡推定，秦製男年十五（另一推算是十七）載明戶籍,以給公傢徭役，叫做“傅籍 ”。書年、傅籍，是國傢徵發力役的依據。始皇三十一年“使黔首自實田”，即令百姓自己申報土地。土地載於戶籍，使國傢徵發租稅有了主要依據。戶籍中有年紀、土地等項內容，戶籍制度也就遠遠超過"告姦"的需要，成為國傢統治人民的一項根本制度。秦置二十級爵，以賞軍功。國傢按人們的爵級賜給田宅,高爵者還可以得到食邑和其他特權(見爵製)。爵級載在戶籍，所以戶籍也是人們身份的憑證。
統治一個大國，需要全國一致而又比較完備的法律制度。出土的雲夢秦簡提供了自秦孝公至秦始皇時期陸續修成的秦律的部分內容,其中有刑律的律文和解釋，有名目繁多的其他律文，還有案例和關於治獄的法律文書（見雲夢秦律）。秦始皇統一六國以後，以秦律為基礎，參照六國律，製定了全境通行的法律。秦律經過漢朝的損益，成為唐以前歷代法律的藍本。
維持一個大國的統一，還需要強大的軍隊。秦軍以滅六國的餘威，駐守全國，南北邊塞，是屯兵的重點地區。秦製以銅虎符發兵，虎符剖半，右半由皇帝掌握，左半在領兵者之手，左右合符，才能調動軍隊。這是保證兵權在皇帝手中的重要制度。秦軍是一支前所未有的巨大的鎮懾力量。近年發掘的秦始皇陵側的兵馬俑坑，估計其中兩坑有武士俑七千件，戰車百乘，戰騎百匹。武士俑同真人一樣高大，所持武器都是實物而非明器。這種車、步、騎兵混合編組的大型軍陣，其規模之大，軍容之盛，是秦軍強大的表徵。
秦始皇不但建立了一套專製主義中央集權的統治機構和制度，而且還采用了戰國時期陰陽傢的終始五德說，以辯護秦朝的法統。終始五德說認為，各個相襲的朝代以土、木、金、火、水等五德的順序進行統治，周而復始。秦得水德，水德尚黑，所以秦的禮服旌旗等都用黑色；與水德相應的數是六，所以符傳長度、法冠高度各為六寸，車軌寬六尺；水德主刑殺，所以政治統治力求嚴酷，不講究"仁恩和義"；與水德相應，歷法以亥月即十月為歲首，等等。秦始皇還確定了一套與皇帝地位相適應的復雜的祭典以及封禪大典，擇時進行活動。秦始皇在鹹陽附近仿照關東諸國宮殿式樣營建了許多宮殿，並於渭水之南修造富麗宏偉的阿房宮。鹹陽宮殿佈局取法於天上的紫微宮，儼然是人間上帝的居處，天下一統的象徵。秦始皇還在驪山預建陵寢，墓室中以水銀為百川、江河、大海，機相灌輸，上具天文，下具地理。他采取這些措施，和他采用皇帝的名號一樣，是要表示他在人間的權力與上帝在天上的權力相當，從而嚮臣民灌輸皇權神秘的觀念。皇權神秘觀念，是專製主義中央集權制度的思想基礎。
皇權的加強和神化，郡縣製的全面推行，體現專製皇權的官僚機構和各種制度的建立，法律的完備和統一，皇帝對軍隊控製的加強等等，這些就是專製主義中央集權制度的主要內容。專製主義中央集權制度，在當時的條件下是維持封建統一所不可少的條件。但是這種政治制度對百姓的束縛極大；而且它對經濟文化發展的促進作用也可以轉變為阻滯作用，這在封建社會後期更為顯著。
防止封建割據的措施焚書坑儒長期分裂局面造成的影響,使秦始皇非常關心六國舊地的動靜,擔心六國舊貴族圖謀復闢。為了防止割據的再現，秦始皇把六國富豪和強宗十二萬戶遷到鹹陽，另一部分遷到巴蜀、南陽、三川和趙地，使他們脫離鄉土，以便監視。他把繳獲的和沒收的武器加以銷毀，在鹹陽鑄成十二個各重千石的鐘銅人。又下令“墮壞城郭，决通川防，夷去險阻”，盡可能消滅封建貴族依以割據的手段。為了控製廣阔的國土，特別是六國舊境，秦始皇還修建由首都鹹陽通到全國各地的馳道，東窮燕齊，南極吳楚。他自己多次順着馳道巡遊郡縣，在很多地方刻石紀功，以示威強。為了加強北方的防務，秦始皇三十五年（前 212年），又修築由鹹陽經過雲陽（今陝西淳化西北），直達九原（今內蒙古包頭西）的直道，塹山堙𠔌千八百裏。在西南地區，還修築了今四川宜賓以南至雲南昭通的五尺道，於近旁設官進行統治。
秦始皇對分裂割據的思想和政治傾嚮，也進行了鬥爭。當時的一些儒生、遊士,希望復闢貴族割據局面,他們“入則心非，出則巷議”，引證《詩》、《書》、百傢語,以古非今。始皇三十四年，丞相李斯請求焚毀《詩》、《書》，消滅私學。他建議“史官非秦記皆燒之。非博士官所職，天下敢有藏《詩》、《書》、百傢語者,悉詣守、尉雜燒之。有敢偶語《詩》、《書》者棄市。以古非今者族。吏見知不舉者與同罪。令下三十日不燒，黥為城旦。所不去者，醫藥卜筮種樹之書。若欲有學法令，以吏為師”。秦始皇接受了這一建議，於是就發生了焚書事件。第二年，為秦始皇求仙藥的方士有誹謗之言,又相邀逃亡，秦始皇派御史偵察鹹陽的儒生方士，把其中被認為犯禁者四百六十多人坑死。在早期封建社會的歷史條件下，在統一與分裂激烈鬥爭的年代，秦始皇用焚書坑儒手段來打擊貴族政治的思想是可以理解的。但是，焚書坑儒摧殘文化，是極其野蠻殘暴的事，對於古文獻的保存和學術的傳授，造成了極大的損失。
[另有說法，當時秦朝迫於匈奴入侵的壓力，必須盡快安定國內，儒生、遊士要求復闢貴族割據局面，無異於給匈奴趁內亂入侵的機會，故打壓儒生私學]
秦始皇施政定製雖已兼采陰陽等傢思想，但根本上是以法傢思想為依據。焚書坑儒以及"以法為教","以吏為師"等，更突出地反映了他的法傢思想。秦始皇以原來秦國的制度為標準，整齊劃一全國政治、經濟、文化方面的一些制度，企圖盡可能消除由於長期分裂割據造成的地區差異，以利統一。戰國時期，各國文字的基本結構雖然相同，但字體繁簡和偏旁位置卻有差異。李斯受命統一文字，他以秦國的文字為基礎，參照六國文字，製定小篆，並寫成範本，在全國推行。當時還流行一種書法，叫做隸書，比小篆更簡便。
秦始皇廢止戰國時各國形製和輕重大小各不相同的貨幣，改以黃金為上幣，以鎰（二十兩）為單位；以秦國舊行的圓形方孔銅錢為下幣，文曰半兩，重如其文。秦始皇用商鞅時製定的度量衡標準器，來統一全國的度量衡。今見秦朝權量,都刻有始皇二十六年(前 211年)頒布的統一度量衡的詔書。這種權量出土多，分佈廣，長城以外也有發現，可見統一度量衡是認真有效的。秦始皇還用法律規定了度量衡器誤差的允許限度。他規定六尺為步，二百四十步為畝。不過二百四十步為畝的制度實際上衹行於舊秦，可能還有舊趙境內，東方許多地區仍以百步為畝，直到漢武帝時期為止。文字、貨幣、度量衡的統一，為經濟、文化的發展提供了便利條件，促進了統一國傢的發展。對匈奴和對越人的戰爭匈奴人分佈在蒙古高原上，戰國末年以來，常嚮南方侵犯。全國統一以後，秦始皇派蒙恬率軍三十萬抗擊匈奴。蒙恬於始皇三十二年（前215年）收復河套以南地，即當時所謂“河南地”，第二年進一步斥逐匈奴。秦自榆中（在今甘肅蘭州以東，但有異說）嚮北，在黃河以東、陰山以南的地區內設置三十四縣，並在黃河的一段地區因河築塞。秦還把戰國時燕、趙、秦三國長城修復並連接起來,築成西起臨洮（今甘肅岷縣）、東迄遼東的古代世界偉大工程之一的萬裏長城，用來保護北方農業區域。接着，秦又徙民幾萬傢於河套。這對於邊地的開墾和邊防的加強，起了積極作用。
中國境內的越人分佈在華東、華南地區，分為閩越、
、西甌等部分。閩越在今浙江、福建一帶，南越在今廣東和廣西東部，西甌在今廣東西南部、廣西南部以至于云南東南部。越人“斷發文身，錯臂左裧”依山傍海，從事漁獵和農業。西甌人主要從事農業生産。
秦王政二十四年（前223年），王翦率秦軍滅楚，繼續南進，奪得越人一部分土地，置會稽郡(今江蘇蘇州)。二十六年，秦始皇派尉屠睢發卒五十萬，分為五軍，進攻鐔城（今湖南靖縣境）、九嶷（今湖南寧遠南）、番禺（今廣東廣州）、南野（今江西南康境）、餘幹（今江西餘幹境）,進行了三年不解甲、不弛弩的艱巨戰鬥。秦軍擊敗了閩越的抵抗,以其地置閩中郡(今福建福州)。攻南越的秦軍，也占領了番禺。衹有西綫的秦軍遇到西甌人頑強的抵抗。為瞭解决秦軍轉餉的睏難，監祿率卒在湘水、灕水間開鑿靈渠（在今廣西興安），溝通了長江和珠江水係的交通。在秦軍和西甌人的戰鬥中，西甌君譯籲宋和秦軍統帥尉屠睢相繼戰死。三十三年，秦始皇又謫發內郡曾經逃亡的人、贅婿、商人增援，徵服了西甌,在南越、西甌故地及其相鄰地區建置了南海郡（今廣東廣州），象郡（今廣西崇左境）和桂林郡（今廣西桂平），並繼續徵發人民前往戍守。這樣，幾十萬北方農民就留在那裏與越人雜居，共同開發珠江流域。
秦代的急政秦始皇的事業，是在殘酷地剝削壓迫人民的條件下，在短短的十幾年中完成的，這使秦的統治具有急政暴虐的特徵。秦統一以後的十幾年中，秦始皇維持了一支龐大的軍隊，建立了一個龐大的官僚機構，進行了多次的大規模戰爭，完成了巨大的國防建設和土木建築。秦始皇大大增加了對人民的徵斂。據估計，當時全國的人口約為一千多萬，而當兵服役的人超過二百萬，占壯年男子三分之一以上。當兵服役的人脫離了農業生産，靠農民養活，這就出現了男子力耕，不足以供糧餉，女子紡績，不足以供衣服的嚴重局面,大大動搖了秦的統治基礎。為了強化地主階級的統治，秦朝又推行嚴刑峻法以鎮壓人民，並且把數十萬人民變為封建國傢的囚徒。
秦始皇使黔首自實田，在全國範圍內正式承認土地私有製。地主階級憑藉這個命令，不僅得以合法占有土地，而且可以用各種手段兼併農民的土地。土地被兼併的農民，不得不以“見稅什五”的苛刻條件耕種豪民之田。農民生活悲慘，穿牛馬之衣，吃犬彘之食，往往在暴吏酷刑的逼迫下逃亡山林，舉行暴動。這種種情況說明，急政暴虐激化了社會矛盾，秦始皇在完成統一事業的同時，也造成了秦王朝傾覆的條件。所以西漢時的賈山談到秦代"群盜滿山"的情況時說：秦始皇在世時，他的統治已經在崩潰，雖然他自己並不知道。
秦朝的政區
一．都城鹹陽附近關中平原由內史直接管理
二．立國之初，設立36郡。其後南並五嶺以南南越地，置南海 桂林 象郡，北取陰山以南地置九原郡。又陸續分析內郡：東海 常山 濟北 膠東 河內 衡山等。
秦朝沒有采用分封製，而是采用郡縣製，最初將全國分為三十六個郡，後來增加至四十六個。部分郡大體位置如下圖：
[秦朝諸郡圖]
秦朝諸郡圖
秦朝諸郡遼東郡、九原郡、雲中郡、遼西郡、上郡、太原郡、巨鹿郡、膠東郡、邯鄲郡、琅琊郡、北地郡、東海郡、隴西郡、鹹陽、南陽郡、漢中郡、九江郡、會稽郡、南郡、衡山郡、蜀郡、巴郡、黔中郡、長沙郡、閩中郡、南海郡、桂林郡、象郡、右北平郡、漁陽郡、廣陽郡、上𠔌郡、代郡、雁門郡、常山郡、濟北郡、臨淄郡、河東郡、河內郡、東郡、薛郡、三川郡、碭郡、穎川郡、陳郡、泗水郡。
秦朝滅亡
公元前210年秦二世鬍亥即位。他進一步加重對農民的剝削和壓迫，以“稅民深者為明吏”，以“殺人衆者為忠臣”。他令農民增交菽粟芻藁，自備糧食，轉輸至鹹陽，供官吏、軍隊以至於狗馬禽獸的需要。他繼續修建阿房宮，繼續發民遠戍。徭役徵發的對象進一步擴大，農民的困苦達於極點，大規模的農民起義已經到一觸即發的地步。在農民醖釀反秦的時候，潛伏着的六國舊貴族殘餘勢力也在俟機進行分裂活動。始皇帝三十六年（前211年），東郡出現“始皇帝死而地分”的刻辭，就是這種分裂活動的徵兆。
陳勝、吳廣領導的農民戰爭秦二世元年（前209年）七月，一隊開赴漁陽（今北京密雲）的閭左戍卒九百人，遇雨停留在大澤鄉（今安徽宿縣境），不能如期趕到漁陽戍地。秦法規定“失期當斬”，戍卒們面臨着死刑的威脅。於是，在陳勝、吳廣的領導下，在大澤鄉舉起了中國歷史上第一次大規模農民起義的旗幟。陳勝，即陳涉，陽城（今地有異說，在河南境內）人，雇農出身；吳廣，陽夏（今河南太康）人，也是農民。他們都是戍卒的屯長。為了發動起義，他們在帛上書寫“陳勝王”三字，置魚腹中，戍卒買魚得書，傳為怪異。吳廣又於夜晚在駐地旁叢祠中燃篝火，作狐鳴，發出“大楚興，陳勝王”的呼聲。接着，陳勝、吳廣殺押送他們的秦尉，率領戍卒，用已被賜死的秦公子扶蘇和已故楚將項燕的名義，號召農民反秦。附近農民斬木揭竿紛紛參加起義。起義軍分兵東進,主力則嚮西進攻，連下今豫東、皖北的銍、酇、苦、柘、譙（分別在今安徽宿縣，河南永城、鹿邑、柘城，安徽亳縣境）諸縣。當他們推進到陳（今河南淮陽）的時候，已是一支數萬人的聲勢浩大的隊伍了。在起義軍的影響下，許多郡縣的農民殺掉守令，響應陳勝；特別是在舊楚國境中，數千人為聚者到處可見。一些潛藏民間的六國舊貴族、遊士、儒生，也都乘機來歸，憑藉舊日的地位，在農民軍中發揮影響。遊士張耳、陳餘甚至勸陳勝派人“立六國後”，被陳勝斷然拒絶。陳勝自立為“張楚王”，分兵三路攻秦：吳廣為“假王”，西擊滎陽；武臣北進趙地；魏人周市攻魏地。吳廣軍在滎陽被阻，陳勝加派周文西擊秦。周文軍很快發展到車千乘，卒數十萬人，進抵關中的戲（今陝西臨潼境），逼近鹹陽。秦二世慌忙發修驪山陵墓的刑徒為兵，以少府章邯率兵應戰，打敗周文軍。武臣占領了舊趙都城邯鄲後，在張耳、陳餘慫恿下自立為趙王，陳勝勉強予以承認。武臣抗命不救周文，卻派韓廣略取燕地。韓廣在燕地貴族的慫恿下，也自立為燕王。周市進到舊魏南部和舊齊境內。舊齊貴族田儋自立為齊王，反擊周市。周市在魏地立舊魏貴族魏咎為魏王，自為魏丞相，並派人到陳勝那裏迎接魏咎。舊貴族的勢力很活躍，渙散了農民起義隊伍。陳勝缺乏經驗，决心不夠，眼看着分裂局面的形成。陳勝周圍也出現了不團结的現象。
秦將章邯軍連敗周文，周文自殺。章邯又東逼滎陽，吳廣部將田臧殺吳廣，迎擊章邯，一戰敗死。章邯進到陳，陳勝敗退到下城父（今安徽渦陽東南），被叛徒莊賈殺死，陳縣失守。陳勝部將呂臣率領一支“蒼頭軍”英勇接戰，收復陳縣，處决了莊賈。陳勝作為反秦的先驅者，領導起義衹有半年就失敗了，但是反秦的浪潮卻被他激起，繼續不斷地衝擊秦的統治(見陳勝、吳廣起義)。
楚漢之戰
陳勝起義後，舊楚名將項燕之子項梁和項梁侄項羽在吳（今江蘇蘇州）殺掉秦會稽郡守，起兵響應。不久項梁率領八千子弟兵渡江北上，隊伍擴大到六七萬人，連戰獲勝。閩越貴族無諸和搖也率領族人，跟着秦番陽令吳芮反秦。原沛縣亭長劉邦和一部分刑徒逃亡山澤，也襲擊沛令起事，歸入項梁軍中。項梁立楚懷王之孫為楚王。以後，項梁在定陶敗死，秦章邯軍轉戈北上，渡河擊趙。這時，代替蒙恬戍守朔方邊塞的王離，也率大軍由上郡（治今陝西榆林東南）東出，包圍了張耳和趙王歇駐守的巨鹿城（今河北平鄉境）。楚王派宋義、項羽救趙，派劉邦西入關中。宋義北至安陽，逗留不進。項羽殺宋義，引兵渡漳河，經過激戰，解巨鹿之圍，被推為諸侯上將軍。以後，秦將章邯率二十萬人嚮他投降。劉邦迂回進入武關，到達鹹陽附近。那時秦二世已被趙高殺死，繼立的子嬰貶去帝號，稱秦王，漢高祖元年十月（公元前207年）嚮劉邦投降。劉邦攻占鹹陽，秦亡。劉邦廢除秦的苛法，衹約法三章：“殺人者死，傷人及盜抵罪”，深得秦人擁護。
劉邦入鹹陽後，項羽也立即率軍入關，駐鴻門，然後進入鹹陽，大肆燒殺掠奪。他在諸王並立的既成局面下，自立為西楚霸王，都彭城。並調整諸故王土地，徙置他們於其原據地的邊緣，而把自己的親信封於各國的善地為王。這樣就並立着十八個王國，受製於西楚霸王。項羽的這一措施反而惡化了割據形勢。不久齊國首先發難，諸侯混戰再次爆發。被項羽逼處巴蜀漢中一隅為漢王的劉邦，於漢高祖元年五月（公元前206 年），乘機進入關中，敗項羽所封關中三王。接着領軍東出，遠襲彭城，退守於滎陽、成臯之間，與項羽相持。劉邦鞏固了關中後方，又聯絡反對項羽的力量，轉敗為勝。漢高祖五年（前202年）十二月，與韓信、彭越等會攻項羽，項羽兵敗垓下（今安徽靈璧境），退至烏江（今安徽省和縣）自刎，年僅31歲。同年二月，劉邦在定陶即皇帝位（見漢高帝劉邦）。
楚漢之戰是由秦末農民戰爭直接演變而來的。農民戰爭雖然勝利地推翻了秦朝，但曾經是農民戰爭領袖的劉邦和項羽，卻不得不逐步轉化為封建統治權的角逐者。劉邦知人善任，因勢利導，終於戰勝項羽，登上了西漢統一王朝的皇帝寶座。
秦世係
1、秦仲——2、莊公——3、襄公——4、文公——5、寧公——6、出公——7、武公——8、德公——9、宣公——10、成公——11、穆公——12、康公——13、共公——14、桓公——15、景公——16、哀公——17、惠公——18、悼公（以上據《史記.十二諸侯年表》）——19、厲公——20、躁公——21、懷公——22、靈公——23、簡公——24、惠公——25、出子——26、獻公 ——27、孝公——28、惠文王——29、武王——30、昭王——31、孝文王——32、莊襄王——33、秦始皇——34、鬍亥－－35、子嬰
始皇帝： 秦始皇二十六 221~ 秦始皇三十七 公元前210年
二世 ：秦始皇三十七（七月） 210年~ 二世三年 公元前207年
子嬰 ：二世三年（八月） 207年~ 二世三年（十月） 公元前207年
秦朝軍隊構成
秦朝的軍隊分三個部分，即京師兵、郡縣兵、邊防兵。京師兵，由於任務不同，分三個係統：郎中令管轄的侍衛官，包括貝(錢財)選、蔭任、軍功特拜而産生的傳中、中郎等，有俸祿，主要負責殿內值勤、從皇帝：衛尉管轄的皇宮警衛兵，由郡縣輪番服役的正卒充當，稱衛士，主要職責是守衛宮門；中尉管轄的京都成衛兵，成員是輪番服投的內史地區正卒，主要職責是保衛都城的安全。遇特殊情況，京師另設屯兵。郡縣兵，指在當地輪流服一年兵役的正卒。由郡尉縣尉管轄。平時訓練，並兼管地方安全，戰時奉調出徵、因所處地理環境的不同，又分為材官(步兵)、騎士(騎兵)、樓船士(水軍)三類。大體北方、西北方多騎士，山丘陵地帶多材官，江誰及沿海多樓船士。有的郡既有材官，又有騎士。
邊防兵，指邊郡騎士、材官、邊郡屯兵和邊塞皮卒。邊郡騎士或材官，是本地服兵役的正卒。屯兵是集中駐紮的機動作戰部隊，由朝廷派遣的將軍統率，如蒙恬曾長期領兵屯於上郡。戊卒包括輪番服役的各郡正卒和嫡發的官吏、商人及農民。除分散擔任警戒、候望任務外，還構築維修軍事工程。兵種區分秦軍分為步兵（含弩兵）車兵騎兵和水兵種。步兵稱材官，有輕裝與重裝之分，前者無甲，持弓、弩遠射兵器；後者上體着甲，持戈、矛、戟之類長兵器。着甲持弓、弩者稱駕兵，是步兵的主力。車兵仍然裝備單轅雙輪四馬木質車，每車3人，皆着盔甲，禦者居中，甲士2人分立兩側，持戈矛類長兵器。騎兵稱騎上，着短甲，執弓箭，所乘之馬有鞍，無鞍蹬。水軍稱樓船士，具有一定規模。秦始皇陵兵馬低坑的布陣表明，步兵數量較多，是主要兵種，車兵仍是重要作戰力量，騎兵尚處於從屬地位，彎兵且智較大辭容。作戰中，車、騎、步、駕大休混編列陣，配合而行。
社會情況
秦的社會組織相當嚴密，商鞅變法建立了“什伍連坐製”禁止父子兄弟同室而居，凡民有二男勞力以上的都必須分居，獨立編戶，同時按軍事組織把全國吏民編製起來，五傢為伍，十傢為什，不準擅自遷居，相互監督，相互檢舉，若不揭發，十傢連坐。這種嚴苛的法律把農民牢牢束縛在土地上，國傢直接控製了全國的勞動力，保證了賦稅收入。統一後秦國將此推廣至全國。類似的保甲制度和戶口制度一直到中華民國和中華人民共和國時期仍被當局采用。
秦朝的刑罰
秦朝製定了許多酷刑。據文獻記載，刑罰有臏（剜去膝蓋），刖（鋸腳），宮，榜掠，腰斬，梟首，棄市，戳屍，坑死，鑿顛，抽脅，鑊烹，車裂，夷三族等。當時的中原地區古人多儒雅仁義，社會是宗族形式結構，不具備法治統治的基礎。秦尊韓非的以法治國，這就造成了作姦犯科的人大增，面對條條酷刑，人們怨聲載道，這也是加劇秦朝滅亡的另一個不可忽視的重要原因。
官吏制度
中央官製
三公：丞相、太尉、御史大夫
九卿：衛尉（皇宮保衛）、郎中令（警衛）、太僕（宮廷車馬）、廷尉（司法）、典客（外交）、奉常（宗廟禮儀）、宗正（皇室內部事務）、少府（山河湖海稅收和製造業）、治粟內史（財政稅收）
御史大夫：掌圖籍章奏，監察、彈劾百官，輔佐丞相處理事務
地方官製
郡：郡守
郡尉
郡監
縣：縣令
縣尉
縣丞
鄉：三老
遊徼
嗇夫（小鄉）
有秩（大鄉）
亭：亭長
裏：裏正
經濟狀況
商鞅變法以後，秦國的經濟體製就全面轉入“耕戰”。即重視農業生産和對外戰爭，以農業生産支持對外戰爭，以軍功授爵賜予土地。同時由國傢法令具體指導農業生産。但統一全國後類似的制度似乎並未取得顯著效果。
文化與科學
[秦二世刻於青銅上的佈告使用小篆]
秦二世刻於青銅上的佈告使用小篆
秦二世刻於青銅上的佈告使用小篆一般認為，戰國時期的秦國文化落後於山東六國，有“秦，虎狼也”的說法。
秦國統一中國後，采取了一係列措施鞏固其統治，其中包括著名的“書同文”，即將戰國時期各國使用的不同的書寫體統一為後世所稱的小篆，相傳該字體為秦國丞相李斯發明。
前213年，秦統一八年，太子師博士齊人淳於越在一次朝廷會議上提出恢愎周朝的分封製，“無輔拂，何以相救哉？”丞相李斯反對，並提出措施：“……天下敢有藏《詩》、《書》者棄市。以古非今者族。吏見知不舉者與同罪。令下三十日不燒，黥為城旦。所不去者，醫藥卜筮種樹之書。若有學(法令）[者]，以吏為師”。秦始皇采納之，下令各郡、縣立即查禁所有《詩》、《書》和諸子百傢的書籍，30天內全部焚燒。此即“焚書”。淳於越諫阻焚書，被殺。
次年，方士盧生等人求仙再次不得，懼怕處罰而出逃，又有方士儒生議論朝政。秦始皇大怒，下令搜捕鹹陽城內的方士儒生，後來的審問過程中，方士儒生互相告發，共有460餘人受到株連，秦始皇下令將此460餘人全部坑殺。此即“坑儒”。此後又發生了兩次坑儒事件。
“焚書坑儒”是秦朝為了國傢政權安定統一的所執行的政策, 也是對當時中國文化的一次摧殘。“焚書”政策針對當時的書册文物，衹保留對民生以及執政所需的，大量對秦政權無益的珍貴文獻從此失傳，春秋戰國的百傢言論在這段時期受到嚴重的摧殘；“坑儒”政策也是第一個被中國歷史所紀錄的國傢政權對知識分子大規模的逮捕行為（儒傢稱之為“迫害”）。
但同時也有觀點認為“焚書坑儒”對文化的影響並不是很大，主要原因如下：
.所謂焚書，目的是為禁“以古非今者”，對私藏書籍的懲罰措施並不嚴厲。
.所焚書籍為民間藏書，博士官的藏書不包括在內，而當時民間的《詩》、《書》其實並不多。而在項羽擊敗秦軍主力進入鹹陽後火燒阿房宮卻使秦國官方珍藏的大批珍貴典籍被焚毀。
.秦至秦二世而亡，真正執行的時間不超過十年，影響不會太大。“焚書坑儒”為何如此出名，關鍵在後世的“獨尊儒術”使儒傢思想占據了此後近兩千年中國國傢意識形態的統治地位。
盧生者，方士也，也不是我們通常所說的儒生。當然在當時的情況下，可能會有一些儒生受到牽連，但是“焚書坑儒”是不準確的，有誇張的成份在裏面。很多人有這做為秦始皇的罪名，是不成立的。就像上面有人說的，真正對中國的文化起到破壞的焚了書的，不是秦始皇，是那個沒有腦子的項羽。方士，在當時也就是道教的先驅吧，那些煉丹，求仙這流，這些人，是儒者也看不起的，但是為什麽儒傢要為這些人說好話，那是後世的宣傳了，為了統治階級應用。
有關秦朝的經典
1.秦始皇
秦始皇（公元前259～前210年），首位完成中國統一的秦王朝的開國皇帝。後人稱之為“千古一帝”。姓趙氏，名政。漢族，秦莊襄王之子。13歲即王位，22歲在故都雍城舉行了成人加冕儀式，從此正式登基“親理朝政”，39歲完成了統一中國的歷史大業，稱帝。前247年，秦王趙政即位，因年幼朝政由太後和相國呂不韋及嫪毐掌管。前238年（秦王政九年），22歲的秦王政親理朝政，除掉呂、嫪等人，重用李斯、尉繚，自公元前230年至前221年，先後滅韓、趙、魏、楚、燕、齊六國，完成了統一全國的大業，建立了中國歷史上第一個統一的、多民族的、專製主義中央集權製國傢——秦朝。秦王趙政自認為自己的功勞勝過之前的三皇五帝，給自己起名“皇帝”。一生中有功也有過，與漢武帝並稱為“秦皇漢武”。
2.秦兵馬俑
秦始皇是第一個統一中國的皇帝，他的陵墓在西安城東30公裏處。1974年2月，當地農民在秦始皇陵東側1.5公裏處打井時偶然發現了與真人真馬一樣大小的兵馬俑。從此，一個埋藏了兩千多年的地下軍陣被挖掘出來，並建成博物館。秦兵馬俑坑是秦始皇的陪葬坑，由一號、二號、三號坑和兵馬俑坑組成。展出的陶質陪葬武士俑和兵馬俑共計8000個，排列成陣，氣勢壯觀。俑分將軍俑、鎧甲俑、跪射俑、騎兵俑、武士俑、車兵俑、(馭手，兵士)弓弩俑、馬俑等。坑內還出土有數萬件實戰兵器，館內展出秦始皇大型彩繪銅車馬。被稱為"世界第八大奇跡"的秦兵馬俑展示了古長安往日的輝煌，也是長安何已會成為絲路起點的一個寫照。
3.過秦論
《過秦論》，論秦之過也。原文分為上、中、下三篇。載於《新書》第一捲，《文選》捲五十一，另見於《史記·秦本紀》、《史記·陳涉世傢》及《漢書》。全文着重從各個方面分析秦王朝的過失，故名為《過秦論》。本文旨在總結秦速亡的歷史經驗，以作為漢王朝建立制度，鞏固統治的藉鑒。作者賈誼（前200-前168），世稱賈太傅、賈長沙、賈生。洛陽（今河南洛陽東）人。西漢初期的政論傢、文學家。
4.秦風
秦風：詩經國風中的內容。
秦詩産生的時代，大致說來是自春秋初至秦穆公(死於前622年)這一百五、六十年間的詩。
秦風共有十首詩。包括：
車鄰 駟驖 小戎 蒹葭 終南 黃鳥 晨風 無衣 渭陽
權輿
5. 秦時明月
得源於王昌齡的七絶“秦時明月漢時關”。
秦時明月漢時關，萬裏長徵人未還。
但使竜城飛將在，不教鬍馬度陰山。
此詩是王昌齡的七絶中，最為人矚目的一首。許多人說這詩是神品。開頭第一句，就非同凡響。“秦時明月漢時關”似乎難以為人理解，怎麽秦時的明月，“關”卻是漢時的呢？但此句，妙就妙在這裏，寓意深遠就在這裏。這一句是說，把守漢時的關口的軍人，而看到的是和秦時相同的明月，而時間已經飛逝去了。接下來承接上句的是“萬裏長徵人未還”，就延伸了第一句的意思。
6.《大秦帝國》
孫皓暉著
重現金戈鐵馬戰國七雄的風姿，開創千古風流大秦帝國的霸業
戰國三百多年的紛爭，打破了古典聯邦王國時代的窒息封閉，這是一個名將輩出，大纔如雲，英主迭起的時代。大秦帝國正是産生於這個時代，一步一步，統一了中國……
在整理這批從海外回到祖國的秦簡的過程中，我們發現了兩個迄今歷史資料上從未記載過的新郡名稱，這個發現將可能改寫目前‘秦朝４８郡’的考證。”湖南大學嶽麓書院副院長陳鬆長興奮地說。
這兩個新發現的郡，一個叫州陵郡，一個叫清河郡。秦朝是中國歷史上確立“郡縣製”最早的朝代，“郡縣製”對中國在２０００多年的封建社會中形成中央集權製國傢起到重要作用。
記者看到，在已經清理完畢的秦簡當中，有一枚保存完好的秦簡中清晰地出現了“丙辰朔己卯南郡叚守賈報州陵郡”等字眼。
“在目前整理的部分秦簡裏面，‘州陵守，州陵叚守’至少出現過三次。‘守’一般都是郡守一級的，這說明州陵在秦代是一個郡名。”陳鬆長教授介紹說。
另外一枚秦簡當中，則清晰地寫着“清河叚守”的字眼。陳鬆長說：“雖然沒有清河郡的名字，但是有清河叚守，‘守’是郡一級的官，那麽，清河也應該是郡名。”
湖南大學嶽麓書院的專傢查考後發現，上述兩處郡名並不在目前歷史學界確定的“秦朝４８郡”名單之內。歷史資料記載，清河、州陵兩郡出現在漢朝。一個疑問出現了：這次搶救回來的到底是秦簡還是漢簡？
專傢們通過兩個證據確定了這些簡出自秦朝。一個證據是從簡的質地上和書寫風格上分析，應該是秦簡；另外一個重要的證據是紀年，保存完好的簡當中清晰的刻有“二十五年，六月朔，六月，丙辰”等文字，這個記載衹和秦朝幹支紀年法是相對應的，因此這是秦簡，不是漢簡。
嶽麓書院搶救性回購的這批秦簡，不但新發現了州陵郡和清河郡，簡文中還發現了“蒼梧”“洞庭”等裏耶秦簡中出現過的秦代郡名。對於秦漢史研究而言，這批秦簡和裏耶秦簡將互相補充，互相解釋，互相印證，成為珍貴的實物資料。
湖南大學黨委宣傳部幹部李璀介紹說，目前，嶽麓書院的衆多專傢仍然在進行秦簡的初步整理工作，這些文物還將陸續嚮世人揭示新的歷史信息。
香港電影《秦朝》
片名：秦朝
地區：中國香港(ATV)
類型：情景喜劇
片長：60集
首播：2000年
監製：張堅庭
演員：薑大衛 恬妞 張同祖 孫佳君
劇情介紹
由亞洲電視耗資二千萬元,英皇電影集團負責製作的六十集大型處境喜劇《秦朝》，由監製張堅庭摔領的臺前幕後班底，陣容強勁，雲集港臺紅星大匯演的創意喜劇，擔保帶給觀衆無盡驚喜。
由於＜秦朝＞劇情是圍繞經營酒吧的一傢人和來自不同階層的酒客，日常遭遇到的喜、怒、哀、樂趣事為題，主景場地亦移師到跑馬地一間真實酒吧拍攝，一班演員演出投入，對白精警，爆笑連場。
秦朝度量衡
計算物品長短的器具叫度，測量物品容積的器具叫量，測量物體輕重的器具叫衡。通過對秦代多種度量衡器的反復測量計算，得知秦的一尺長23.1釐米，秦的一升為202毫升，秦的一斤相當於今天的250剋。
The Qin Dynasty (Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: Qín Cháo; Wade–Giles: Ch'in Ch'ao; IPA: [tɕʰǐn tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]) was the first ruling dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 206 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The Qin's strength had been consolidated by Lord Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring States Period. In the early third century BC, the Qin accomplished a series of swift conquests; the state subjugated the Chu, remnants of the Zhou Dynasty, and various other states to gain undisputed control of China.
During its reign over China, the Qin Dynasty achieved increased trade, improved agriculture, and military security. This was due to the abolition of landowning lords, to whom peasants had formerly held allegiance. The central government now had direct control of the masses, giving it access to a much larger workforce. This allowed for the construction of ambitious projects, such as a wall on the northern border, now known as the Great Wall of China. The Qin Dynasty also introduced several reforms: currency, weights and measures were standardized, and a better system of writing was established. An attempt to purge all traces of the old dynasties led to the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars incident, which has been criticized greatly by subsequent scholars. The Qin's military was also revolutionary in that it used the most recently developed weaponry, transportation, and tactics, though the government was heavy-handed and bureaucratic.
Despite its military strength, the Qin Dynasty did not last long. When the first emperor died in 210 BC, his son was placed on the throne by two of the previous emperor's advisers, in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the entire country through him. The advisors squabbled among themselves, however, which resulted in both their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out a few years later, and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu lieutenant, who went on to found the Han Dynasty.[note 1] Despite its rapid end, the Qin Dynasty influenced future Chinese regimes, particularly the Han, and from it is derived the European name for China.
History
Origins and early development
Feizi, a descendant of the ancient political advisor Gao Yao, was granted rule over Qin City.[note 2] During the rule of King Xiao of Zhou, the eighth king of the Zhou Dynasty, this area became known as the state of Qin. In 897 BC, under the regency of Gonghe, the area became a dependency allotted for the purpose of raising and breeding horses. One of Feizi's descendants, Duke Zhuang, became favoured by King Ping of Zhou, the thirteenth king in that line. As a reward, Zhuang's son, Duke Xiang, was sent eastward as the leader of a war expedition, during which he formally established the Qin.
Qin state first sent a military expedition into central China in 672 BC, though it did not engage in any serious incursions due to the threat from neighbouring tribesmen. By the dawn of the fourth century BC, however, the neighbouring tribes had all been either subdued or conquered, and the stage was set for the rise of Qin expansionism.
Growth of power
Lord Shang Yang, a Qin statesman, introduced a number of militarily advantageous reforms from 361 BC until his death in 338 BC, and also helped construct the Qin capital, Xianyang. This latter accomplishment commenced in the mid-fourth century BC; the resulting city greatly resembled the capitals of other Warring States.
Marble bust of statesman Shang Yang
Of Shang Yang's reforms, the most notable one was advocating the philosophy of Legalism, which encouraged practical and ruthless warfare. In contrast, during the Zhou Dynasty and the ensuing Warring States Period, the prevalent philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle. For example, during the Warring States Period, Duke Xiang of Song[note 3] was at war with the state of Chu, and had an opportunity to attack the enemy force, commanded by Zhu, while they were crossing a river. Instead, however, he waited for them to finish crossing, and allowed them to marshal their forces. He was decisively defeated in the ensuing battle, and when, later, his advisors admonished him for such excessive courtesy to the enemy, he retorted, "The sage does not crush the feeble, nor give the order for attack until the enemy have formed their ranks." The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advantage of their enemy's weaknesses. A nobleman in the state of Wei accused the Qin state of being "avaricious, perverse, eager for profit, and without sincerity. It knows nothing about etiquette, proper relationships, and virtuous conduct, and if there be an opportunity for material gain, it will disregard its relatives as if they were animals." It was this Legalist thought combined with strong leadership from long-lived rulers, openness to employ talented men from other states, and little internal opposition that gave the Qin such a strong political base.
Map of the Warring States. Qin is shown in pink
Another advantage of the Qin was that they had a large, efficient army[note 4] and capable generals. They utilised the newest developments in weaponry and transportation as well, which many of their enemies lacked. These latter developments allowed greater mobility over several different terrain types[note 5] which were most common in many regions of China. Thus, in both ideology and practice, the Qin were militarily superior.
Finally, the Qin empire had a geographical advantage due to its fertility and strategic situation, protected by mountains that made the state a natural stronghold.[note 6] Its expanded agricultural output helped sustain Qin's large army with food and natural resources; the Wei River canal built in 246 BC was particularly significant in this respect.
Conquest of other state
During the Warring States Period preceding the Qin Dynasty, the major states vying for dominance were Yan, Zhao, Qi, Chu, Han, Wei and Qin. The rulers of these states styled themselves as kings, rather than using the titles of lower nobility they had previously held. However, none elevated himself to believe that he had the "Mandate of Heaven," as the Zhou emperors had claimed, nor that he had the right to offer sacrifices—they left this to the Zhou rulers.
A Chinese lacquerware box with the "Panyu" name on its surface, one piece of evidence that the Qin Dynasty governed the area of Guangzhou before the Nanyue Kingdom did.
Before their conquest in the fourth and third centuries BC, the Qin suffered several setbacks. Shang Yang was executed in 338 BC due to a grudge by the leader King Wu over a student who had been executed because of Shang Yang's insistence that law applied even to nobility. There was also internal strife over the Qin succession in 307 BC, which decentralised Qin authority somewhat. Qin was defeated by an alliance of the other states in 295 BC, and shortly after suffered another defeat by the state of Zhao, due to the fact that the majority of their army was then defending against the Qi. The aggressive statesman Fan Sui, however, soon came to power as prime minister even as the problem of the succession was resolved, and he began an expansionist policy that had originated in Jin and Qi, which prompted the Qin to attempt to conquer the other states.
The Qin were swift in their assault on the other states. They first attacked the Han, directly east, and took the city of Yangdi in 230 BC. They then struck northward; the state of Zhao surrendered in 228 BC, and the northernmost state of Yan followed, falling in 226 BC. Next, Qin armies launched assaults to the east, and later the south as well; they took the Wei city of Daliang (now called Kaifeng) in 225 BC and forced the Chu to surrender by 223 BC. Lastly, they deposed the Zhou Dynasty's remnants in Luoyang and conquered the Qi, taking the city of Linzi in 221 BCE.
Dominion of China
Marble statue of Qin Shihuang located near his burial place
When the conquests were complete in 221 BC, the leader of the Qin, King Zheng,[note 7] who had first assumed the throne of the Qin state at age 13, became the effective ruler of China. He assumed his position as king with the abdication of his prime minister, Lu Buwei. He took on the name Qin Shihuang Di (Chinese: 秦始皇帝), meaning "First Emperor of the Qin".[note 8] The newly declared emperor ordered all weapons not in the possession of the Qin to be confiscated and melted down. The resulting metal was sufficient to build twelve large ornamental statues at the Qin's newly declared capital, Xianyang.
In 214 BC Qin Shihuang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction (100,000 men) of his large army, and sent the majority (500,000 men) south to seize still more land. Prior to the events leading to Qin dominance over China, they had gained possession of much of Sichuan to the southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' guerrilla warfare tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building a canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding Guangzhou,[note 9] and took the provinces of Fuzhou and Guilin. They struck as far south as Hanoi. After these victories in the south, Qin Shihuang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonize the newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, the First Emperor was extremely successful in the south.
However, while the empire at times was extended to the north, the Qin could rarely hold on to the land for long. The tribes of these locations, collectively called the Hu by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the Dynasty. Prohibited from trading with Qin Dynasty peasants, the Xiongnu tribe living in the Ordos region in northwest China often raided them instead, prompting the Qin to retaliate. After several campaigns and much effort, the region was conquered and agriculture was established; the peasants, however, were discontented and later revolted. The succeeding Han Dynasty also expanded into the Ordos due to overpopulation, but depleted their resources in the process. Owen Lattimore said of both Dynasties' attempts to conquer the Ordos, "conquest and expansion were illusory. There was no kind of success that did not create its own reaction." Indeed, this was true of the dynasty's borders in multiple directions; modern Xinjiang, Tibet, Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and regions to the southeast were foreign to the Qin, and even areas over which they had military control were culturally distinct.
Fall from power
An edict in bronze from the reign of the Second Qin Emperor
Three assassination attempts were made on Qin Shihuang's life, leading him to become paranoid and obsessed with immortality. He died in 210 BC, while on a trip to the far eastern reaches of his empire in an attempt to procure an elixir of immortality from Daoist magicians, who claimed the elixir was stuck on an island guarded by a sea monster. The chief eunuch, Zhao Gao, and the prime minister, Li Si, hid the news of his death upon their return until they were able to alter his will to place on the throne the dead emperor's most pliable son, Huhai, who took the name of Qin Er Shi. They believed that they would be able to manipulate him to their own ends, and thus effectively control the empire. Qin Er Shi was, indeed, inept and pliable. He executed many ministers and imperial princes, continued massive building projects (one of his most extravagant projects was lacquering the city walls), enlarged the army, increased taxes, and arrested messengers who brought him bad news. As a result, men from all over China revolted, attacking officials, raising armies, and declaring themselves kings of seized territories.
During this time, Li Si and Zhao Gao fell out among themselves, and Li Si was executed. Zhao Gao decided to force Qin Er Shi to commit suicide due to Qin Er Shi's incompetence. Upon this, Ziying, a nephew of Qin Er Shi, ascended the throne, and immediately executed Zhao Gao. Ziying, seeing that increasing unrest was growing among the people[note 10] and that many local officials had declared themselves kings, attempted to cling to his throne by declaring himself one king among all the others. He was undermined by his ineptitude, however, and popular revolt broke out in 209 BC. When Chu rebels under the lieutenant Liu Bang attacked, a state in such turmoil could not hold for long. Ziying was defeated near the Wei River in 207 BC and surrendered shortly after; he was executed by the Chu leader Xiang Yu. The Qin capital was destroyed the next year, and this is considered by Derk Bodde, as well as other historians, to be the end of the Qin empire.[note 1] Liu Bang then betrayed and defeated Xiang Yu, declaring himself Emperor Gaozu[note 11] of the new Han Dynasty. Despite the short duration of the Qin Dynasty, it was very influential on the structure of future dynasties.
Culture and society
Domestic life
The aristocracy of the Qin were largely similar in their culture and daily life. Regional variations in culture were considered a symbol of the lower classes. This idea stemmed from the Zhou and was seized upon by the Qin, as such variations were seen as contrary to the unification that the government strove to achieve.
Commoners and rural villagers, who made up over 90% of the population, very rarely left the villages or farmsteads where they were born. Common forms of employment differed by region, though farming was almost universally common. Professions were hereditary; a father's employment was passed to his eldest son after he died. The Lüshi Chunqiu[note 12] gave examples of how, when commoners are obsessed with material wealth, instead of the idealism of a man who "makes things serve him", they were "reduced to the service of things".
Peasants were rarely figured in literature during the Qin Dynasty and afterwards; scholars and others of more elite status preferred the excitement of cities and the lure of politics. One notable exception to this was Shen Nong, the so-called "Divine Father", who taught that households should grow their own food. "If in one's prime he does not plow, someone in the world will grow hungry. If in one's prime she does not weave, someone in the world will be cold." The Qin encouraged this; a ritual was performed once every few years that consisted of important government officials taking turns with the plow on a special field, to create a simulation of government interest and activity within agriculture.
Architecture
Warring States-era architecture had several definitive aspects. City walls, used for defense, were made longer, and indeed several secondary walls were also sometimes built to separate the different districts. Verticality in federal structures was emphasised, to create a sense of authority and absolute power. Architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings amply conveyed this.
Philosophy and literature
The written language of the Qin was logographic, as that of the Zhou had been. As one of his most influential achievements in life, prime minister Li Si standardized the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country. This would have a unification effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. He is also credited with creating the "lesser-seal" (Chinese: 小篆, Pinyin: xiǎozhuàn) style of calligraphy, which serves as a basis for modern Chinese and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising.
During the Warring States Period, the Hundred Schools of Thought comprised many different philosophies proposed by Chinese scholars. In 221 BC, however, the First Emperor conquered all the states, and governed them using a single philosophy, Legalism. At least one school of thought, Mohism, was eradicated, though it is not known exactly why; despite the Qin's state ideology and Mohism being similar in certain regards, it is possible that Mohists were sought out and killed by the state's armies due to paramilitary activities.
Confucius's school of thought, called Confucianism, was also influential during the Warring States Period, as well as throughout much of the later Zhou Dynasty and early imperial China.[note 13] This school of thought had a so-called Confucian canon of literature, known as the "six classics": the Odes, Documents, Ritual, Music, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Changes, which embodied Chinese literature at the time.
During the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism was suppressed, along with all other non-Legalist philosophies, by the First Emperor; early Han Dynasty emperors did the same. Legalism, the state-adopted school of thought, denounced the feudal system and encouraged severe punishments, particularly when the emperor was disobeyed; individual rights were devalued when they conflicted with the government's or the ruler's wishes, and merchants and scholars were considered unproductive, fit for elimination. One of the more drastic measures employed to accomplish the eradication of the old schools of thought was the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars incident, which almost singlehandedly gave the Qin Dynasty a bad reputation among later scholars. The First Emperor, in an attempt to consolidate power, ordered the burning of all books on non-Legalist philosophical viewpoints and intellectual subjects. This decree was passed in 213 BC, and also stipulated that all scholars who refused to submit their books to be burned would be executed by premature burial. Only texts considered productive by Legalists were preserved, most on pragmatic subjects, such as agriculture, divination, and medicine. However, controversy remains on the so-called “burning of books and burying of scholars”. Nowadays, many Sinologists argued that the “burying of scholars” recorded in Grand Historian is a slander to the First Emperor and not a truth.
Government and military
Qin Dynasty composite bow arrows (top) and crossbow bolts (bottom)
Credit: Liang Jieming
The Qin government was highly bureaucratic, and was administered by a hierarchy of officials, all serving the First Emperor. The Qin put into practice the teachings of Han Fei, allowing the First Emperor to control all of his territories, including those recently conquered. All aspects of life were standardized, from measurements and language to more practical details, such as the length of chariot axles. Zheng and his advisers also introduced new laws and practices that ended feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. Under this system, both the military and government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. Later Chinese dynasties emulated the Qin government for its efficiency, despite its being condemned by Confucian philosophy. Such a system, however, could be manipulated by power-hungry individuals; one example of such an occurrence was documented in the "Records of Officialdom". A commander named Hu ordered his men to attack peasants, in an attempt to increase the number of "bandits" he had killed; his superiors, likely eager to inflate their records as well, allowed this.
Qin Shihuang also improved the military, despite the fact that it had already undergone extensive reforms. The military used the most advanced weaponry of the time. The invention of the sword during the Warring States Period was a huge boon. It was first used mostly in bronze form, but by the third century BC, the Qin were using stronger iron swords. The demand for metal this produced resulted in improved bellows. The crossbow had been introduced in the fifth century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier. It could also be rendered ineffective by removing two pins, which prevented enemies from capturing a working crossbow.
The Terracotta army.
The Qin also used improved methods of transportation and tactics. The state of Zhao had first replaced chariots with cavalry in 307 BC, but the change was swiftly adopted by the other states due to the fact that cavalry had greater mobility over the terrain of China.
The First Emperor developed plans to fortify his northern border, to protect against the nomadic Mongols. The result was the construction of the Great Wall of China,which was built by joining and strenghthening the walls made by the feudal lords, which would be expanded and rebuilt multiple times by later dynasties, also in response to threats from the north. Another monument built during Qin Shihuang's rule was the Terracotta army, intended to protect the emperor after his death. As opposed to the Great Wall, which is visible from space,[note 14] the Terracotta army was inconspicuous due to its underground location, and was not discovered until 1974.
Religion
Floating on high in every direction,
Music fills the hall and court.
The incense sticks are a forest of feathers,
The cloudy scene an obscure darkness.
Metal stalks with elegant blossoms,
A host of flags and kingfisher banners.
The music of the "Seven Origins" and "Blossoming Origins"
Are intoned as harmonious sounds.
Thus one can almost hear
The spirits coming to feast and frolic.
The spirits are seen off to the zhu zhu of the musics,
Which purifies and refines human feelings.
Suddenly the spirits ride off on the darkness,
And the brilliant event finishes.
Purified thoughts grow hidden and still,
And the warp and weft of the world fall dark.
Han shu, p. 1046
The dominant religious belief in China during the reign of the Qin, and, in fact, during much of early imperial China, was focused on the shen (roughly translating to "spirits"), yin ("shadows"), and the realm they were said to live in. The Chinese offered sacrifices[note 15] in an attempt to contact this other world, which they believed to be parallel to the earthly one. The dead were said to simply have moved from one world to the other. The rituals mentioned, as well as others, served two purposes: to ensure that the dead journeyed and stayed in the other realm, and to receive blessings from the spirit realm.[note 16]
Religious practices were usually held in local shrines and sacred areas, which contained sacrificial altars. During a sacrifice or other ritual, the senses of all participants and witnesses would be dulled and blurred with smoke, incense, and music. The lead sacrificer would fast and meditate before a sacrifice to further blur his senses and increase the likelihood of perceiving otherworldly phenomena. Other participants were similarly prepared, though not as rigorously.
Such blurring of the senses was also a factor in the practice of spirit intermediaries, or mediumship. Practitioners of the art would fall into trances or dance to perform supernatural tasks. These people would often rise to power as a result of their art—Luan Da, a Han Dynasty medium, was granted rule over 2,000 households. Noted Han historian Sima Qian was scornful of such practices, dismissing them as foolish trickery.
Divination—to predict and/or influence the future—was yet another form of religious practice. An ancient practice that was common during the Qin Dynasty was cracking bones or turtle shells to gain knowledge of the future. The forms of divination which sprang up during early imperial China were diverse, though observing natural phenomena was a common method. Comets, eclipses, and droughts were considered omens of things to come.
Sovereigns of Qin Dynasty
Posthumous names / title Chinese family names and given names Period of Reign
Convention: "Qin" + posthumous name
Zhaoxiang (昭襄 Zhāoxiāng) Ying Ze (嬴則 qíng zé) or Ying Ji (嬴稷 yíng jì) 306 BC–250 BC
Xiaowen (孝文 Xiàowén) Ying Zhu (嬴柱 yíng zhù) 250 BC
Zhuangxiang (莊襄 Zhuāngxiāng) Ying Zichu (嬴子楚 yíng zi chǔ) 249 BC–247 BC
Shi Huangdi (始皇帝 Shǐ Huángdì) Ying Zheng (嬴政 yíng zhèng) 246 BC–210 BC
Er Shi Huangdi (二世皇帝 Èr Shì Huángdì) Ying Huhai (嬴胡亥 yíng hú hài) 210 BC–207 BC
Ziying was often referred using personal name or
Qin Wang Ziying (秦王子嬰 qín wáng zi yīng)
Did not exist Ying Ziying (嬴子嬰 yíng zi yīng) 206 BC
