提图斯·弗拉维乌斯·多米提安努斯 | |||||||
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早年生活
图密善出生在罗马城,当时他的父亲即将就任罗马执政官,早年的家境并不富裕。当他的父亲与兄长在外从事军旅生活时,他则留在罗马接受贵族的青年教育,学习修辞和文法。
公元69年,皇帝维提里乌斯的军队在第二次贝德里亚库姆战役失败后,支持维斯帕先的部队即将进入罗马城。在城内大乱之际,图密善与当时担任城市长官的伯父“萨宾努斯”逃到卡庇托里上的朱庇特神庙,但敌人闯入并放火焚烧神庙,萨宾努斯被皇帝逮捕与处决。图密善打扮成伊西丝女神的祭司,逃过追捕者的搜查。不久,维提里乌斯战败身亡,支持他父亲称帝的军队进入罗马,图密善被军队拥护高呼为“凯撒”,并授与执政官的地位。
虽然维斯帕先已经成为帝国中唯一的罗马皇帝,但当时(公元70年年初)维斯帕先与提图斯都不在罗马,因此罗马中枢是由当年十八岁的图密善以城市大法官的名义,实行国家执政官的权力。图密善在当时擅自分派了首都和外地廿多个职位,这一举动引起尚在埃及的父亲不满;维斯帕先曾不只一次地抱怨与讽刺:“真奇怪,他怎么没有把我的继承人也给指派了?!”但提图斯却频频为自己的弟弟缓颊,使得他们的亲子关系未有不良影响。
年轻的图密善显现出对权力的追求。为了增加自己的军功,他自愿带兵到高卢与日耳曼地区敉平巴塔维亚叛变。但在他尚未到达前线之前,罗马将领凯列亚里斯已经击败敌人,首领奇维里斯在70年夏末向罗马投降并结束这场事变。后来,他又曾自愿参加与帕提亚的联军,攻打东方的阿兰人;但维斯帕先不同意罗马介入东方事务,使得图密善无法取得战场上的光荣。
公元79年,维斯帕先病死,长子提图斯继任帝位。但图密善却宣称,父亲原本打算让他们兄弟二人共同治理帝国,提图斯偷偷改写了维斯帕先的遗嘱。图密善明白显现出对于兄长的不满,私下策划著谋反提图斯的阴谋。但提图斯不以为意,并未对弟弟有过公开的批评。
登上帝位
公元81年,就任皇帝只有两年的提图斯病故。由于提图斯没有儿子,卅岁的图密善顺利登上罗马的皇位。他提高了罗马士兵一百一十年来未曾变化过的军饷,从一天的10阿斯(As,指罗马帝国铜币)提高到13阿斯,并将士兵退休金领取方式给予制度化。因此终其执政期间,他一直都受到士兵们的爱戴。
公共建设
罗马城的朱庇特神庙于80年大火中再度焚毁。图密善下令重新兴建,于82年峻工。他还在卡庇托里上建了一座新的神庙,即后来通称的涅尔瓦广场。
同时,他还建了弗拉维家族的神庙、图密善竞技场(Stadium Domitiani)、音乐厅和一个海战人工湖,并重新修筑并完成了最著名的大竞技场(Colosseum)。
日耳曼长城
对于帝国边境的防御方面,图密善沿着莱茵河、多瑙河防线,并连结黑森林地区,建立了日耳曼长城(Limes Germanicus)。一方确保了罗马国境内的安全,也同时减轻了罗马边防驻军的负担(莱茵河总兵团数从八个军团降低为六个军团)。
达奇亚战争
86年,图密善对于位在多瑙河对岸的达契亚发动了两次战争。第一次是他自己亲上战阵,第二次则是让近卫军长官带领。罗马与达契亚之间的战争,互有胜败。后来于89年,图密善决定罢战,由罗马出钱赎回被俘的战士,双方议和。但图密善却为此举办凯旋式。
不成功的叛变
上日耳曼的行政长官路奇乌斯·安东尼公开称帝,打算联合当地的同盟部队,起兵反叛。但由于莱茵河提早解冻,阻止日耳曼人渡河。下日耳曼军团长官立刻镇压了这场连内战都称不上的叛变,仅有安东尼与他手下的几个百人队长受到处决。
图密善接到叛变消息时,事件就已经平息。图密善派任图拉真(后来的皇帝)担任上日耳曼军团的长官。
恐怖统治
图密善重视司法──这点类似他个人崇拜的帝国二代皇帝提比略,常到市心广场的审判厅举行特别审判。照罗马人的宗教习俗,维斯塔贞女必须发誓终生守洁,但实际上却常常发生与男子发生性关系的情况出现。图密善恢复古代制度,将有犯行的贞女活埋,情夫则以乱棒打死。此外,图密善对贪赃受贿、通奸等罪行,常常采行特别严格的罚则。对于敢于以讽刺诗影射他的文人,也遭到他的酷刑对待;到了后来,只要有人被他认定,其言论或行动有损于皇帝的尊严,就足以构成对此人定罪的理由了。后来,由于国家财政吃紧,他对犹太人与基督徒课以特别的税赋;只要实行过割礼,就必须缴付额外的税金。
步入执政中后期的图密善开始变的多疑,他对于元老院采取敌视的态度。他常常怀疑元老议员阴谋推翻他的统治,甚至在自己的床头放置刀剑以防遭人暗杀,于是便让许多告密者得到鼓动,纷纷搜集贵族各种罪行,再告上法庭进行审判,甚至让骑士阶级公开审判元老。在他的统治期间,许多元老遭到处决、流放、财产没收、除名的下场,所有贵族们经常在恐惧当中度日。
遇刺身亡
图密善年青时,就强夺了埃里乌斯·拉米亚的妻子──多米提亚·隆吉那。后来当图密善登基后,多米提亚就接受了“奥古斯塔”(皇后)的封号。后来多米提亚爱上了演员帕里斯,图密善得知之后,杀死帕里斯与其朋友,并宣布与皇后离婚,然而图密善不久之后又把她召回。中年之后,图密善又纳了自己的侄女──尤利亚(即提图斯的女儿),但她后来也遭到流放,死在外地。
出于怀疑,图密善突然杀死了自己的堂兄弟弗拉维乌斯·克勒蒙斯。一连串的举动,引起了皇室家族成员的惊恐。由皇后在背后暗地支持,寝宫侍从巴尔特尼乌斯、宫廷卫队长萨图尔,皇帝秘书恩特尔,尤利亚过去的管家斯特潘努斯,联合起来参与了刺杀皇帝的计划。
96年9月18日中午,巴尔特尼乌斯向图密善谎称,斯特潘努斯要向他紧急报告。于是,图密善摒退所有侍从,独自走进卧室。
斯特潘努斯假装受伤,用羊毛绷带包扎他的左臂。正当斯特潘努斯以揭发阴谋的理由接近皇帝时,他便抽出预藏在绷带中的匕首,刺中图密善。图密善试图抵抗,但他身边的萨图尔、以及解放奴隶一起向他进攻,皇帝逃到床头寻找武器,却只发现空的刀鞘。他们合力杀死了图密善。
图密善皇帝享年45岁,在位15年。他被杀后,尸体无人理会。后来他的乳母在拉丁大道旁火化了他的尸体,并偷偷地把图密善的骨灰带到弗拉维家族神庙,与尤利亚的骨灰合葬在一起。罗马士兵十分悲痛,打算立即称他为复仇。不久,斯特潘努斯与巴尔特尼乌斯都受到折磨而死。
图密善曾与皇后多米提亚生有一子一女,但都早夭。图密善死后,元老院推举66岁的涅尔瓦继任皇帝。弗拉维王朝结束。
评价
史学家的观点
在塔西佗、小普林尼与苏埃托尼乌斯的笔下,图密善是一位暴君。他尚未当政之前与执政之初,表情谦恭,热爱文学,奖掖修辞学名家昆提良,搭配他年青时期的外表:身材高大,面色红润,具有一对大眼睛,长得俊美优雅,十分受到罗马各阶层的喜爱。但他执政的中后期却喜好荒淫嬉戏,并逐渐变得残暴,特别着重于打击元老院贵族阶层,采行许多新的拷打方式对付遭到逮捕的人。因此当他的死讯传出,元老院特别感到高兴。他们通过法令,决定对图密善施以除忆诅咒(或译记录抹煞)──抹消所有图密善所留下来的纪念物:雕像、铭文。而许多当代第一手史料记录者的身份,正是元老阶层,因此透过他们的笔锋,后人对皇帝图密善的观感相当恶劣。而除忆诅咒对图密善施政记录的有系统破坏,也使图密善的正面评价直至近代考古学及系统性史学分析的发展才渐有提升。
塔西佗写着:“海上充满了流放可怜到远方的船只,岩礁上流满了这些牺牲者的鲜血。”不过在事实上,塔西佗对此是略为夸大的:在图密善执政的十五年间的记录中,元老议员逼处决的有八到九人,流放的有五到六人,对政治绝望而退隐的有三到四人。
基督教历史的观点
在基督教的历史观中,常论及图密善曾将教徒丢入大竞技场中,让狮子等野兽啃食的叙述;实际上,在当代非基督教的史料中找不到任何可供验证的证据,仅仅出现在后来兴起的教会记述中。而图密善的侄女尤利亚、以及克勒蒙斯分别遭到流放与处决的原因,也仅有教会记载是由于他们信仰基督教的原因,但同样未出现在苏埃托尼乌斯与狄奥的作品中(狄奥记录克勒蒙斯的罪名是“不信神”,但历来无法对于这项罪名是否“等同于信仰基督教”达成共识)。
无论如何,基督教传统上将图密善视为早期迫害教徒的皇帝之一。一般认为《新约》中的〈启示录〉所讲的“恶魔的数字666”,就是在隐谕图密善本人。
69 AD, the emperor's army 维提里乌斯 battle in the second 贝德里亚库姆 failed to support Vespasian's troops about to enter the city of Rome. Chaos in the city, the occasion of Domitian and then-City Executive uncle "Sabinnusi" Tory Bailey fled card on the Temple of Jupiter, but the enemy broke into and set fire to the temple, Sabinnusi arrested and executed by the emperor. Domitian priest dressed as the goddess Isis, who escaped the hunt for the search. Soon, 维提里乌斯 defeat death, to support his father's troops entered the Roman emperor, Domitian was the military support the shouting of "Caesar" and the status granted to consuls.
AD 79, Vespasian died, his eldest son Titus successor to throne. But Domitian was declared, the father had intended to co-management of their empire, two brothers, Titus Vespasian secretly rewrote the will. Domitian understand that reveals discontent for his brother, Titus private planning a rebellion plot. But Titus did not mind his brother had not been publicly criticized.
Public Works
German Wall
86 years, Domitian is located in the Danube for the other side of Dacia launched two wars. The first time was on his pro-war to the second is the Chief Executive to lead the guards. The war between Rome and Dacia, victory or defeat each other. Later, in 89 years, Domitian decided Bazhan, from Rome to pay the redemption of the captured soldiers, both peace negotiations. But Domitian was held this triumphal.
Domitian received mutiny message, the event had subsided. Domitian Trajan assignments (later Emperor) as the German Army's Executive.
Into power in the latter part of Domitian began to become suspicious that he was hostile attitude of the Senate. He often suspected plot to overthrow the elder members of his rule, and even placed the sword in his own bed to avoid being assassinated, so they are encouraged so many informers, have collected a variety of crimes nobility, and then to court for trial, and even Knight class public trial veterans. Under his rule, many veterans were executed, exiled, property confiscation, removal of the end, all the nobles were often live in fear.
Based on suspicion, suddenly Domitian killed his cousin 弗拉维乌斯 Kelemengsi. A series of moves, the members of the royal family caused panic. Secretly supported by the Queen in the background, and chambers attendants Baerteni ust, court Weidui Zhang satur, Emperor secretary Endter, Julia Butler 斯特潘努斯 the past, together involved in the assassination of the emperor's plans.
Domitian the emperor at the age of 45 years, the reign of 15 years. He was killed, the bodies are left unattended. Later, his wet nurse in Latin along the roadside, his body was cremated, and secretly to Domitian's ashes into the Flavian family temple, and Julia's ashes buried together. Roman soldiers were very sad, intends to immediately call him revenge. Soon, 斯特潘努斯 and Baerteni ust have been tortured to death.
Historian's point of view
In Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius's pen, Domitian was a tyrant. Before he came to power with the ruling not the beginning of expression humility, love of literature, incentives famous Quintilian good rhetoric, with his appearance by Young: a tall, ruddy complexion, with big eyes, looked handsome, elegant, very much by the Roman love of all sectors. But he is like the ruling in the late licentious play, and gradually became violent, with particular emphasis on the aristocratic class against the Senate, adopted many new methods of torture against people arrested. So when news of his death spread, the Senate was particularly pleased. They passed an act to impose decisions on Domitian curse than memories (or erase records translated) ─ ─ erase all of Domitian to the monuments left by: statues, inscriptions. Many contemporary first-hand historical records of the identity, is the veteran class, so through their Bifeng, descendants of the emperor Domitian very bad impression. In addition to recalling the curse of the Domitian's policy of systematic destruction of records, but also to the positive evaluation of Domitian until modern archeology and history of the development of systematic gradual upgrade only.
Christian view of history