fǎ lǜ [fǎlǜ]
yīng wén míng zì： law， statute
“ fǎ ”
lā dīng wén jus,
fǎ wén droit，
dé wén Recht，
é wén право,
dū jiān yòu“ gōng píng”、“ zhèng yì” de hán yì。 cóng“ fǎ” de cí yuán kàn， suī dū yù yì gōng píng hé zhèng yì， dàn zài jiē jí shè huì lǐ， bù tóng de jiē jí yòu bù tóng de gōng píng、 zhèng yì guān， fǎ suǒ tǐ xiàn de， zhǐ néng shì bù tóng tǒng zhì jiē jí de gōng píng、 zhèng yì guān。
jiǎn shù： fǎ lǜ， jí rén lèi zài shè huì céng cì de guī zé， shè huì shàng rén yǔ rén zhī jiān guān xì de guī fàn， yǐ zhèng yì wéi qí cún zài de jī chǔ， yǐ guó jiā de qiáng zhì lì wéi qí shí shī de shǒu duàn zhě。 fǎ zhì hé fǎ lǜ yào zhú jiàn biàn dé shìdàng kuān róng yǐ lì yú shè huì hé xié . fǎ yī bān xiàn yú xiàn fǎ、 fǎ lǜ。 fǎ shǔ yú shàng céng jiàn zhù fàn chóu， jué dìng yú jīng jì jī chǔ， bìng wéi jīng jì jī chǔ fú wù。 fǎ de mùdì zài yú wéi hù yòu lì yú tǒng zhì jiē jí de shè huì guān xì hé shè huì zhì xù， shì tǒng zhì jiē jí shí xiàn qí tǒng zhì de yī xiàng zhòng yào gōng jù。 suǒ yǐ， fǎ shì jiē jí shè huì tè yòu de shè huì xiàn xiàng， tā suí zhe jiē jí、 jiē jí dǒu zhēng de chǎn shēng、 fā zhǎn 'ér chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn， fǎ lǜ jiāng suí zhe jiē jí、 jiē jí dǒu zhēng de xiāo miè 'ér zì xíng xiāo wáng。
fǎ lǜ de gài niàn fǎ lǜ：
gǔ shí ---- zhǐ lǜ lìng huò xíng fǎ。 yóu lì fǎ jī guān zhì dìng , guó jiā zhèng quán bǎo zhèng zhí xíng de xíng wéi guī zé。
xiàn dài cí diǎn ---- yóu lì fǎ jī guān zhì dìng， guó jiā zhèng quán bǎo zhèng zhí xíng de xíng wéi guī zé。 fǎ lǜ tǐ xiàn tǒng zhì jiē jí de yì zhì， shì jiē jí zhuān zhèng de gōng jù zhī yī。 tǐ xiàn tǒng zhì jiē duàn de yì zhì， guó jiā zhì dìng hé bān bù de gōng mín bì xū zūn shǒu de xíng wéi guī zé：
zhè lǐ ---- shì zhǐ xiá yì de fǎ lǜ， jí yóu wǒ zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó zuì gāo quán lì jī guān jí qí cháng shè jī guān héng quán guó rén mín dài biǎo dà huì jí qí cháng wù wěi yuán huì zhì dìng de guī fàn xìng wén jiàn。 gēn jù wǒ guó xiàn xíng xiàn fǎ de guī dìng， fǎ lǜ fēn wéi jī běn fǎ lǜ hé jī běn fǎ lǜ yǐ wài de fǎ lǜ。
jī běn fǎ lǜ：
yī bān zhǐ ---- zài yī gè guó jiā huò dì qū yōng yòu zuì gāo fǎ lǜ xiào lì de fǎ lǜ， tā de shí jì zuò yòng yǔ xiàn fǎ shí jì shàng xiāng tóng。 「 jī běn fǎ 」 suǒ wèi yì shì bù yǒng jiǔ bìng quán yí zhī zhēn， zài méi yòu shí shī xiàn fǎ xià dá dào yòu fǎ wéi chí xiàn zhèng zhì xù zhī xiào guǒ。
zhè lǐ zhǐ ---- zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó quán guó rén mín dài biǎo dà huì zhì dìng hé xiū gǎi xíng shì、 mín shì、 guó jiā jī gòu de hé qí tā de fǎ lǜ， nèi róng shè jí guó jiā hé shè huì shēng huó mǒu yī fāng miàn de zuì jī běn de wèn tí。《 xiāng gǎng tè bié xíng zhèng qū jī běn fǎ》 yǔ《 ào mén tè bié xíng zhèng qū jī běn fǎ》 shǔ yú“ jī běn fǎ lǜ” de céng cì。 jī běn fǎ lǜ yǐ wài de fǎ lǜ， yě jiào“ yī bān fǎ lǜ”， shì zhǐ yóu quán guó rén mín dài biǎo dà huì cháng wù wěi yuán huì zhì dìng hé xiū gǎi de“ chú yīngdāng yóu quán guó rén mín dài biǎo dà huì zhì dìng de fǎ lǜ yǐ wài de qí tā fǎ lǜ” (《 xiàn fǎ》 dì 67 tiáo )。 cǐ wài， quán guó rén dà cháng wěi huì suǒ zuò chū de jué yì hé jué dìng， rú guǒ qí nèi róng shǔ yú guī fàn xìng guī dìng， ér bù shì yī bān xuān yán huò wěi rèn lìng zhī lèi de wén jiàn， yě shì wéi xiá yì de fǎ lǜ。 tā yī bān bāo kuò -- xiàn fǎ， mín shì fǎ， xíng zhèng fǎ， jīng jì fǎ děng。
guǎng yì de fǎ lǜ： shì zhǐ fǎ de zhěng tǐ， bāo kuò fǎ lǜ、 yòu fǎ lǜ xiào lì de jiě shì jí qí xíng zhèng jī guān wéi zhí xíng fǎ lǜ 'ér zhì dìng de guī fàn xìng wén jiàn（ rú guī zhāng）
xiá yì de fǎ lǜ： zhuān zhǐ yōng yòu lì fǎ quán de guó jiā jī guān yǐ zhào lì fǎ chéng xù zhì dìng de guī fàn xìng wén jiàn。
zài sān quán fēn lì de guó jiā， yóu xíng zhèng jī guān wéi zhí xíng fǎ lǜ 'ér zhì dìng de xíng zhèng mìng lìng jǐn duì gāi xíng zhèng jī guān zhī gōng wù yuán yòu jū shù lì， chú fǎ guī mìng lìng wài， yuán zé shàng xíng zhèng jī guān suǒ zhì dìng zhī xíng zhèng guī zé duì yú rén mín jūn bù fā shēng jū shù lì。 ér xiàn zhì rén mín zì yóu quán lì zhī fǎ lǜ bì xū yóu rén mín suǒ xuǎn jǔ zhī lì fǎ jī guān zhì dìng zhī（ jí hòu zhě）。
zhōng guó xiàn dài fǎ lǜ sī xiǎng gài shù
zhōng guó shì shì jiè shàng lì shǐ zuì yōu jiǔ de guó jiā zhī yī。 zhōng guó gè zú rén mín gòng tóng chuàng zào liǎo guāng huī càn làn de wén huà， jù yòu guāng róng de gé mìng chuán tǒng。
yī bā sì líng nián yǐ hòu， fēng jiàn de zhōng guó zhú jiàn biàn chéng bàn zhí mín dì、 bàn fēng jiàn de guó jiā。 zhōng guó rén mín wèiguó jiā dú lì、 mín zú jiě fàng hé mín zhù zì yóu jìn xíng liǎo qiánpū hòu jì de yīng yǒng fèn dǒu。
èr shí shì jì， zhōng guó fā shēng liǎo fān tiān fù dì de wěi dà lì shǐ biàn gé。
yī jiǔ yī yī nián sūn zhōng shān xiān shēng lǐng dǎo de xīn hài gé mìng， fèi chú liǎo fēng jiàn dì zhì， chuàng lì liǎo zhōng huá mín guó。 dàn shì， zhōng guó rén mín fǎn duì dì guó zhù yì hé fēng jiàn zhù yì de lì shǐ rèn wù hái méi yòu wán chéng。
yī jiǔ sì jiǔ nián， yǐ máo zé dōng zhù xí wéi lǐng xiù de zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng lǐng dǎo zhōng guó gè zú rén mín， zài jīng lì liǎo cháng qī de jiān nán qū zhé de wǔ zhuāng dǒu zhēng hé qí tā xíng shì de dǒu zhēng yǐ hòu， zhōng yú tuī fān liǎo dì guó zhù yì、 fēng jiàn zhù yì hé guān liáo zī běn zhù yì de tǒng zhì， qǔ dé liǎo xīn mín zhù zhù yì gé mìng de wěi dà shèng lì， jiàn lì liǎo zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó。 cóng cǐ， zhōng guó rén mín zhǎng wò liǎo guó jiā de quán lì， chéng wéi guó jiā de zhù rén。
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó chéng lì yǐ hòu， wǒ guó shè huì zhú bù shí xiàn liǎo yóu xīn mín zhù zhù yì dào shè huì zhù yì de guò dù。 1956 nián shēng chǎn zī liào sī yòu zhì de shè huì zhù yì gǎi zào yǐ jīng wán chéng， rén bō xuē rén de zhì dù yǐ jīng xiāo miè， shè huì zhù yì zhì dù yǐ jīng què lì。 gōng rén jiē jí lǐng dǎo de、 yǐ gōng nóng lián méng wéi jī chǔ de rén mín mín zhù zhuān zhèng， shí zhì shàng jí wú chǎn jiē jí zhuān zhèng， dé dào gǒng gù hé fā zhǎn。 zhōng guó rén mín hé zhōng guó rén mín jiě fàng jūn zhàn shèng liǎo dì guó zhù yì、 bà quán zhù yì de qīn lüè、 pò huài hé wǔ zhuāng tiǎo xìn， wéi hù liǎo guó jiā de dú lì hé 'ān quán， zēng qiáng liǎo guó fáng。 jīng jì jiàn shè qǔ dé liǎo zhòng dà de chéng jiù， dú lì de、 bǐ jiào wán zhěng de shè huì zhù yì gōng yè tǐ xì yǐ jīng jī běn xíng chéng， nóng yè shēng chǎn xiǎn zhù tí gāo。 jiào yù、 kē xué、 wén huà děng shì yè yòu liǎo hěn dà de fā zhǎn， shè huì zhù yì sī xiǎng jiào yù qǔ dé liǎo míng xiǎn de chéng xiào。 guǎng dà rén mín de shēng huó yòu liǎo jiào dà de gǎi shàn。
zhōng guó xīn mín zhù zhù yì gé mìng de shèng lì hé shè huì zhù yì shì yè de chéng jiù， dōushì zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng lǐng dǎo zhōng guó gè zú rén mín， zài mǎ kè sī liè níng zhù yì、 máo zé dōng sī xiǎng de zhǐ yǐn xià， jiān chí zhēn lǐ， xiū zhèng cuò wù， zhàn shèng xǔ duō jiān nán xiǎn zǔ 'ér qǔ dé de。 jīn hòu guó jiā de gēn běn rèn wù shì jí zhōng lì liàng jìn xíng shè huì zhù yì xiàn dài huà jiàn shè。 zhōng guó gè zú rén mín jiāng jì xù zài zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng lǐng dǎo xià， zài mǎ kè sī liè níng zhù yì、 máo zé dōng sī xiǎng zhǐ yǐn xià， jiān chí rén mín mín zhù zhuān zhèng， jiān chí shè huì zhù yì dào lù， bù duàn wán shàn shè huì zhù yì de gè xiàng zhì dù， fā zhǎn shè huì zhù yì mín zhù， jiàn quán shè huì zhù yì fǎ zhì， zì lì gēngshēng， jiān kǔ fèn dǒu， zhú bù shí xiàn gōng yè、 nóng yè、 guó fáng hé kē xué jì shù de xiàn dài huà， bǎ wǒ guó jiàn shè chéng wéi gāo dù wén míng、 gāo dù mín zhù de shè huì zhù yì guó jiā。
zài wǒ guó， bō xuē jiē jí zuò wéi jiē jí yǐ jīng xiāo miè， dàn shì jiē jí dǒu zhēng hái jiāng zài yī dìng fàn wéi nèi cháng qī cún zài。 zhōng guó rén mín duì dí shì hé pò huài wǒ guó shè huì zhù yì zhì dù de guó nèi wài de dí duì shì lì hé dí duì fènzǐ， bì xū jìn xíng dǒu zhēng。
tái wān shì zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó de shén shèng lǐng tǔ de yī bù fēn。 wán chéng tǒng yī zǔ guó de dà yè shì bāo kuò tái wān tóng bāo zài nèi de quán zhōng guó rén mín de shén shèng zhí zé。
shè huì zhù yì de jiàn shè shì yè bì xū yǐ kào gōng rén、 nóng mín hé zhī shí fènzǐ， tuán jié yī qiē kě yǐ tuán jié de lì liàng。 zài cháng qī de gé mìng hé jiàn shè guò chéng zhōng， yǐ jīng jié chéng yóu zhōng guó gòng chǎn dǎng lǐng dǎo de， yòu gè mín zhù dǎng pài hé gè rén mín tuán tǐ cān jiā de， bāo kuò quán tǐ shè huì zhù yì láo dòng zhě、 yōng hù shè huì zhù yì de 'ài guó zhě hé yōng hù zǔ guó tǒng yī de 'ài guó zhě de guǎng fàn de 'ài guó tǒng yī zhàn xiàn， zhè gè tǒng yī zhàn xiàn jiāng jì xù gǒng gù hé fā zhǎn。 zhōng guó rén mín zhèng zhì xié shāng huì yì shì yòu guǎng fàn dài biǎo xìng de tǒng yī zhàn xiàn zǔ zhì， guò qù fā huī liǎo zhòng yào de lì shǐ zuò yòng， jīn hòu zài guó jiā zhèng zhì shēng huó、 shè huì shēng huó hé duì wài yǒu hǎo huó dòng zhōng， zài jìn xíng shè huì zhù yì xiàn dài huà jiàn shè、 wéi hù guó jiā de tǒng yī hé tuán jié de dǒu zhēng zhōng， jiāng jìn yī bù fā huī tā de zhòng yào zuò yòng。
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó shì quán guó gè zú rén mín gòng tóng dì zào de tǒng yī de duō mín zú guó jiā。 píng děng、 tuán jié、 hù zhù de shè huì zhù yì mín zú guān xì yǐ jīng què lì， bìng jiāng jì xù jiā qiáng。 zài wéi hù mín zú tuán jié de dǒu zhēng zhōng， yào fǎn duì dà mín zú zhù yì， zhù yào shì dà hàn zú zhù yì， yě yào fǎn duì dì fāng mín zú zhù yì。 guó jiā jìn yī qiē nǔ lì， cù jìn quán guó gè mín zú de gòng tóng fán róng。
zhōng guó gé mìng hé jiàn shè de chéng jiù shì tóng shì jiè rén mín de zhī chí fēn bù kāi de。 zhōng guó de qián tú shì tóng shì jiè de qián tú jǐn mì dì lián xì zài yī qǐ de。 zhōng guó jiān chí dú lì zì zhù de duì wài zhèng cè， jiān chí hù xiāng zūn zhòng zhù quán hé lǐng tǔ wán zhěng、 hù bù qīn fàn、 hù bù gān shè nèi zhèng、 píng děng hù lì、 hé píng gòng chù de wǔ xiàng yuán zé， fā zhǎn tóng gè guó de wài jiāo guān xì hé jīng jì、 wén huà de jiāo liú； jiān chí fǎn duì dì guó zhù yì、 bà quán zhù yì、 zhí mín zhù yì， jiā qiáng tóng shì jiè gè guó rén mín de tuán jié， zhī chí bèi yā pò mín zú hé fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā zhēng qǔ hé wéi hù mín zú dú lì、 fā zhǎn mín zú jīng jì de zhèng yì dǒu zhēng， wéi wéi hù shì jiè hé píng hé cù jìn rén lèi jìn bù shì yè 'ér nǔ lì。
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xiàn fǎ yǐ fǎ lǜ de xíng shì què rèn liǎo zhōng guó gè zú rén mín fèn dǒu de chéng guǒ， guī dìng liǎo guó jiā de gēn běn zhì dù hé gēn běn rèn wù， shì guó jiā de gēn běn fǎ， jù yòu zuì gāo de fǎ lǜ xiào lì。 quán guó gè zú rén mín、 yī qiē guó jiā jī guān hé wǔ zhuāng lì liàng、 gè zhèng dǎng hé gè shè huì tuán tǐ、 gè qǐ yè shì yè zǔ zhì， dū bì xū yǐ xiàn fǎ wéi gēn běn de huó dòng zhǔn zé， bìng qiě fù yòu wéi hù xiàn fǎ zūn yán、 bǎo zhèng xiàn fǎ shí shī de zhí zé。
zhōng guó gǔ dài fǎ lǜ sī xiǎng tè diǎn
09 nián sī fǎ kǎo shì fù xí fāng fǎ zhī wǒ jiàn
gēn jù gè rén de jīng yàn , wǒ jiāng 09 nián sī fǎ kǎo shì de fù xí fēn wéi yǐ xià jǐ gè bù zhòu :
dì yī bù : zài 09 nián qián kě yǐ xiān kàn kàn lì nián de lǎo shī de kè jiàn , jiǎng yì。 jiàn yì tiǎo xuǎn míng shī dà wàn de。 liǎo jiě yǐ xià zhè xiē fǔ dǎo lǎo shī gēn jù lì nián shì tí， suǒ gěi wǒ men tí gōng de zhòng diǎn , nán diǎn xìn xī。 zhuózhòng de liǎo jiě měi gè lǎo shī de shòu kè fāng shì . bìng qiě jiàn yì : zuì hǎo zài zhǎo zhǎo yòu guān mìng tí lǎo shī de yī xiē yǐng yīn hé shū miàn zī liào， zhè yàng néng gòu tōng guò tā men zhuā zhù mìng tí lǎo shī de sī lù。
wǒ mǎi liǎo huá xià kǎo zī www.hx600.com de 08 nián 11 gè fǔ dǎo bān de kè jiàn， xiàn zài zhèng zài tīng， gǎn jué bù cuò。
dì 'èr bù : zài 1 yuè fèn mǎi yī běn fǎ tiáo , zhòng diǎn xiān kàn lǐ miàn de sī fǎ jiě shì . zhī hòu zài kàn fǎ tiáo . cǐ zhǒng fù xí fāng fǎ de yuán yīn shì bù fēn sī fǎ jiě shì de nèi róng yòu fǒu dìng qián miàn fǎ tiáo de , huò zhě fǎ tiáo shì yǐ jīng gēnggǎi de , rú guǒ dān chún de zhǐ kàn qián miàn de nèi róng , yī dàn xíng chéng shēn kè jì yì duì zì jǐ hòu miàn de sī fǎ jiě shì de fù xí huì chǎn chéng bì duān , gù jiàn yì xiān kàn jiě shì hòu kàn fǎ tiáo .
dì sān bù : zài 4 yuè fèn jiù yòu quán xīn de fǎ tiáo liǎo , yě yòu 1 yuè fèn suǒ mǎi de fǎ tiáo de zēng bǔ běn liǎo , zhòng diǎn shì kàn kàn lǐ miàn de xīn fǎ hé xiū gǎi hòu de fǎ lǜ . bǐ rú láo dòng hé tóng fǎ , mín sù děng děng nèi róng . kàn wán liǎo yǐ hòu zài kàn lì nián zhēn tí , kàn kàn zài jìn jǐ nián suǒ chū de tí mù zhōng zhòng diǎn zài nǎ yī kuài 'ér , zhè yàng bǐ jiào fāng biàn ràng wǒ men quán miàn de liǎo jiě sī kǎo de fāng xiàng、 dòng tài .
dì sì bù : zài 4 yuè fèn zhōng xún sī fǎ kǎo shì dà gāng chū bǎn , wǒ men yào zhuā jǐn shí jiān duì dà gāng nèi róng jìn xíng yán jiū， zhǎo chū hé lì nián zhēn tí zhōng suǒ chū xiàn de nèi róng xiāng hù chóngfù de fǎ lǜ zhāng jié jìn xíng zhòng diǎn fù xí , yīn wéi zhè yī kuài kǎo shì zhòng diǎn； bǎ dà gāng zhōng tí dào de , dàn shì zài lì nián zhēn tí zhōng méi yòu shè jí de bù fēn yě yào zhuózhòng de kàn , yīn wéi yòu kě néng shì jīn nián kǎo shì de quán xīn nèi róng .
dì wǔ bù : zhēn duì shàng miàn suǒ guī nà chū de zhòng diǎn nèi róng , zhuózhòng de kàn sān dà běn . zhè yàng fù xí bǐ jiào yòu zhēn duì xìng , hái bù tú láo . duì yú zhòng diǎn yào zǎi xì dào zì de tuī qiāo， lǐ jiě lǐ miàn de fǎ lǐ hán yì。 jiàn yì zhòng diǎn fàng zài juàn yī shàng。
dì liù bù : zài 8 yuè fèn zhī qián jiù yào bǎ fǎ tiáo zuì shǎo kàn 2 biàn、 sān běn kàn 2 biàn liǎo . zhè yàng cái néng bǎo zhèng hòu miàn de mó nǐ liàn xí .
dì qī bù : zài 8 yuè fèn kāi shǐ jiù yào jìn xíng quán miàn de mó nǐ liàn xí , kāi shǐ shí kě yǐ 2 tiān yī tào juǎnzǐ , dào xià xún de shí hòu jiù kě yǐ zài yī tiān bàn yī tào juǎnzǐ . zuì hǎo shì mǎi yòu jiě xī dài dá 'àn de , zhè yàng fāng biàn tǒng jì zì jǐ de fēn shù , bìng qiě néng zhī xī zì jǐ bó ruò de fāng miàn（ yào guī nà jì lù） . zài 8 yuè dǐ mó nǐ juǎnzǐ zuì shǎo 15 zhāng .
dì bā bù : zài 9 yuè chū bǎ zhè xiē nán diǎn nèi róng quán bù guī nà hǎo , zài jìn xíng zuì hòu yī cì kàn shū , jiě jué zì jǐ xiān qián suǒ cún zài de wèn tí .
dì jiǔ bù : gōng xǐ nǐ tōng guò sī fǎ kǎo shì !
zhǐ chuàng zuò shī wén suǒ yǐ jù de gé shì hé guī lǜ。 míng hú yìng lín《 shī sǒu · gǔ tǐ shàng》：“ jìn tǐ zhī gōng， wù xiān fǎ lǜ。” qīng liú dà kuí《 sòng yùn fū shí wén xù》：“ xián chū qí suǒ wéi wén zhāng shì yú，《 shī》《 shū》 zhī yīng， qū sòng zhī huá， qí dù níng rán， qí qì bó rán， qí fǎ lǜ sēn rán， jīn huī yù jié yǐ zì chéng wéi yī jiā zhī yán。” kuàng zhōu yí《 huì fēng cí huà》 juàn sān：“ qí wén zhāng pō yòu fǎ lǜ， shī zé zòng héng pái dàng， bù shàng xiān qiǎo zhì zǔ zhī xí。”
zhǐ dàohéng jiè lǜ。 yuán wú chāng líng《 zhāng tiān shī》 dì sì zhé：“ qǐ bù zhī zhāng zhēn rén fǎ lǜ jīng yán， zǎo zhàng jiàn dū qū zài wǔ léi tán nèi， yī gè gè gōng xià zhuàng tù chū zhēn qíng。” fǎ , yě chēng fǎ lǜ（ jiù guǎng yì 'ér yán） , shì yóu guó jiā 'àn zhào tǒng zhì jiē jí de lì yì hé yì zhì zhì dìng huò rèn kě、 bìng yóu guó jiā qiáng zhì lì bǎo zhèng qí shí shī de xíng wéi guī fàn de zǒng hé ． tā bāo kuò xiàn fǎ、 fǎ lǜ（ jiù xiá yì 'ér yán）、 fǎ lìng、 xíng zhèng fǎ guī、 tiáo lì、 guī zhāng、 xí guàn fǎ děng gè zhǒng chéng wén fǎ hé bù chéng wén fǎ． fǎ shǔ yú shàng céng jiàn zhù fàn chóu , yóu yī dìng de jīng jì jī chǔ suǒ jué dìng , bìng wéi yī dìng de jīng jì jī chǔ fú wù． fǎ shì tǒng zhì jiē jí shí xiàn qí tǒng zhì de yī xiàng zhòng yào gōng jù , tā yǐ guī dìng rén quán lì hé yì wù de fāng shì lái tiáozhěng rén men de xíng wéi , qí mùdì zài yú wéi hù yòu lì yú tǒng zhì jiē jí de shè huì guān xì hé shè huì zhì xù． fǎ shì jiē jí shè huì zhōng tè yòu de shè huì xiàn xiàng , tā bàn suí zhe jiē jí、 jiē jí dǒu zhēng de chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn 'ér chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn , yě huì suí zhe jiē jí、 jiē jí dǒu zhēng de xiāo wáng 'ér zì xíng xiāo wáng．
gǔ dài yuán shǐ gōng shè zhì dù de jiě tǐ hé fǎ de chǎn shēng shì tóng shí jìn xíng de , fǎ shì jiē jí máo dùn bù kě tiáohé de chǎn wù． jù wǒ guó dì yī bù zì diǎn《 shuō wén jiě zì》 jiě shì : ＂ fǎ , xíng yě , píng zhī rú shuǐ , cóng shuǐ． fǎ , suǒ yǐ chù bù zhí zhě qù zhī , cóng qù．＂ cóng shuǐ , qǔ qí píng , jí fǎ píng rú shuǐ , yě jiù shì gōng píng de yì sī． zài xī fāng bù shǎo mín zú de yǔ yán zhōng ,＂ fǎ＂ de cí yì , yědōu jiān yòu＂ gōng píng＂＂ zhèng yì＂ de hán yì． rán 'ér , zài jiē jí shè huì lǐ , bù tóng de jiē jí yòu bù tóng de gōng píng、 zhèng yì guān , fǎ suǒ tǐ xiàn de zhǐ néng shì bù tóng tǒng zhì jiē jí de gōng píng、 zhèng yì guān． shè huì zhù yì de fǎ , shì cóng jù yòu jiē jí xìng de shè huì guī fàn xiàng fǎn yìng shè huì quán tǐ chéng yuán gòng tóng yì zhì、 wéi hù quán shè huì gòng tóng lì yì de shè huì guī fàn guò dù de fǎ． tā chú liǎo jù yòu tiáozhěng dí wǒ máo dùn hé rén mín nèi bù máo dùn liǎng lèi bù tóng xìng zhì guān xì de gōng néng wài , hái duì shè huì zhù yì de wù zhì wén míng hé jīng shén wén míng de jiàn shè yòu zhuózhòng yào de cù jìn zuò yòng．
gǔ xī là fǎ lǜ sī xiǎng tè diǎn
A. bólātú de fǎ lǜ sī xiǎng
yī、 bólātú de shēng píng yǔ zhù zuò
bólātú（ gōng yuán qián 427 ～ gōng yuán qián 347 nián）， shēng yú yǎ diǎn de yī gè guì zú zhī jiā。 tā de fù mǔ dōushì míng mén wàng zú de hòu yì， mǔ qīn gèng shì zhù míng de zhèng zhì gǎi gé jiā suō lún de hòu dài。 yóu yú chū shēn gāo guì， zì yòu jí shòu dào liáng hǎo de jiào yù。 cóng 20 suì qǐ shòu jiào yú sū gé lā dǐ， cóng shì zhé xué xué xí hé yán jiū。 céng yī dù kě wàng zài zhèng zhì shàng zhǎn lòutóu jiǎo， dàn gōng yuán qián 399 nián sū gé lā dǐ bèi chǔsǐ xíng， shǐ tā fàng qì liǎo cóng shì zhèng zhì de yuàn wàng。 hòu liú wáng guó wài， 40 suì hòu huí yǎ diǎn bìng chuàng lì liǎo“ ā kǎ dé mǐ xué yuán”。 zài xué yuán zhōng， bólātú yī biān jiǎng xué， péi yǎng rén cái； yī biān zhù shù， xuān jiǎng qí zhé xué hé zhèng zhì zhé xué， qián hòu dá 41 nián zhī jiǔ。 gāi xué yuán zài lì shǐ shàng yán xù liǎo 900 nián， shì quán xī là wén huà zhī shí de zhōng xīn。
bólātú shì 'ōu zhōu lì shǐ shàng dì yī wèi bǎo liú xià wán zhěng zhù zuò de sī xiǎng jiā， qián hòu gòng zhù duì huà 25 piān。 yòu guān zhèng zhì fǎ lǜ lǐ lùn de zhù zuò zhù yào yòu sān bù， jí《 lǐ xiǎng guó》（ chéng yú zhuàng nián）、《 zhèng zhì jiā piān》（ chéng yú zhōng wǎn nián）、《 fǎ lǜ piān》（ jué bǐ）。 yī bān shuō lái，《 lǐ xiǎng guó》 dài biǎo liǎo tā duì zhèng zhì hé shè huì de zhù yào lǐ xiǎng， ér《 fǎ lǜ piān》 zé shì miàn duì xiàn shí suǒ xiě chéng de yòu guān fǎ zhì de zhù zuò。
èr、 zhèng yì lùn yǔ rén zhì lùn
（ yī） zhèng yì zhī guó yǔ rén de lèi xíng
bólātú de zhé xué jī chǔ shì lǐ niàn yǔ xiàn shí de qū fēn， zài bólātú kàn lái， shì jiè yóu“ lǐ niàn shì jiè” hé“ mó běn shì jiè” liǎng bù fēn zǔ chéng。 lǐ niàn shì jīng shén de， shì dì yī xìng de， jìn guǎn tā shì wú xíng de， dàn tā shì wàn wù de gēn yuán， shì yǒng héng bù biàn de zhēn shí cún zài； ér mó běn shì jiè， zé shì yòu xíng de， xū jiǎ de， biàn huà bù dìng de， zhǐ néng suàn shì lǐ niàn shì jiè de yǐng zǐ。 rén yóu yú fēn xiǎng lǐ niàn chéng dù de bù tóng， xiāng yìng dì biàn fēn bié jù yòu liǎo jīn、 yín、 tóng tiě de sān zhǒng bù tóng de xìng zhì， rén yě jiù jù yòu bù tóng de lèi xíng hé pǐn zhì：
jīn → zhé xué jiā→ zhì huì
yín→ yǒng shì→ yǒng gǎn
tóng tiě→ shēng chǎn láo dòng zhě→ jié zhì
rán 'ér， jié zhì de pǐn zhì bù jǐn yīngdāng wéi shēng chǎn láo dòng zhě suǒ yōng yòu， yě yìng dàngchéng wéi suǒ yòu sān zhǒng rén de pǐn zhì， yīn wéi yī gè guó jiā bì xū bǎo chí hé xié xié diào， zhǐ yòu dāng rén men gè jìn qí zhí、 gè shǒu qí wèi shí， guó jiā cái kě néng chǎn shēng“ zhèng yì” de pǐn dé， chéng wéi zhèng yì zhī guó。 dāng gè rén de sān zhǒng pǐn zhì（ yù wàng、 jī qíng hé lǐ zhì） zài gè tǐ zhōng xié diào yùn xíng zhì xù jǐng rán shí， gè rén jiù chéng liǎo zhèng yì zhī rén。 zhè yì wèi zhe lǐ xìng zhī pèi yù wàng， jīng shén zhī pèi ròu tǐ； suǒ yǐ， cóng zhè gè yì yì shàng shuō， bólātú suǒ shuō de zhèng yì jiù shì yī zhǒng dào dé zhèng yì。
（ èr） fǎ lǜ yǔ zhèng yì de guān xì
zài bólātú kàn lái， yī gè rén pǐn xìng zhōng， dū jù yòu“ jiào shàn” hé“ jiào 'è” liǎng bù fēn。 rú guǒ jiào shàn de nà bù fēn zhàn yōu shì， jiù kòng zhì zhù“ jiào 'è” de nà bù fēn， tā jiù chéng wéi zì jǐ de zhù rén； rú guǒ tā jiē shòu bù liáng de jiào yù， huò zhě shòu huài rén de xūn rǎn， tā biàn chéng wéi“ zì jǐ de nú lì”。 dāng 'è xìng péng zhàng shí， jiù zhǐ hǎo fú cóng wài zài de quán wēi， zhè gè wài zài quán wēi jiù shì fǎ lǜ。
duì yú bólātú lái shuō， fǎ lǜ jiù shì yī zhǒng shè huì xíng wéi zhǔn zé， tā shì gōng dào yǔ zhèng yì de biāo zhì。 dàn shì， fǎ lǜ de zhèng yì yǔ dào dé zhèng yì bù wán quán xiāng tóng。 fǎ lǜ zhèng yì shì“ sù sòng zhèng yì”， shì zhǐ tōng guò fǎ lǜ jī qì de zhèng cháng yùn zhuǎn 'ér huò dé de hòu guǒ huò pàn jué。 yīn cǐ， fǎ lǜ zhèng yì shì wéi dào dé zhèng yì fú wù de。
（ sān） zhé xué wáng yǔ rén zhì
bólātú rèn wéi， zhé xué wáng tōng guò zhī shí jìn xíng tǒng zhì， bǐ fǎ lǜ tǒng zhì jù yòu hěn dà de yōu yuè xìng， fǎ lǜ yuǎn bù rú hé zhé xué jiā de zhì huì xiāng bǐ。 yīn wéi： (1) zhé xué jiā suǒ zhǎng wò de shì yī zhǒng zhēn lǐ， tā bǐ guó jiā jī guān suǒ zhì dìng de fǎ lǜ yào gāo míng dé duō； (2)“ fǎ lǜ zhě qiáng zhě zhī suǒ hǎo”， ér xiàn shí zhōng de fǎ lǜ bìng bù bì rán tǐ xiàn zhèng yì， ér 'è fǎ bìng fēi zhēn zhèng de fǎ lǜ； (3) fǎ lǜ shì kè bǎn hé gù dìng de， ér zhèng zhì běn shēn shì róu xìng de。 ér zhé xué jiā de zhī shí kě yǐ suí jī yìng biàn； (4) yī qiē shè huì dū xū yào hé xié， ér zhè zhǐ yòu zhé xué jiā tōng guò zhì huì cái néng dá dào zhè yī mù biāo。
sān、 fǎ zhì lùn： lì fǎ yǔ shǒu fǎ sī xiǎng
（ yī） lì fǎ guò chéng lùn
zài bólātú kàn lái， lì fǎ shì yī gè“ qīng shuà” de guò chéng， jí bì xū duì yuán lái de jiù zhì dù hé rén men de pǐn zhì qīng xǐ yī fān， fāng néng zhì dìng chū xīn de fǎ lǜ。 zài lì fǎ shí， xiān yīngdāng què dìng xiàn fǎ dà gāng， rán hòu shì zhì dìng fǎ lǜ hé guī zhāng。 bólātú zhòng shì chéng wén fǎ， ér rèn wéi xí guàn shì lái yuán yú pǔ tōng rén de xí sú。
（ èr） lì fǎ yuán zé lùn
gēn běn de yuán zé shì yǐ zhào gōng zhèng de lǐ niàn zhì dìng fǎ lǜ， bìng yìng yǐ quán tǐ rén mín de xìng fú wéi yǐ jù。 jiù lì fǎ de zhòng diǎn 'ér yán， zhuózhòng yú péi yǎng gōng mín de fǎ lǜ jīng shén。
（ sān） shǒu fǎ lùn
bólātú cóng lì shǐ de jiǎo dù zhuī sù liǎo rén lèi shè huì de fā zhǎn lì chéng， rèn wéi guó jiā xíng chéng yú qì yuē。 ér qì yuē de hé xīn jiù shì duì fǎ lǜ de zūn shǒu， zhè jiù yì wèi zhe， zhǐ yòu shǒu fǎ de měi dé cái shì fú hé guó jiā de běn xìng de。 [1]
bólātú rèn wéi， duì yú yòu yì zhì de gōng mín lái jiǎng， fǎ lǜ de tǒng zhì bìng bù jù yòu qiǎngpò xìng， ér shì tǐ xiàn liǎo guó jiā de liáng shàn yuàn wàng。 tā rèn wéi：“ rú guǒ fǎ lǜ néng wán quán dǎo zhì zhì shàn huò zhì shǎo shì néng bù fēn dì dá dào zhè yàng de mùdì， zhè xiē fǎ lǜ wǒ mendōu yìng gāi zhí xíng。” duì gōng mín de jiào yù yě shì yào yǐn dǎo tā men zhí xíng hé zūn shǒu fǎ lǜ； fǎ lǜ bì xū yōng yòu quán wēi， guó jiā guān yuán de quán lì bì xū shòu dào yuē shù， suǒ wèi liáng fǎ xū yóu liáng lì lái zhí。
sì、 bólātú fǎ lǜ sī xiǎng de zhù yào píng jià
dì yī， fǎ zhì zhù yì sī xiǎng shì xī fāng fǎ lǜ chuán tǒng yuán yuǎn liú cháng de yī gè chuán tǒng， duì xī fāng jìn dài fǎ zhì zhù yì de fù xīng jù yòu shēn yuǎn de yǐng xiǎng， bìng chéng wéi luó mǎ fǎ de zhòng yào sī xiǎng jī chǔ；
dì 'èr， gài kuò liǎo gǔ xī là zhèng zhì zhé xué de jīng suǐ： zuì hǎo de zhèng zhì shì nán yǐ shí xiàn de， ér fáng zhǐ zuì huài de zhèng zhì shì kě néng de， zhè jiù shì， bì xū yùn yòng zhì gāo wú shàng de fǎ lǜ jìn xíng tǒng zhì。
dì sān， guān yú“ hùn hé zhèng tǐ” de yán jiū yǐ jí“ fēn quán yuán zé” de lùn shù， bèi xué zhě yù wéi sān quán fēn lì de yuán xíng。
dì sì， jí tǐ zhù yì fāng fǎ lùn yě kāi chuàng liǎo hòu shì yǐ jí tǐ wéi dān wèi yán jiū guó jiā、 fǎ lǜ xué shuō de xiān hé， zài bólātú de lǐ niàn zhōng， gè rén zhǐ shì chéng bāng de gōng jù hé shǒu duàn， bìng wú dú lì cún zài de jià zhí。
B. yà lǐ shì duō dé de fǎ lǜ sī xiǎng
yī、 yà lǐ shì duō dé de shēng píng yǔ zhù zuò
yà lǐ shì duō dé（ gōng yuán qián 384～ 322 nián）， shì gǔ xī là bǎi kē quán shū shì de sī xiǎng dà jiā， céng shī cóng bólātú。 qí dài biǎo zhù zuò shì《 zhèng zhì xué》 hé《 yǎ diǎn zhèng zhì》（ yán jiū 158 gè guó jiā chéng bāng zhèng zhì zhì dù de zǒng jié zhī yī）， cǐ wài，《 lún lǐ xué》 zhōng yě yòu dà liàng de fǎ lǜ sī xiǎng zī liào。 guó nèi miáo lì tián jiào shòu zhù biān de《 yà lǐ shì duō dé quán jí》 yòu shí juàn zhī duō。
èr、 fǎ lǜ zhèng yì lùn
（ yī） zhèng yì de nèi hán yǔ fēn lèi
yà lǐ shì duō dé rèn wéi， chéng bāng yǐ zhèng yì wéi jī chǔ， yóu zhè zhǒng zhèng yì yǎn shēng chū fǎ lǜ， yǐ pàn duàn rén jiān de shì fēi qū zhí。 zhèng yì shì zhǐ rén men zài shè huì guān xì zhōng suǒ chǎn shēng de yī zhǒng měi dé。 zhèng yì hé bù zhèng yì hán yòu liǎng zhǒng yì sī： yī shì zhǐ néng fǒu fú cóng jì lǜ； èr shì zhǐ yī gè rén suǒ qǔ dé de dōng xī shì fǒu tā yīngdāng dé dào de。 zhèng yì yòu kě fēn wéi“ pǔ biàn de zhèng yì” hé“ gè bié de zhèng yì” liǎng zhǒng。 qí zhōng“ gè bié de zhèng yì” yòu fēn wéi“ fēn pèi de zhèng yì” hé“ píng jūn de zhèng yì” liǎng zhǒng。“ fēn pèi de zhèng yì” jiù shì qiú dé bǐ lì de píng děng， zhè zhǒng zhèng yì shì cóng rén de bù píng děng xìng chū fā de， ér zhè zhǒng bù píng děng xìng shì zì rán zào chéng de， shì gù dìng bù biàn de。 zhì yú“ píng jūn de zhèng yì” jiù shì zhǐ rén men zhī jiān de píng děng guān xì。 zhè zhǒng zhèng yì shì yǐ rén de děng jià xìng wéi yǐ jù， shǐ xiāng hù lì yì děng tóng。
（ èr） fǎ lǜ zhèng yì lùn de yán shēn： píng děng yǔ zhōng yōng
1. píng děng。 yī shì shù liàng píng děng， jí gè rén suǒ dé dào de shì wù zài shù liàng hé róng liàng shàng yǔ tā rén suǒ dé de xiāng děng； èr shì bǐ zhí píng děng， jí gēn jù gè rén de shí jì jià zhí 'àn bǐ lì fēn pèi yǔ zhī xiāng héng chēng de shì wù。 zhèng zhì quán lì de fēn pèi bì xū yǐ rén men duì yú gòu chéng chéng bāng gè yào sù de gòng xiàn de dà xiǎo wéi yǐ jù， shuí jù yòu bǐ tā rén jiào wéi yōu yuè de zhèng zhì pǐn dé， shuí zài chéng bāng shí xiàn liáng shàn shēng huó de guò chéng zhōng shàn dé xíng wéi zuì duō， shuí jiù yīnggāi zài zhè gè chéng bāng zhōng xiǎng shòu gèng duō de lì yì。
2. zhōng yōng。 suǒ wèi zhōng yōng shì zhǐ bù piān bù pō， chǔyú liǎng gè jí duān de zhōng jiān。 yà shì rèn wéi， rén de yī qiē xíng wéi dōuyòu guò dù、 bù jí hé shì zhōng sān zhǒng zhuàng tài， zhǐ yòu zhōng yōng cái shì měi dé de tè xìng。 duì yú shè huì 'ér yán yě shì rú cǐ， shè huì fēn wéi jí fù zhě（ cháng chěng qiáng fàng sì yǐ zhì fàn zuì）、 jí pín zhě（ wǎng wǎng lǎnsǎn wú lài yì fàn xiǎo zuì） hé zhōng chǎn jiē jí。 wéi yòu zhōng chǎn jiē jí shì pín fù liǎng jiē jí máo dùn de“ zuì hǎo de zhōng xìng de zhòng cái zhě”。 yīn cǐ， zhōng chǎn jiē jí zuì shì yí dān rèn tǒng zhì zhě hé lì fǎ zhě。
（ sān） zhèng yì yǔ fǎ lǜ de guān xì
fǎ lǜ shì jiàn lì zài zhèng yì jī chǔ zhī shàng de， yóu zhèng yì yán shēn chū fǎ lǜ。 zhèng yì de yuán zé yù yú shí tǐ fǎ zhī zhōng。 zì yóu zhèng yì dǎo zhì liǎo zì rán fǎ de xíng chéng， ér zhè chéng wéi guó jiā zhì dìng shí zài fǎ de yǐ jù。
sān、 fǎ lǜ de dìng yì、 zuò yòng、 fēn lèi
（ yī） guān yú fǎ lǜ de dìng yì
fǎ lǜ shì zhèng zhì shàng de zhèng yì， shì shì suǒ gōng rèn de gōng zhèng bù piān de quán héng biāo zhǔn， shì lǐ xìng de tǐ xiàn， yòu shì yī gè hé tóng shì de qì yuē。 fǎ lǜ de tè xìng bāo kuò： (1) gōng zhèng xìng： fǎ lǜ shì zhèng yì de tǐ xiàn， tā duì yī qiē rén， bāo kuò tǒng zhì zhě hé bèi tǒng zhì zhě dōushì píng děng de； (2) kě biàn xìng， fǎ lǜ yīnggāi yǔn xǔ biàn gé， dāng rán zhè zán biàn gé xū yào shèn zhòng； (3) bì xū zūn shǒu xìng。 fǎ lǜ shì yī zhǒng tè shū de shè huì guī fàn， shì rén men de xíng wéi zhǔn zé， rén réndōu bì xū zūn shǒu tā。
（ èr） guān yú fǎ lǜ de zuò yòng
fǎ lǜ de zuò yòng hé mùdì quán zài yú wèile chéng bāng de“ shàn yè”， wèile“ shàn dé”， wèile zhuī qiú“ gōng gòng fú lì”， zēng jìn rén lèi de dào dé。
（ sān） guān yú fǎ lǜ de fēn lèi
1. zì rán fǎ yǔ zhì dìng fǎ。 zì rán fǎ shì rén lèi lǐ xìng de tǐ xiàn， shì yǐ zhèng yì wéi jī chǔ de， shì cún zài yú shè huì de pǔ biàn yuán zé， shì fǎn yìng“ zì rán cún zài zhì xù” de fǎ lǜ； zhì dìng fǎ jí shí zài fǎ， shì yóu rén zhì dìng de。 zì rán fǎ gāo yú zhì dìng fǎ；
2. jī běn fǎ hé fēi jī běn fǎ。 jī běn fǎ shí jì shàng yě jiù shì xiàn fǎ， tā guī dìng guó jiā de zhì lǐ xíng shì， guī dìng tǒng zhì zhě de rén shù jí chǎn shēng de bàn fǎ， guī dìng gōng mín zài chéng bāng zhōng de dì wèi；
3. liáng fǎ yǔ 'è fǎ。 fán shì zhèng zōng zhèng tǐ xià zhì dìng de fǎ lǜ wéi liáng fǎ； fán shì zài biàn tài zhèng tǐ xià zhì dìng de fǎ lǜ wéi 'è fǎ；
4. chéng wén fǎ hé xí guàn fǎ。 xí guàn fǎ jí xī là chéng bāng zhōng cháng qī cún zài de xí sú huò chēng lǐ yí。
sì、 fǎ zhì zhù yì lǐ lùn
（ yī） fǎ zhì de hán yì
fǎ zhì bāo hán liǎngchóng yì yì： yǐ chéng lì de fǎ lǜ huò dé pǔ biàn de fú cóng， ér dà jiā suǒ fú cóng de fǎ lǜ yòu yīnggāi běn shēn shì zhì dìng dé liáng hǎo de fǎ lǜ。 zhè jiù shì shuō， suǒ wèi fǎ zhì， jí liáng fǎ yǔ shǒu fǎ de jié hé。
（ èr） fǎ zhì de jù tǐ tǐ xiàn
1. lì fǎ fāng miàn： yà shì qiáng diào lì fǎ bì xū zūn shǒu yǐ xià yuán zé： yī shì fǎn yìng zhōng chǎn jiē jí de lì yì； èr shì yán jiū guó jiā de qíng kuàng； sān shì kǎo lǜ duì gōng mín yóu qí shì qīng shàonián jiā qiáng jiào yù； sì shì líng huó xìng yǔ wěn dìng xìng xiāng jié hé。
2. zhí fǎ sī xiǎng。 guó jiā zhí zhèng rén yuán yào yán gé zhí xíng fǎ lǜ。 fǎ lǜ yòu míng què guī dìng de， yìng yán gé yǐ fǎ zhí xíng； fǎ lǜ guī dìng bù tóng xiáng de huò méi yòu guī dìng de， bì xū 'àn zhào fǎ lǜ de yuán zé lái gōng zhèng dì chǔlǐ hé cái jué 'àn jiàn。
3. shǒu fǎ sī xiǎng。 shǒu fǎ shì fǎ zhì de guān jiàn。 guó jiā bì xū jiā qiáng duì gōng mín shǒu fǎ guān niàn de péi yǎng hé xùn liàn。
（ sān） fǎ zhì de yōu yuè xìng
fǎ zhì de yōu yuè xìng shì xiāng duì yú rén zhì 'ér yán de， ér zhè zhǒng yōu yuè xìng zhù yào tǐ xiàn zài： dì yī， fǎ lǜ shì jí tǐ zhì huì hé shěn shèn kǎo lǜ de chǎn wù； dì 'èr， fǎ lǜ méi yòu gǎn qíng， bù huì piān sī， jù yòu gōng zhèng xìng； dì sān， fǎ lǜ bù huì shuō huà， bù néng xiàng rén nà yàng xìn kǒu kāi hé； dì sì， fǎ lǜ jiè zhù guī fàn xíng shì， jù yòu míng què xìng； dì wǔ， shí xíng rén zhì róng yì yí wù guó jiā dà shì， tè bié shì shì xí zhì gèng shì rú cǐ； dì liù， shí dài yào qiú shí xíng fǎ zhì， bù néng shí xíng rén zhì； dì qī， shí xíng yī rén zhī zhì jiào wéi kùn nán， jūn zhù de néng lì hé jīng lì bì jìng yòu xiàn； dì bā， yī rén zhī zhì bō duó liǎo dà jiā lún liú zhí zhèng de quán lì。
（ sì） fǎ zhì quē xiàn de mí bǔ
zài fǎ lǜ yòu suǒ bù jí de dì fāng kě yǐ cǎi qǔ sān zhǒng bǔ jiù cuò shī： yǐ gè rén de quán lì huò ruò gànrén lián hé zǔ chéng de quán lì“ zuò wéi bǔ zhù”； duì mǒu xiē bù wán shàn de fǎ lǜ jìn xíng shìdàng de biàngēng； jiā qiáng fǎ lǜ jiě shì。 zhù yào shì zhǐ fǎ lǜ de jīng shén（ fǎ yì） lái duì 'àn jiàn zuò chū gōng zhèng de chǔlǐ hé cái jué。
（ wǔ） fǎ zhì yǔ fǎ zhì de guān xì
fǎ zhì hé fǎ zhì shì jì yòu qū bié yòu yòu lián xì de liǎng gè gài niàn， bù róng hùn xiáo。 èr zhě de zhù yào qū bié zài yú：
1、 fǎ zhì shì fǎ lǜ zhì dù de jiǎn chēng， shǔ yú zhì dù de fàn chóu， shì yī zhǒng shí jì cún zài de dōng xī； ér fǎ zhì shì fǎ lǜ tǒng zhì de jiǎn chēng， shì yī zhǒng zhì guó yuán zé hé fāng fǎ， shì xiāng duì yú“ rén zhì” ér yán de， shì duì fǎ zhì zhè zhǒng shí jì cún zài dōng xī de wán shàn hé gǎi zào。
2、 fǎ zhì de chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn yǔ suǒ yòu guó jiā zhí jiē xiāng lián xì， zài rèn hé guó jiādōu cún zài fǎ zhì； ér fǎ zhì de chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn què bù yǔ suǒ yòu guó jiā zhí jiē xiāng lián xì， zhǐ zài mín zhù zhì guó jiā cái cún zài fǎ zhì。
3、 fǎ zhì de jī běn yào qiú shì gè xiàng gōng zuò dū fǎ lǜ huà、 zhì dù huà， bìng zuò dào yòu fǎ kě yǐ、 yòu fǎ bì yǐ、 zhí fǎ bì yán、 wéi fǎ bì jiū； ér fǎ zhì de jī běn yào qiú shì yán gé yǐ fǎ bàn shì， fǎ lǜ zài gè zhǒng shè huì tiáozhěng cuò shī zhōng jù yòu zhì shàng xìng、 quán wēi xìng hé qiáng zhì xìng， bù shì dāng quán zhě de rèn xìng。
4、 shí xíng fǎ zhì de zhù yào biāo zhì， shì yī gè guó jiā cóng lì fǎ、 zhí fǎ、 sī fǎ、 shǒu fǎ dào fǎ lǜ jiān dū děng fāng miàn， dōuyòu bǐ jiào wán bèi de fǎ lǜ hé zhì dù； ér shí xíng fǎ zhì de zhù yào biāo zhì， shì yī gè guó jiā de rèn hé jī guān、 tuán tǐ hé gè rén， bāo kuò guó jiā zuì gāo lǐng dǎo rén zài nèi， dū yán gé zūn shǒu fǎ lǜ hé yǐ fǎ bàn shì。
èr zhě de lián xì zài yú： fǎ zhì shì fǎ zhì de jī chǔ hé qián tí tiáo jiàn， yào shí xíng fǎ zhì， bì xū jù yòu wán bèi de fǎ zhì； fǎ zhì shì fǎ zhì de lì zú diǎn hé guī sù， fǎ zhì de fā zhǎn qián tú bì rán shì zuì zhōng shí xiàn fǎ zhì。
wǔ、 yà lǐ shì duō dé fǎ lǜ sī xiǎng de tè diǎn
dì yī， yǔ bólātú yī yàng， jūn cóng lún lǐ xué rù shǒu lái tàn tǎo lǐ xiǎng de zhèng zhì shēng huó fāng shì， yóu cǐ kāi chuàng liǎo xī fāng fǎ zhé xué de lǐ lùn chuán tǒng， bìng zài hēi gé 'ěr de《 fǎ zhé xué yuán lǐ》 zhōng dé dào liǎo zuì chōng fēn de shí xiàn；
dì 'èr， jiāng fǎ yǔ zhèng zhì hé 'ér wéi yī jìn xíng yán jiū， shǐ fǎ lǜ shè huì xué huò zhě zhèng zhì fǎ lǜ xué de xué kē gòu zào diàn dìng liǎo jī běn de yuán xíng；
dì sān， jù yòu xiān míng de xiàn shí zhù yì de tè diǎn， fēn xī wèn tí de lì zú diǎn shì kǎo chá xiàn shí， shǐ yòng de fāng fǎ zhù yào shì guī nà fǎ， jí tōng guò fēn xī、 bǐ jiào， rán hòu dé chū jié lùn。 suǒ yǐ yòu rén chēng， bólātú jǐyǔ hòu rén yǐ gèng duō de jī qíng yǔ lǐ xiǎng， ér yà shì zé liú xià jiào chéng shú de tǐ xì yǔ luó ji；
dì sì， tuī chóng fǎ zhì de jīng shén， duì yú xī fāng chéng shú de fǎ zhì lǐ lùn de jiàn lì， yòu zhe zhòng yào de yì yì。
liù、 fǎ lǜ fān yì gōng sī
dà lián sān 'ēn fān yì yòu xiàn gōng sī
wǒ guó fǎ lǜ liè biǎo
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xiàn fǎ 1982 nián 12 yuè 4 rì 2004 nián 3 yuè 14 rì
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zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó quán guó rén mín dài biǎo dà huì hé dì fāng gè jí rén mín dài biǎo dà huì xuǎn jǔ fǎ 1995 nián 2 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó quán guó rén mín dài biǎo dà huì zǔ zhì fǎ 1982 nián 12 yuè 10 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó dì fāng gè jí rén mín dài biǎo dà huì hé dì fāng gè jí rén mín zhèng fǔ zǔ zhì fǎ 2004 nián 10 yuè 27 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó wù yuàn zǔ zhì fǎ 1982 nián 12 yuè 10 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó rén mín fǎ yuàn zǔ zhì fǎ 1979 nián 7 yuè 1 rì 1983 nián 9 yuè 2 rì 2006 nián 10 yuè 31 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó rén mín jiǎn chá yuàn zǔ zhì fǎ 1983 nián 9 yuè 2 rì
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zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xiāng gǎng tè bié xíng zhèng qū jī běn fǎ 1990 nián 4 yuè 4 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xiāng gǎng tè bié xíng zhèng qū zhù jūn fǎ 1996 nián 12 yuè 30 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó 'ào mén tè bié xíng zhèng qū jī běn fǎ 1993 nián 3 yuè 31 rì
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zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó huī fǎ 1991 nián 3 yuè 2 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó qí fǎ 1990 nián 6 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó cūn mín wěi yuán huì zǔ zhì fǎ 1998 nián 11 yuè 4 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jí huì yóu xíng shì wēi fǎ 1989 nián 10 yuè 31 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó wèi chéng nián rén bǎo hù fǎ 1991 nián 9 yuè 4 rì 2006 nián 12 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó yù fáng wèi chéng nián rén fàn zuì fǎ 1999 nián 6 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó lǎo nián rén quán yì bǎo zhàng fǎ 1996 nián
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó cán jí rén bǎo zhàng fǎ 1990 nián 12 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó jiā péi cháng fǎ 1994 nián 5 yuè 12 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó jí fǎ 1980 nián 9 yuè 10 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jiè yán fǎ 1996 nián 3 yuè 1 rì
mín shāng fǎ
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó mín fǎ tōng zé 1986 nián 4 yuè 12 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó wù quán fǎ 2007 nián 3 yuè 16 rì
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zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó shōu yǎng fǎ 1998 nián 11 yuè 4 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jì chéng fǎ 1985 nián 4 yuè 10 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó gōng sī fǎ 1993 nián 12 yuè 29 rì 1999 nián 12 yuè 25 rì 2004 nián 8 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó qǐ yè pò chǎn fǎ 2006 nián 8 yuè 27 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó hé huǒ qǐ yè fǎ 1997 nián 2 yuè 23 rì 2006 nián 8 yuè 27 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó nóng mín zhuān yè hé zuò shè fǎ 2006 nián 10 yuè 31 rì
xíng zhèng fǎ
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó rén mín jǐng chá fǎ 1995 nián 2 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xíng zhèng xǔ kě fǎ 2003 nián 8 yuè 27 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xíng zhèng fù yì fǎ 1999 nián 4 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xíng zhèng chǔfá fǎ 1996 nián 3 yuè 17 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó yǐn dù fǎ 2000 nián 12 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó fáng fǎ 1997 nián 3 yuè 14 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó bīng yì fǎ 1998 nián 12 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó fáng jiào yù fǎ 2001 nián 4 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó rén mín fáng kōng fǎ 1996 nián 10 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jū mín shēn fèn zhèng fǎ 2003 nián 6 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó qiāng zhī guǎn lǐ fǎ 1996 nián 7 yuè 5 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó tū fā shì jiàn yìng duì fǎ 2007 nián 8 yuè 30 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó dào lù jiāo tōng 'ān quán fǎ 2003 nián 10 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xiāo fáng fǎ 1998 nián 4 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó jiā 'ān quán fǎ 1993 nián 2 yuè 22 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó gōng wù yuán fǎ 2005 nián 4 yuè 27 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xíng zhèng jiān chá fǎ 1997 nián 5 yuè 9 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó dàng 'àn fǎ 1996 nián 7 yuè 5 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó bǎo shǒu guó jiā mì mì fǎ 1988 nián 9 yuè 5 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jiào yù fǎ 1995 nián
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó yì wù jiào yù fǎ 1986 nián 4 yuè 12 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó gāo děng jiào yù fǎ 1998 nián 8 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó zhí yè jiào yù fǎ 1996 nián 5 yuè 15 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jiào shī fǎ 1993 nián 10 yuè 31 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó mín bàn jiào yù cù jìn fǎ 2002 nián 12 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó kē xué jì shù pǔ jí fǎ 2002 nián 6 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó guó jiā tōng yòng yǔ yán wén zì fǎ 2000 nián 10 yuè 31 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó mǔ yīng bǎo jiàn fǎ 1994 nián 10 yuè 27 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó rén kǒu yǔ jìhuà shēng yù fǎ 2001 nián 12 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó chéng shì fáng dì chǎn guǎn lǐ fǎ 1994 nián 7 yuè 5 rì 2007 nián 8 yuè 30 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó hǎi guān fǎ 2000 nián 7 yuè 8 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó qì xiàng fǎ 1999 nián 10 yuè 31 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó fáng zhèn jiǎn zāi fǎ
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó cè huì fǎ 2002 nián 8 yuè 29 rì
xíng fǎ lèi
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xíng fǎ 1999 nián 12 yuè 25 rì 2002 nián 12 yuè 28 rì
jīng jì fǎ
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó zhèng fǔ cǎi gòu fǎ 2002 nián 6 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó zhōng wài hé zī jīng yíng qǐ yè suǒ dé shuì fǎ 1980 nián 9 yuè 10 rì 1983 nián 9 yuè 2 rì 1991 nián 4 yuè 9 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó wài guó qǐ yè suǒ dé shuì fǎ 1981 nián 12 yuè 13 rì 1991 nián 4 yuè 9 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó wài shāng tóu zī qǐ yè hé wài guó qǐ yè suǒ dé shuì fǎ 1991 nián 4 yuè 9 rì 2007 nián 3 yuè 16 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó qǐ yè suǒ dé shuì fǎ 2007 nián 3 yuè 16 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó gè rén suǒ dé shuì fǎ 1980 nián 9 yuè 10 rì 1993 nián 10 yuè 31 rì 1999 nián 8 yuè 30 rì 2005 nián 10 yuè 27 rì 2007 nián 6 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó fǎn xǐ qián fǎ 2006 nián 10 yuè 31 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó yínháng yè jiān dū guǎn lǐ fǎ 2003 nián 12 yuè 27 rì 2006 nián 10 yuè 31 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó yú yè fǎ 1986 nián 1 yuè 20 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó diàn lì fǎ 1996 nián
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó mín yòng háng kōng fǎ 1995 nián 10 yuè 30 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó yóu zhèng fǎ 1986 nián 12 yuè 2 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó nóng yè fǎ 2002 nián 12 yuè 28 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó zhǒng zǐ fǎ 2000 nián 7 yuè 8 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó nóng yè jī xiè huà cù jìn fǎ 2004 nián 6 yuè 25 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó dòng wù fáng yì fǎ 1997 nián 7 yuè 3 rì 2007 nián 8 yuè 30 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó fǎn lǒng duàn fǎ 2007 nián 8 yuè 30 rì
láo dòng fǎ
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jiù yè cù jìn fǎ 2007 nián 8 yuè 30 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng hé tóng fǎ 2007 nián 6 yuè 29 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó bǎo xiǎn fǎ 2002 nián 10 yuè 28 rì
sù sòng jí fēi sù sòng chéng xù fǎ
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó mín shì sù sòng fǎ 1991 nián 4 yuè 9 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xíng shì sù sòng fǎ 1979 nián 7 yuè 7 rì
zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó xíng zhèng sù sòng fǎ 1989 nián 4 yuè 4 rì
zhèng yì nǚ shén
1。 tè mí sī Ｔ ｈ ｅ ｍ ｉ ｓ
shì xī là zhèng yì yǔ fǎ lǜ nǚ shén , yǐ tóu nǎo qīng xī jiàn chēng . tā yòng bù méng zhù shuāng yǎn， dài biǎo yī shì tóng rén； yòu shǒu pěng zhe tiān píng， dài biǎo gōng píng、 gōng zhèng； zuǒ shǒu wò zhe cháng jiàn， dài biǎo zhèng yì quán wēi。
zài xiāng gǎng， chéng wéi fǎ guān huò lǜ shī zhī qián， dōuyào zài tè mí sī nǚ shén xià xuān shì。
tè mí sī， àn zhào《 shén tǒng jì》， tā shì dà shén wū lā nuò sī（ tiān） hé gài yà（ dì） de nǚ 'ér， hòu lái chéng wéi 'ào lín pǐ sī zhù shén zhòu sī de dì 'èr wèi qī zǐ。 tā de míng zì de yuán yì wéi“ dà dì”， zhuǎn yì wéi“ chuàng zào”、“ wěn dìng”、“ jiān dìng”， cóng 'ér hé fǎ lǜ fā shēng liǎo lián xì。 zǎo qī shén huà lǐ， tè mí sī shì jiě shì yù yán zhī shén， jù shuō tā céng jīng zhǎng guǎn tè 'ěr fěi shén diàn， jiě shì shén yù， hòu lái zhuǎn jiāo gěi 'ā bō luó。 tā hái fù zé wéi chí 'ào lín pǐ sī shān de zhì xù， jiān guǎn yí shì de zhí xíng。 zài gǔ xī là de diāo sù zhōng， tā de zào xíng shì yī wèi biǎo qíng yán sù de fù nǚ， shǒu chí yī jià tiān píng。 tā hé zhòu sī suǒ shēng de nǚ 'ér yòu hè lā（ shí xù nǚ shén）、 ōu nuò mí yà（ zhì xù nǚ shén）、 dí kè（ zhèng yì nǚ shén）、 è ruì sī（ hé píng nǚ shén）、 mò yǐ lài（ mìng yùn nǚ shén） děng， wéi tā fēn dān zhí zé。 qí zhōng hé fǎ lǜ zuì yòu guān xì de shì dí kè（ Ｄｉ ｃｅ）， jù shuō zhè wèi zhèng yì nǚ shén zhǎng guǎn bái zhòu hé hēi yè dà mén de yàoshì， jiān shì rén jiān de shēng huó， zài líng hún xún huán shí zhù chí zhèng yì。 tā jīng cháng shǒu chí lì jiàn zhuī zhú zuì fàn， cì shā xiè dòu shén líng zhě。 tā de zào xíng wǎng wǎng shì shǒu chí bǎo jiàn huò gùn bàng de lìng rén wàng 'ér shēng wèi de fù nǚ xíng xiàng。 gǔ xī là shén huà zhōng jīng cháng tí dào de lìng yī wèi zhèng yì nǚ shén shì 'ā sī tè lài yà（ Ａｓ ｔ ｒ ａｅａ）， tā zài dì shàng zhù chí zhèng yì， yòu shēng shàng tiān kōng wéi shì nǚ xīng zuò de zhù xīng“ wéi 'ěr gē”， chún jié wú xiá。 tā de zào xíng shì yī wèi qīng chún de shàonǚ， bǐ shàng shù de liǎng wèi yào nài kàn dé duō。
2。 zhū sī tí tí yà Justitia，
gǔ luó mǎ shén huà lǐ zhèng yì nǚ shén de míng zì。 gǔ luó mǎ rén jiē shòu liǎo gǔ xī là de zhū shén， bìng hùn rù liǎo luó mǎ de zhū shén。 zài gǔ luó mǎ dì guó shí dài， yòu jiāng yī xiē gài niàn nǐ rén huà，“ chuàng zào” chū bù shǎo shén líng， qí zhōng jiù yòu zhèng yì ／ sī fǎ nǚ shén zhū sī tí tí yà（ Ｊ ｕｓｔｉｔｉａ， yóu fǎ lǜ ｊｕｓ yī cí zhuǎn biàn 'ér lái）， zhè wèi nǚ shén de zào xíng hùn hé liǎo xī là de tè mí sī、 dí kè、 ā sī tè lài yà zhū nǚ shén de xíng xiàng， yī bān dōushì yī shǒu chí tiān píng、 yī shǒu chí bǎo jiàn， ér qiě dōushì jǐn bì shuāng yǎn huò zhě shì zài yǎn jīng shàng méng zhe bù tiáo。
zài 'ōu zhōu zhōng shì jì mò de wén yì fù xīng shí dài， zài gǔ xī là gǔ luó mǎ yì shù fù huó de tóng shí， luó mǎ fǎ yě zài fù xīng， sī fǎ nǚ shén zhū sī tí tí yà de zào xiàng kāi shǐ chū xiàn zài gè gè chéng shì fǎ yuàn。 nǚ shén réng rán yán yòng gǔ luó mǎ de zào xíng， yī shǒu chí jiàn yī shǒu chí tiān píng， tiān píng biǎo shì“ gōng píng”， bǎo jiàn biǎo shì“ zhèng yì”， jǐn bì shuāng yǎn biǎo shì“ yòng xīn líng guān chá”。 zào xiàng de bèi miàn wǎng wǎng kè yòu gǔ luó mǎ de fǎ yàn：“ wéi shí xiàn zhèng yì， nǎ pà tiān bēng dì liè（ Ｆｉａｔｊｕｓｔｉｔｉａ shāngｒｕａｔｃａｅ ｌｕｍ）。”
3。 xiāng guān wén huà
shén huà chuán shuō shí jì shàng zhé shè de shì rén jiān de xiàn shí。 gǔ xī là jí gǔ luó mǎ shí dài de fǎ yuàn， yòu hěn duō dōushì mín zhòng de huì yì， huò shì yóu chōu qiān chǎn shēng de yī pī gōng mín zǔ chéng。 fǎ yuàn cái pàn 'àn jiàn shí de shēn fèn， yòu diǎn xiàng bèi lín shí lā lái píng lǐ de guò lù rén， bìng bù zhù dòng qù sōu jí huò diào chá zhèng jù， zhǐ shì gēn jù sù sòng shuāng fāng tí jiāo de zhèng jù lái pàn duàn nǎ yī fāng suǒ jiǎng de shì shì shí。 zuò wéi fǎ guān de huì yì chéng yuán， zài shěn pàn kāi shǐ yǐ qián， wǎng wǎng duì yú 'àn jiàn yī wú suǒ zhī， quán kào shěn pàn de jìn chéng lái liǎo jiě qíng kuàng， shèn zhì yào yǐ kào qǐng lái shuō míng fǎ lǜ de fǎ xué jiā lái liǎo jiě yīnggāi shì yòng de fǎ lǜ。 suǒ yǐ， fǎ yuàn zhù zhòng de shì héng liàng shuāng fāng de zhèng jù， què rèn shì shí， shí xiàn gōng píng zhèng yì。 luó mǎ yǐ hòu shè zhì liǎo zuì gāo cái pàn guān lái chù lǐ mín shì sù sòng， réng jiù shì zài fǎ xué jiā de bāng zhù xià zhù zhòng yú sù sòng zhě zhèng jù de héng liàng hé jiàn bié， bìng bù chā shǒu diào chá， fǎn yìng yú shén huà jiù shì shǒu chí tiān píng de tè mí sī。 zhòng dà de xíng shì 'àn jiàn huì zhǐ dìng yī xiē rén zǔ chéng wěi yuán huì， fù zé shōu jí zhèng jù、 xún zhǎo zuì fàn， bìng jiāng xián yí rén tí jiāo fǎ yuàn jìn xíng shěn lǐ cái duàn。
luó mǎ dì guó miè wáng hòu， rì 'ěr màn gè bù zú chēng xióng xī 'ōu， tā men de fǎ yuàn dà duō yě shì bù zú chéng nián nán zǐ de jù huì， yǐ jiù bàn yǎn yī gè lín shí lā lái de gōng zhèng rén de juésè。 zhōng shì jì fǎ yàn“ méi yòu yuán gào jiù méi yòu fǎ guān”， shuō de jiù shì zhè zhǒng qíng kuàng。 zài gè wáng guó de zhōng yāng jí quán zhú jiàn jiā qiáng hòu， cái chū xiàn liǎo fā xiàn zuì fàn、 sōu jí zhèng jù de jī zhì。 rú yīng guó guó wáng hēng lì 'èr shì zài １１ ６ ４ nián bān bù de“ kè lā líng dùn zhào lìng”， guī dìng wáng shì fǎ guān zài xún huí shěn pàn zhōng， yìng zài dāng dì zhào jí１ ２ míng yǔ sù sòng 'àn jiàn wú guān de rén wéi zhèng rén， xuān shì hòu xiàng fǎ tíng tí gōng zhèng jù， yǐ yī zhì yì jiàn què dìng shì shí， zhè jiù shì hòu lái de péi shěn tuán de lái yuán。１２ ７ ５ nián， yīng guó guī dìng zhòng dà de xíng shì 'àn jiàn dōuyào yóu péi shěn tuán jìn xíng diào chá， sōu jí zhèng jù bìng xiàng fǎ tíng qǐ sù。 dàn wèile fáng zhǐ diào chá fàn zuì de péi shěn yuán yòu xiān rù zhī jiàn，１ ３５２ nián， ài dé huá sān shì de zhào lìng jìn yī bù guī dìng， fán cānyù 'àn jiàn diào chá qǔ zhèng de péi shěn yuán yī lǜ bù dé cān jiā gāi 'àn jiàn de shěn lǐ， zhǐ néng zuò wéi qǐ sù fāng cān jiā sù sòng zuò zhèng， qí zhèng yán de zhēn shí xìng zé yào yóu lìng wài zhào jí de１２ míng péi shěn yuán de yī zhì yì jiàn lái què rèn。 zhè yàng jiù xíng chéng liǎo zhuān mén diào chá qǔ zhèng de qǐ sù péi shěn tuán huò chēng“ dà péi shěn tuán” yǔ zhuān mén de shěn pàn péi shěn tuán huò chēng“ xiǎo péi shěn tuán”。
zhōng 'ōu dì qū de fā zhǎn yǔ yīng guó de qíng kuàng xiāng fǎng，１２、１３ shì jì shí gè wáng guó lù xù shè lì liǎo wáng shì jiǎn chá guān， zhēn jī、 qǐ sù zhòng dà fàn zuì。 suí zhe zhōng yāng jí quán de jiā qiáng， jiǎn chá guān de zhí quán zhú bù kuò dà。１５ shì jì shí， zài dé yì zhì zhū guó chū xiàn yòu guān wéi chí shè huì zhì xù de“ Ｐ ｏｌｉ ｚｅｉ” fǎ lìng， hòu lái yòu yòng zhè yī cí biǎo shì yòu guān zhí xíng zhè xiē fǎ lìng tè shè de guān shǔ jī gòu jí qí rén yuán， cóng 'ér chéng wéi hòu shì xī 'ōu yǔ yán zhōng jǐng chá（Ｐｏｌｉｚｅｉ huòＰｏｌｉｃｅ） yī cí de lái yuán。 jiān shì、 fā xiàn shàng shù wéi fǎn fǎ lìng de zuì xíng hòu， zhè xiē guān shǔ jiù kě xiàng fǎ yuàn tí qǐ“ jǐng chá 'àn jiàn”（Ｐｏｌｉｚｅｉｓａｃｈｅ） de sù sòng， yǔ yuán yòu de“ sī fǎ 'àn jiàn”（Ｊｕｓｔｉｚｓａｃｈｅ） xiāng duì。 fǎ yuàn běn shēn réng rán bù zhí jiē chā shǒu diào chá 'àn jiàn de shì shí， ér shì yóu fǎ guān duì kòng、 biàn shuāng fāng tí jiāo de zhèng jù jìn xíng bǐ jiào héng liàng。
yóu yú 'ōu zhōu zài shàng shù cháng qī de lì shǐ fā zhǎn zhōng， fǎ yuàn shǐ zhōng zhǐ chéng dān cái duàn zhí zé， yīn cǐ zuò wéi fǎ yuàn de xiàng zhēng， gǔ xī là、 gǔ luó mǎ de zhè wèi zhèng yì nǚ shén xíng xiàng dé yǐ cháng qī bǎo liú méng mùdì xíng xiàng。 tā shì cái pàn zhī shén， bèi dòng de、 shǒu zhū dài tù de、 hòu fā zhì rén de， zhǐ shì yòng tiān píng héng liàng sù sòng shuāng fāng tí chū de zhèng jù， nǎ yī fāng de zhèng jù chōng fēn jiù shèng sù； nǎ yī fāng de zhèng jù bù zú jiù bài sù， yòng bǎo jiàn jiā yǐ chǔfá。 tā de zhí zé shì“ cái duàn” ér bù shì fā xiàn， suǒ yǐ yǎn jīng yīnggāi méng shàng， bù huì yīn wéi kàn jiàn sù sòng shuāng fāng 'ér yòu zhù guān shàng de qīng xiàng xìng， yě bù huì yīn wéi shòu dào gè zhǒng gān rǎo 'ér nán yǐ shí xiàn zhèng yì， jiù rú tā shēn hòu de fǎ yàn suǒ biǎo míng de， tā wéi shí xiàn zhèng yì yīnggāi shì wú suǒ wèi jù de。
Legal [fǎ lǜ]
English name: law, statute
"Law"
Latin jus,
French droit,
German Recht,
Russian право,
Are both "fair", "justice" means. From the "law" etymology of view, although equity and justice are metaphorical, but in class society, different classes have different fair concept of justice, law embodied in the ruling class can only be different fair concept of justice .
The Concept of Law Law:
---- Refer to orders or criminal law in ancient times. Developed by the legislature, the state government to ensure implementation of the rules of conduct.
Modern Dictionary ---- formulated by the legislature, the state government to ensure implementation of the rules of conduct. Law reflects the will of the ruling class, is one of the tools of class dictatorship. Stage reflects the will of the ruling, the state's citizens to develop and promulgate rules of conduct to be observed:
---- Here is a narrow legal, I am The People's Republic of China from the highest authority and its standing body - the Standing Committee of National People's Congress and its normative documents. According to China's current Constitution, the law is divided into basic laws and fundamental laws outside the law.
Basic Law:
Generally refers to ---- in a country or region has the highest legal effect of the law, its actual role and the Constitution in fact the same. "Basic Law" means the flavor is not permanent and expedient needle, in the absence of the implementation of the law under the Constitution to maintain the constitutional order of the results.
Generalized law: is defined as a whole, including legal, a statutory interpretation and administrative authorities for the implementation of laws and normative documents (such as regulations)
Narrow legal: refers specifically to the national authorities have legislative power in accordance with a legislative regulatory documents.
In the separation of powers of the state, by the administrative authority Zhihangfalv executive order enacted only for the administrative authority, civil servants are binding, except Fagui command Wai, Yuan Ze Shang Zhi Ding executive of the Chief Guize binding for the people not Fasheng . Restrict people's freedom of rights and laws must be enacted by the legislature election by the people of (the latter).
Overview of Chinese modern legal thought
China is the world's oldest countries. Chinese people of all nationalities have jointly created a splendid culture and have a glorious revolutionary tradition.
After 1840, China was gradually turned into semi-feudal, semi-feudal country. Chinese people for national independence, national liberation and democracy and freedom fought bravely.
20 century, China has undergone enormous changes in the great history.
1911 Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen, abolished the feudal monarchy, the Republic of China. However, the Chinese people against imperialism and feudalism in the historical task is not yet complete.
1949, Chairman Mao Zedong as leader of the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people of all nationalities, after a long and arduous struggle and other forms of armed struggle after the overthrew of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucrat-capitalism rule, and achieved a great victory for the new-democratic revolution, the establishment of the People's Republic. Since then, the Chinese people to hold the country's power and become masters of the country.
In China, the exploiting classes as such have been eliminated, but the class struggle will continue long in a certain range. Hostile to the Chinese people and undermine China's socialist system of domestic and foreign hostile forces and hostile elements, we must fight.
Taiwan is a part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic. To complete the great cause of reunification of the motherland is the Taiwan compatriots included the sacred duty of all Chinese people.
The People's Republic of China is the common people of all nationalities to create a unified multi-ethnic country. Equality, solidarity, mutual socialist ethnic relations have been established and will continue to strengthen. In maintaining national unity in the struggle to combat big-nation chauvinism, mainly Han chauvinism, and local nationalism. States make every effort to promote the common prosperity of all nationalities.
The achievements of the Chinese revolution and construction are inseparable from the support with the people of the world's. China's future is the future of the world closely linked. China adheres to an independent foreign policy, principles of mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence in developing diplomatic relations with other countries and economic and cultural exchanges; persist against the empire Marxism, hegemony, colonialism, and to strengthen solidarity with the peoples of the world, supports the oppressed nations and the developing countries to win and preserve national independence and develop national economy, just struggle to safeguard world peace and promoting human progress and efforts.
The People's Republic of China Constitution in the form of legal recognition of the Chinese people of all nationalities to work hard to provide the country's basic system and basic tasks of the state's fundamental law, has the highest legal force. People of all nationalities, all state organs and armed forces, all political parties and social organizations, enterprises, organizations must take the constitution as the basic criteria, and the duty to uphold the dignity of the Constitution, to guarantee its implementation.
Characteristics of Legal Thought in Ancient China
2009 Judicial Review Means in Examination
According to personal experience, I will review the Judicial Examination in 2009 are divided into the following steps:
The first step: in the 09 years before a teacher can look at the courseware, handouts. Proposed big-_select_ed teacher. These counselors understand the following questions based on previous years, which gives us the key and difficult information. Focus on understanding each teacher's teaching methods. And recommend: The best teachers and then Zhaozhao the proposition of some audio-visual and written information, so the teachers through their ideas to seize the proposition.
I bought a Chinese test in 2008 financing www.hx600.com 11 remedial classes courseware, now listen, I feel good.
Step two: buy articles in January, focused look at the inside of judicial interpretation. After opinion articles. This is part of the review method because there is no judicial interpretation of the contents of the previous articles, or articles that have been change, if a simple look at the content in front, once formed the back of a deep memory of their judicial interpretation of the review will produce into the abuses, it is suggested look at the interpretation of Article view.
The third step: in April there are new articles, and also in January bought articles of the supplement, the focus is to look inside the new laws and amended laws. Such as the labor contract law, suing, etc. and so on. After reading over the years Zhenti look to see in the last few years the focus of the subject in which together, it is convenient to our comprehensive understanding of the direction of Si Kao, dynamic.
Step four: In the April publication in mid-exam outline, and we must seize the opportunity to study the contents of the outline, identify, and over the years Zhenti content arising in duplicate each other chapters focus on the legal review, which focused on a test; to outline mentioned, but not covered in the calendar year Zhenti should focus on looking the part, it is possible that the test of the new content.
Step five: for the above sum up the highlights, see the three major focus of this. This more targeted review, not in vain. The key word to be careful to scrutiny, to understand the legal meaning inside. Volume on the proposed focus on.
Step Six: In the August before the articles should read at least two times, three to see two times over. So as to ensure the back of the simulation exercises.
Seventh step: in August will begin to conduct a comprehensive simulation exercises, beginning 2 days when a _set_ of test paper, to the time late in the day and a half can be a test paper. The best is to buy a resolution with the answer, so easy Statistical your score, and be aware of their weak side (to summarize records). in the end of August at least 15 simulated test paper.
Step eight: In early September the content of these difficulties should be grouped into good, and then a final reading, to solve their own problems previously.
Step IX: Congratulations on your exam through judicial!
Writing poetry is based refers to the format and rules. Ming Hu Ying-lin "Poetry Tau old body": "modern style of attack, service before the law." Qing Liu Da-kui "Song Yunfu Papers in Order": "busy out of it as the article said I," Poems "and" book "of the United Kingdom , Qu Song-hua, the degree of coagulation However, the air excitedly, their legal Senran, Jinhui Yu Jie, a self into his words. "Zhou Yi" Hui Feng Ci "Volume:" The article is quite legal, poem vertical and horizontal rows dawdle, do not yet slim group of learning organizations. "
Characteristics of Ancient Greek Law Thought
A. Plato's legal thinking
First, Plato's life and work
Plato is the first one to retain the history of Europe under the complete works of thinkers, the dialogue before and after book 25. Books about political and legal theory There are three main parts, namely, "Utopia" (as in the prime of life), "the politician articles" (as in the later years), "Laws" (must document). Generally speaking, the "Utopia" on behalf of his principal political and social ideals, and the "Laws" is written in the face of reality the rule of law works.
Second, Justice and the rule of man on
(A) the country of justice and the type of person
Plato's philosophy is based on the distinction between ideas and reality, in Plato's view, the world from "concept in the world" and "copy in the world," composed of two parts. Philosophy is spiritual, is primary, even though it is invisible, but it is the root of all things, is the real eternal existence; and copy in the world, it is visible, false, volatile, and can only be the shadow of the world concept. Share ideas because of the different levels, they were accordingly with the gold, silver, copper and iron in three different nature, people also have different types and qualities:
Jin → Philosophers → Wisdom
Brave warrior → Silver →
Production of copper, iron workers → moderate →
However, the quality control for the productive laborers should not only be owned by all three people also 应当 Chengwei quality, because a countries must maintain harmony, only when people play their respective roles, keep to his O'clock, national production is possible "justice" of the character, a justice of the country. When individuals of the three qualities (desire, passion and reason) to run an orderly coordination in individuals, the individuals who became justice. This means that a rational desire for domination, mental domination body; Therefore, in this sense, Plato said justice is a moral justice.
(B) the relationship between law and justice
In Plato's view, a character of the, have "less good" and "less evil" in two parts. If a more dominant part of the good, you have control of "more evil" part, he became his own master; if he accepts the bad education, or subject to influence by the bad guys, he would become "his own slaves." When inflated, the would have to submit to external authority, the external authority is the law.
For Plato, the law is a social code of conduct, it is fair and just sign. However, the law of justice and moral justice are not identical. Legal justice is the "action justice" refers to the normal operation of the machine through the legal consequences or judgments obtained. Therefore, the law of moral justice is justice services.
(C) of Philosophy and the rule of man
Plato that the philosopher king to rule through knowledge than the legal rule has a strong advantage, legal and far less than the wisdom of philosophers. Because: (1) is a philosopher by the possession of truth, than the law enacted by state organs should be much more clever; (2) "legal person strong Zhe Zhisuo good", but in reality the law does not necessarily reflect the justice, while the draconian law is not true; (3) the law is rigid and fixed, and politics itself is flexible. The philosopher's knowledge can be adaptable; (4) requires all community harmony, which only philosophers to achieve this goal through wisdom.
Third, the rule of law on: legislation and law-abiding thought
(A) of the legislative process
In Plato's view, the legislation is a "clearing brush" process, which must be the original people of the old system and the quality of some cleaning before they can work out new laws. In the legislation, constitutional framework should be established first, then the enactment of laws and regulations. Plato's emphasis on statutory law, but that practice is derived from the custom of ordinary people.
(B) Principles of Legislation
The fundamental principle is to make laws in accordance with the concept of justice and should be in accordance with the well-being of all people based. The focus on legislation, the focus on civic spirit of the law.
(C) the law of
Plato from a historical perspective traces the course of development of human society, that the state was formed in the contract. The contract is the core of compliance with the law, which means that only law-abiding virtue is in line with national nature. [1]
Plato believes that the will of the citizens for speaking, the rule of law does not have compulsory, but embody the good of the country wishes. He said: "If the law is fully able to lead to perfection or at least in part, to achieve this purpose, we should implement these laws." Citizen's education is also necessary to guide them to implement and abide by the law; law must have the authority, state officials The power must be restricted to the so-called good law enforcement by Liang Li.
Fourth, a major evaluation of legal thought Plato
First, the rule of law ideology is a long tradition of Western legal tradition, a revival of modern Western law has far-reaching impact, and became an important ideological basis of Roman law;
Second, summarizes the essence of ancient Greek political philosophy: The best politics is difficult to achieve, and to prevent the worst of politics is possible, that is, the supremacy of law must be used to rule.
Third, on the "mixed regime" research and "separation of powers principle" of discourse, by scholars hailed as the prototype of the separation of powers.
Fourth, methodological collectivism also created later as a unit of the collective state, the legal doctrine of precedent, in Plato's philosophy, the individual city-states of the tools and instruments only, no independent existence value.
B. the thought of Aristotle
First, Aristotle's life and work
Aristotle (384 BC ~ 322 BC), Greek encyclopedic thinking we had studied under Plato. The representative works are "political science" and "Athens system" (of 158 countries, one city-state summary of the political system), In addition, the "ethics" also has a lot of information on legal thinking. Domestic vaccine capacity, Professor Tien editor of the "Complete Works of Aristotle," have as many as ten volumes.
Second, the legal theory of justice
(A) the meaning of justice and classification
(B) the extension of legal justice: equality and moderation
1. Equality. First, the number of equality, that everyone received something in the number and capacity, with others from the same; Second, the ratio of equality, that is, the actual value according to their corresponding value for proportional allocation of the things said. Distribution of political rights must be elements of people that constitute the city's contribution to the size of the Wei basis minded than others, Jiao Wei who is superior political morality, Shui life in the city in the process of achieving good and Virtue largest number of acts whoever should The city-state to enjoy more benefits.
2. Mean. The so-called golden mean is the unbiased rather, in the middle of two extremes. Aristotle believes that all human actions are excessive, less than three states and moderate, moderation is the only virtue of the characteristics. The same is true for society, society is divided into very person (usually try to be brave so presumptuous crime), very poor (and often lazy rogue easy to commit a small crime) and the middle class. Only the middle class is both rich and poor class contradictions of the "best neutral arbiter." Therefore, the middle class as the most suitable rulers and legislators.
(C) the relationship between justice and the law
Law is built on the basis of justice, from justice, the law extends. Resides in the principles of justice among the substantive law. Freedom and justice has led to the formation of natural law, which became the basis for countries to develop positive law.
Third, the legal definition, function, classification
(A) of the definition of the law
The law is just politics, is the world recognized standards for fair and unbiased trade-off is the rational expression is a contract-style contract. Law features include: (1) justice: The law is the embodiment of justice, it all people, including rulers and ruled are equal; (2) variability, the law should be allowed to change, of course, have to change It argues carefully; (3) must comply with sex. Law is a special social norms, codes of conduct for people, everyone must abide by it.
(B) on the role of law
The role and purpose of the law is for the whole city's "good business" to "Virtue", the pursuit of "public welfare", to enhance human morality.
(C) the classification of law
1. Natural law and statutory law. Natural law is the embodiment of human reason, is based on justice, the existence of universal principles of society, reflecting the "natural order of existence" of the law; development of law that is law enacted by the people. Natural law than statutory law;
2. Basic and Non Basic. Basic fact is the Constitution, which provides state forms of governance, provided the number of rulers and production methods, provides the status of citizens in the city;
3. Good laws and bad laws. Any authentic system of government established under the laws of good laws; all the perverted form of government under the laws as draconian;
4. Statutory and customary law. Customary law that is long-standing custom of the Greek city-states, or etiquette.
Fourth, the rule of law theory
(A) the meaning of the rule of law
The rule of law contains two meanings: the law has been _set_ up universal obedience, they all obey the law they should be making a very good itself is legal. That is, the so-called rule of law, that is, the combination of good laws and law-abiding.
(B) a concrete manifestation of the rule of law
1. Legislation: Aristotle stressed that legislation must adhere to the following principles: First, to reflect the interests of the middle class; Second, the case study countries; Third, consider the citizens especially young people, strengthening education; Fourth, the combination of flexibility and stability .
2. Law enforcement thinking. State power officials to strictly enforce the law. The law clearly defined, should be strictly according to law enforcement; legal requirements or not different _set_ of regulations must be in accordance with the principles of law to deal with and decide the case fairly.
3. Law-abiding thought. Compliance is the key to the rule of law. States must strengthen the training of civil law-abiding behavior and training.
(C) the superiority of the rule of law
The superiority of the rule of law relative to the purposes of the rule of man, and this superiority is mainly reflected in: First, the law is the collective wisdom and careful consideration of the product; second, the law does not feelings, not favoritism, with impartiality; s Third, the law would not speak, not the Elephant Man as lip; Fourth, the legal use of standardized forms, with clarity; Fifth, the rule of man easily bungled national affairs, especially the hereditary system, even more so; the sixth, the times the rule of law , can not implement the rule of man; the seventh, the implementation of governance more difficult for one person, the sovereign's ability and his limits; eighth, one of the government deprives you turn right to govern.
(D) the rule of law to make up for deficiencies
Where the law lags behind that of remedial measures can be taken three kinds: personal power or coalition of a number of people power "as a subsidy"; on some of the imperfections make the appropriate changes to the law; strengthen the interpretation of the law. Mainly refers to the spirit of the law (France and Italy) to make a fair deal with the case and decision.
(E) the relationship between the rule of law and the rule of law
Legal system and rule of law is different but related two concepts should not be confused. The main difference between the two:
1, the rule of law is referred to the legal system, is the scope of the system is a real thing; the rule of law is called the rule of law is a governance principles and methods, as opposed to "rule by man" is concerned, and is legal stuff that real improvement and reform.
2, the rule of law and development directly linked with all countries, there is the rule of law in any country; and the rule of law and development not directly linked with all countries, only countries in the democracy there is rule of law only.
3, the basic requirements of the rule of law is the work of law and system, and according to the law, the law is strictly enforced, violators are prosecuted; the basic requirements of the rule of law is strictly according to law, law measures of social adjustment with the supremacy, authority and mandatory, not the power of willfulness.
4, the implementation of the legal system of the main symbol of a country from the legislation, law enforcement, judicial, law-abiding to legal supervision, there has been relatively complete legal and institutional; effect the rule of law, the main symbol of any organ of a country, group and individuals, including the country's top leaders, have a strict compliance with the law and the law.
Contact between the two is: the rule of law is the basis and precondition for the rule of law to the rule of law, must have a complete legal system; the rule of law and end the rule of law standpoint, the future development of the rule of law must be the ultimate realization of the rule of law.
5, the characteristics of legal thought Aristotle
First, as with Plato, are starting to explore from an ethical ideal of political life, thus creating a theoretical tradition of Western Philosophy and Hegel's "Philosophy of" been the most fully Implementation;
Second, to study law and politics combine to make the legal discipline of sociology or political jurisprudence laid the basic structure of the prototype;
Third, distinctive features of realism, of the problem is to investigate the practical standpoint, the use of the method is mainly inductive, that is, through analysis, comparison, and then draw conclusions. So have claimed that Plato for posterity with more passion and ideals, and Aristotle left behind a more mature system and logic;
Fourth, respected the rule of law, the rule of law for the mature Western theory of the establishment of great significance.
6, legal translation company
Dalian Sun Translation Co., Ltd.
List of Chinese law
The People's Republic of China Constitution, December 4, 1982 March 14, 2004
The People's Republic of China Anti-Secession Law March 14, 2005
The People's Republic of China National People's Congress and local people's congresses at all levels of the electoral law on Feb. 28, 1995
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of National People's Congress on Dec. 10, 1982
The People's Republic of China local people's congresses and local people's governments at all levels of the Organic Law of October 27, 2004
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of the State Council, December 10, 1982
Organic Law of People's Republic of China July 1, 1979 September 2, 1983 October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of the People's Procuratorate on Sept. 2, 1983
Legislation Law March 15, 2000
The People's Republic of China People's Congress Standing Committee at all levels of supervision law August 27, 2006
The People's Republic of China Hong Kong SAR Basic Law, April 4, 1990
Of the People December 30, 1996
The People's Republic of China Macao Special Administrative Region Basic Law, March 31, 1993
Garrison Law of the Macao Special Administrative Region, June 28, 1999
The People's Republic of China on Regional Ethnic Autonomy February 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China National Emblem March 2, 1991
The People's Republic of China National Flag June 28, 1990
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of Villagers Committee on November 4, 1998
Assemblies, Marches and Demonstrations October 31, 1989
The People's Republic of China on Protection of Minors Act Sept. 4, 1991 December 29, 2006
The People's Republic of China Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Act June 28, 1999
The People's Republic of China Elderly Protection Act 1996
The People's Republic of China Disabled Persons Act December 28, 1990
The People's Republic of China on State Compensation Law of May 12, 1994
The People's Republic of China Nationality Law of September 10, 1980
The People's Republic of China martial law March 1, 1996
Civil and Commercial Law
The People's Republic of China Civil Code April 12, 1986
Property Law March 16, 2007
Copyright Law September 7, 1990 October 27, 2001
The People's Republic of China Marriage Law of the April 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China Adoption November 4, 1998
The People's Republic of China Law of Succession April 10, 1985
The People's Republic of China Company Law December 29, 1993 December 25, 1999 August 28, 2004
PRC Enterprise Bankruptcy Law on Aug. 27, 2006
Partnership Enterprise Law of the People's Republic February 23, 1997 August 27, 2006
The People's Republic of China Farmers Professional Cooperatives Act October 31, 2006
Administrative law
People's Police Law of February 28, 1995
The People's Republic of China Administrative Licensing Law August 27, 2003
The People's Republic of China Administrative Review April 29, 1999
The People's Republic of China Administrative Punishment Law of March 17, 1996
The People's Republic of China Extradition Law December 28, 2000
The People's Republic of China National Defense Law of March 14, 1997
The People's Republic of China Military Service December 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China National Defense Education Act, April 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China Civil Air Defense Law October 29, 1996
The People's Republic of China Resident Identity Card Act June 28, 2003
Firearms Control Act July 5, 1996
Emergency Response Law of The People's Republic of China on Aug. 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China on Road Traffic Safety Law of 28 October 2003
Fire Control Law of April 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China State Security Law February 22, 1993
The People's Republic of China Civil Law of April 27, 2005
The People's Republic of China Administrative Supervision Law May 9, 1997
The People's Republic of China Archives Act July 5, 1996
The People's Republic of China on Guarding State Secrets Law September 5, 1988
The People's Republic of China Education Act 1995
The People's Republic of China Compulsory Education Law of April 12, 1986
The People's Republic of China Higher Education Act August 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China Vocational Education Act May 15, 1996
Teachers Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 31, 1993
The People's Republic of China Private Education Promotion Law December 28, 2002
The People's Republic of China science and technology popularization Act June 29, 2002
The People's Republic of China National Common Language Law October 31, 2000
Maternal and Child Health Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 27, 1994
The People's Republic of China Population and Family Planning Law, December 29, 2001
The People's Republic of China on Urban Real Estate Administration Law of July 5, 1994 August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China Customs Law July 8, 2000
Meteorology Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 31, 1999
The People's Republic of China Earthquake Disaster Mitigation Act
The People's Republic of China Surveying and Mapping Law of August 29, 2002
Criminal Class
The People's Republic of China Criminal Law December 25, 1999 December 28, 2002
Economic Law
The People's Republic of China Government Procurement Law June 29, 2002
The People's Republic of China Income Tax Law of September 10, 1980 September 2, 1983 April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Foreign Enterprise Income Tax Law of December 13, 1981 April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Foreign Investment Enterprises and Foreign Enterprises Income Tax Law of April 9, 1991 March 16, 2007
The People's Republic of China Enterprise Income Tax Law March 16, 2007
Personal Income Tax Law of The People's Republic of China September 10, 1980 October 31, 1993 August 30, 1999 October 27, 2005 June 29, 2007
The People's Republic of China Anti-Money Laundering Law of October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Banking Regulatory Act December 27, 2003 October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Fisheries Law of January 20, 1986
The People's Republic of China Electric Power Act 1996
The People's Republic of China Civil Aviation Law of October 30, 1995
Postal Law of December 2, 1986
The People's Republic of China Agricultural Law December 28, 2002
The People's Republic of China Seed Law July 8, 2000
The People's Republic of China Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Law of June 25, 2004
The People's Republic of China on Animal Epidemic Prevention July 3, 1997 August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China anti-monopoly law on Aug. 30, 2007
Labor Law
The People's Republic of China Employment Promotion Law August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China Labor Contract Law of June 29, 2007
The People's Republic of China Insurance Law October 28, 2002
Litigation and non-procedural law
The People's Republic of China civil procedure law April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Criminal Procedure Law of July 7, 1979
Administrative Procedure Law of The People's Republic of China April 4, 1989
Goddess of justice
1. Themis Themis
Is the Greek goddess of justice and law, to head clear and known. She muffled eyes, on behalf of non-discrimination; the right hand holding the balance, on behalf of fair and just; left hand holding the sword of justice on behalf of the authority.
In Hong Kong, before a judge or lawyer, should the goddess Artemis, under oath.
Artemis, in accordance with the "God discipline system," she is the God of Uranus (days) and Gaia (to) the daughter, later became the Olympian Zeus's second wife. Her name's intention to "Earth", escape to "create", "stable", "firm", and legal place to contact. Early mythology, Artemis is the interpretation of the god of prophecy, she is said to have been in charge of the Temple of Delphi, to explain prophecy, and later transferred to the Apollo. She is also responsible for maintaining the order of Olympus, monitoring the implementation of the ceremony. In ancient Greek sculpture, her face shape is a serious woman, carrying a balance. She and daughter born to Zeus He pulled (timing goddess), auneau Mi Asia (order of the goddess), dice (the goddess of justice), E Ruisi (the goddess of peace), MOK dependent (Fate), etc., for her contribution responsibilities. Most of them and the legal relationship is dice (Dice), said to the goddess of justice in charge of the key to the door day and night, monitoring human life, justice in the soul loop. She often armed with a sword chasing criminals who kill blasphemous. Her style is often armed with swords or clubs daunting images of women. Ancient Greek mythology, often referred to another goddess of justice is 阿斯特赖亚 (Astraea), she was on the ground for justice, and they rose to the sky as the main star virgo "dimension argo" immaculate. Her style is a pure girl, than the two to be engaging and much more.
2. Zhu Sititiya Justitia,
Roman mythology, the name of the goddess of justice. The Romans accepted the ancient Greek gods, and mixed with the Roman gods. In the Roman Empire, in turn personified some of the concepts, "created" a lot of gods, among them the justice / justice goddess Zhu Sititiya (Justitia, the word change from jus by law), the goddess Modeling a mixture of the Greek Artemis, dice, 阿斯特赖亚 various goddess's image, usually a hand-held scales, a sword in hand, and the eyes are closed or is in the eye is covered with cloth.
End of the century in Europe in the Renaissance, the revival of ancient Greek art of ancient Rome, while also revival of Roman law, the goddess of justice Zhu Sititiya the statues began to appear in court each city. Still follow the ancient Roman goddess style, hand sword in one hand scales, scales that "fair", the sword that "justice", and closed his eyes, said, "observe with the heart." Figures are often engraved on the back of Roman proverbs: "To achieve justice, even earth shattering (Fiat justitia ruat caelum)."
3. Related cultural
Myths and legends in fact reflects the human reality. Ancient Greek and Roman courts, many people are meeting, or a group of citizens chosen by lot the composition. The identity of the Court of Magistrates cases, a bit like pulling to judge by the passers-by, do not take the initiative to gather evidence or investigation, but according to evidence submitted by the parties to determine which side is speaking the truth. As a member of the judge's meeting, before the start of the trial, often know nothing about the case, thanks to the trial process to understand the situation, or even to rely on the law jurists invited to explain to understand the law should apply. Therefore, the court focused is a measure of evidence on both sides recognized the fact that, to achieve fairness and justice. After _set_ting the highest Roman magistrates to deal with civil litigation, family law is still in litigation with the help of those who pay attention to the measurement and identification of evidence, the investigation does not interfere, that is holding the balance reflected in the myth of Artemis. Major criminal cases, some people will be appointed a committee to collect evidence, search for criminals and suspects before the courts for trial findings.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, Germanic tribes rule the roost in western Europe, most of their court is a gathering of tribal men, still pulling to play a role just people. Medieval proverbs "not the plaintiff not judge", that is the case. Centralization of power in the Kingdom of the gradual strengthening only after there was found criminals, collecting evidence mechanism. Such as the King of England Henry II in 1164 promulgated the "Clarington edict" to provide the royal tour the trial judge, should be convened in a local court case 12 has nothing to do with human witnesses to give evidence to the court under oath to the same advice to establish the facts, this is the source of the jury later. 1275, the United Kingdom have provided a major criminal cases investigated by the jury to gather evidence to courts. However, in order to prevent the jury investigating the crime have preconceptions, in 1352, Edward III's decree further provides that, where evidence of the jurors involved in the investigation of cases will not be allowed to participate in the trial of the case, can only participate in the proceedings as the prosecution witness the authenticity of their testimony will have to call from the other 12 jurors to confirm the consensus. This will form a special investigation and evidence collection for prosecution of the jury or "grand jury" and the special trial jury, or "petit jury."
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