法律 [fǎ lǜ]
英文名字：law，statute
“法”
拉丁文jus,
法文droit，
德文Recht，
俄文право,
都兼有“公平”、“正義”的含義。從“法”的詞源看，雖都喻意公平和正義，但在階級社會，不同的階級有不同的公平、正義觀，法所現的，能是不同統治階級的公平、正義觀。
簡述：法律，即人類在社會層次的規則，社會上人與人之間關係的規，以正義為其存在的基礎，以國的強力為其實施的手段者。法治和法律要逐漸變得適當寬容以利於社會和諧.法一般限於憲法、法律。法屬於上層建築疇，决定於經濟基礎，為經濟基礎服務。法的目的在於維護有利於統治階級的社會關係和社會秩序，是統治階級實現其統治的一項重要工具。所以，法是階級社會特有的社會現象，它隨着階級、階級爭的産生、展而産生和展，法律將隨着階級、階級爭的消滅而自行消亡。
法律的概念法律：
古時----指律令或刑法。由立法機關定,國政權保證執行的行為規則。
現代詞典----由立法機關定，國政權保證執行的行為規則。法律現統治階級的意志，是階級專政的工具之一。現統治階段的意志，國節制制度定和頒的公民必須遵守的行為規則：
這裏----是指狹義的法律，即由我中華人民共和國最高權力機關及其常設機關—全國人民代大會及其常務委員會定的規性文件。根我國現行憲法的規定，法律分為基本法律和基本法律以外的法律。
基本法律：
一般指----在一個國或地區擁有最高法律效力的法律，它的實際作用與憲法實際上相同。「基本法」所味意是不永久權宜之針，在沒有實施憲法下達到有法維持憲政秩序之效果。
這裏指----中華人民共和國全國人民代大會定和修改刑事、民事、國機構的和其他的法律，內容涉及國和社會生活某一方面的最基本的問題。《香港特行政區基本法》與《澳門特行政區基本法》屬於“基本法律”的層次。基本法律以外的法律，也叫“一般法律”，是指由全國人民代大會常務委員會定和修改的“除應當由全國人民代大會定的法律以外的其他法律”(《憲法》第67條)。此外，全國人大常委會所作出的决議和决定，如果其內容屬於規性規定，而不是一般宣言或委任令之類的文件，也視為狹義的法律。它一般包括--憲法，民事法，行政法，經濟法等。
義的法律：是指法的整，包括法律、有法律效力的解釋及其行政機關為執行法律而定的規性文件（如規章）
狹義的法律：專指擁有立法權的國機關依照立法程序定的規性文件。
在三權分立的國，由行政機關為執行法律而定的行政命令僅對該行政機關之公務員有拘束力，除法規命令外，原則上行政機關所訂之行政規則對於人民均不生拘束力。而限人民自由權利之法律必須由人民所選舉之立法機關定之（即者）。
中國現代法律思想概述
中國是世界上歷史最悠久的國之一。中國各族人民共同創造光輝燦爛的文化，具有光榮的革命傳統。
一八四〇年以，封建的中國逐漸變成半殖民地、半封建的國。中國人民為國獨立、民族解放和民主自由進行前仆繼的英勇奮。
二十世紀，中國生翻天覆地的偉大歷史變革。
一九一一年孫中山先生領導的辛亥革命，廢除封建帝，創立中華民國。但是，中國人民反對帝國主義和封建主義的歷史任務還沒有完成。
一九四九年，以毛澤東主席為領袖的中國共産領導中國各族人民，在經受不了長期的艱難麯的武裝爭和其他形式的爭以，終於推翻帝國主義、封建主義和官僚資本主義的統治，取得新民主主義革命的偉大勝利，建立中華人民共和國。從此，中國人民掌握國的權力，成為國的主人。
中華人民共和國成立以，我國社會逐步實現由新民主主義到社會主義的過渡。1956年生産資料私有的社會主義改造已經完成，人剝削人的制度已經消滅，社會主義制度已經確立。工人階級領導的、以工農聯盟為基礎的人民民主專政，實質上即無産階級專政，得到鞏固和展。中國人民和中國人民解放軍戰受不了帝國主義、霸權主義的侵略、破壞和武裝挑釁，維護國的獨立和安全，增強國防。經濟建設取得重大的成就，獨立的、比較完整的社會主義工業唔系已經基本形成，農業生産顯著提高。教育、科學、文化等事業有很大的展，社會主義思想教育取得明顯的成效。大人民的生活有較大的改善。
中國新民主主義革命的勝利和社會主義事業的成就，都是中國共産領導中國各族人民，在馬思列寧主義、毛澤東思想的指引下，堅持真理，修正錯誤，戰許多艱難險阻而取得的。今國的根本任務是集中力量進行社會主義現代化建設。中國各族人民將繼續在中國共産領導下，在馬思列寧主義、毛澤東思想指引下，堅持人民民主專政，堅持社會主義道路，不斷完善社會主義的各項制度，展社會主義民主，健全社會主義法，自力更生，艱苦奮，逐步實現工業、農業、國防和科學技術的現代化，把我國建設成為高度文明、高度民主的社會主義國。
在我國，剝削階級作為階級已經消滅，但是階級爭還將在一定圍內長期存在。中國人民對敵視和破壞我國社會主義制度的國內外的敵對勢力和敵對分子，必須進行爭。
灣是中華人民共和國的神聖領土的一部分。完成統一祖國的大業是包括灣同胞在內的全中國人民的神聖職責。
社會主義的建設事業必須依靠工人、農民和知識分子，團结一切可以團结的力量。在長期的革命和建設過程中，已經結成由中國共産領導的，有各民主派和各人民團體參加的，包括全社會主義勞動者、擁護社會主義的愛國者和擁護祖國統一的愛國者的泛的愛國統一戰綫，這個統一戰綫將繼續鞏固和展。中國人民政治協商會議是有泛代性的統一戰綫組織，過去揮重要的歷史作用，今在國政治生活、社會生活和對外友好活動中，在進行社會主義現代化建設、維護國的統一和團结的爭中，將進一步揮它的重要作用。
中華人民共和國是全國各族人民共同締造的統一的多民族國。平等、團结、互助的社會主義民族關係已經確立，將繼續加強。在維護民族團结的爭中，要反對大民族主義，主要是大漢族主義，也要反對地方民族主義。國盡弃盡力一切努力，促進全國各民族的共同繁榮。
中國革命和建設的成就是同世界人民的支持分不開的。中國的前途是同世界的前途緊密地聯繫在一起的。中國堅持獨立自主的對外政策，堅持互相尊重主權和領土完整、互不侵犯、互不干涉內政、平等互利、和平共處的五項原則，展同各國的外交關係和經濟、文化的交流；堅持反對帝國主義、霸權主義、殖民主義，加強同世界各國人民的團结，支持被壓迫民族和展中國爭取和維護民族獨立、展民族經濟的正義爭，為維護世界和平和促進人類進步事業而努力。
中華人民共和國憲法以法律的形式確認中國各族人民奮的成果，規定國的根本制度和根本任務，是國的根本法，具有最高的法律效力。全國各族人民、一切國機關和武裝力量、各政和各社會團體、各企業事業組織，都必須以憲法為根本的活動則，且負有維護憲法尊嚴、保證憲法實施的職責。
中國古代法律思想特點
09年司法考試復習方法之我見
根個人的經驗,我將09年司法考試的復習分為以下幾個步驟:
第一步:在09年前可以先看看年的老師的課件,講義。建議挑選名師大腕的。瞭解以下這些輔導老師根歷史年試題，所給我們提供的重點,難點信息。着重的瞭解每個老師的授課方式.且建議:最好再找找有關命題老師的一些影音和書資料，這樣能夠通過它們抓住命題老師的思路。
我買華夏考資www.hx600.com 的08年11個輔導班的課件，現在正在聽，感覺不錯。
第二步:在1月份買一本法條,重點先看當面表面反面方面正面迎面滿面封面地面路面世面平面斜面前面下面四面十面一面洗心革面方方面面面貌面容面色面目面面俱到的司法解釋.之再看法條.此復查習方法的原因是部分司法解釋的內容有否定前面法條的,或者法條是已經更改的,如果單純的看前面的內容,一旦形成深刻記憶對自己後面的司法解釋的復習會産成弊端,故建議先看解釋看法條.
第三步:在4月份就有全新的法條,也有1月份所買的法條的增補本,重點是看看當面表面反面方面正面迎面滿面封面地面路面世面平面斜面前面下面四面十面一面洗心革面方方面面面貌面容面色面目面面俱到的新法和修改的法律.比如勞動同法,民訴等等內容.看完以再看年真題,看看在近年所出的題目中重點在哪一塊兒,這樣比較方便讓我們全的瞭解司考的方向、動態.
第四步:在4月份中旬司法考試大綱出版,我們要抓緊時間對大綱內容進行研究，找出和年真題中所出現的內容相互重複的法律章節進行重點復習,因為這一塊考試重點；把大綱中提到的,但是在年真題中沒有涉及的部分也要着重的看,因為有可能是今年考試的全新內容.
第五步:針對上所歸納出的重點內容,着重的看三大本.這樣復習比較有針對性,還不徒勞.對於重點要仔細到字的推敲，理解當面表面反面方面正面迎面滿面封面地面路面世面平面斜面前面下面四面十面一面洗心革面方方面面面貌面容面色面目面面俱到的法理含義。建議重點放在一上。
第六步:在8月份之前就要把法條最少看2遍、三本看2遍.這樣才能保證後面的模擬練習.
第七步:在8月份開始就要進行全的模擬練習,開始時可以2天一套子,到下旬的時候就可以在一天半一套子.最好是買有解析帶答案的,這樣方便統計自己的分數,且能知悉自己薄弱的方面（要歸納記錄）.在8月底模擬子最少15張.
第八步:在9月初把這些難點內容全部歸納好,再進行最一次看書,解决自己先前所存在的問題.
第九步:恭喜你通過司法考試!
指創作詩文所依的格式和規律。明應麟 《詩藪·古上》：“近之攻，務先法律。” 清劉大櫆 《宋運夫時文序》：“閑出其所為文章示，《詩》《書》之英，屈宋之華，其度凝然，其氣勃然，其法律森然，金輝玉潔以自成為一之言。” 況周頤《蕙風詞話》三：“其文章頗有法律，詩則縱橫排宕，不尚纖巧織組之習。”
指道行戒律。元吳昌齡《張天師》第四：“豈不知張真人法律精嚴，早仗劍都驅在五雷內，一個個供下狀吐出真情。” 法, 也稱法律（就義而言）, 是由國按照統治階級的利益和意志定或認可、由國強力保證其實施的行為規的總和．它包括憲法、法律（就狹義而言）、法令、行政法規、條例、規章、習慣法等各種成文法和不成文法．法屬於上層建築疇, 由一定的經濟基礎所决定, 為一定的經濟基礎服務．法是統治階級實現其統治的一項重要工具, 它以規定人權利和義務的方式來調整人們的行為, 其目的在於維護有利於統治階級的社會關係和社會秩序．法是階級社會中特有的社會現象, 它伴隨着階級、階級爭的産生和展而産生和展, 也會隨着階級、階級爭的消亡而自行消亡．
古代原始公社制度的解和法的産生是同時進行的, 法是階級矛盾不可調和的産物．我國第一部字典《說文解字》解釋: ＂法, 刑也, 平之如水, 從水．法, 所以觸不直者去之, 從去．＂從水, 取其平, 即法平如水, 也就是公平的意思．在西方不少民族的語言中, ＂法＂的詞義, 也都兼有＂公平＂＂正義＂的含義．然而, 在階級社會, 不同的階級有不同的公平、正義觀, 法所現的能是不同統治階級的公平、正義觀．社會主義的法, 是從具有階級性的社會規方向反映社會全成員共同意志、維護全社會共同利益的社會規過渡的法．它除具有調整敵我矛盾和人民內部矛盾兩類不同性質關係的功能外, 還對社會主義的物質文明和精神文明的建設有着重要的促進作用．
古希臘法律思想特點
A. 柏拉圖的法律思想
一、柏拉圖的生平與著作
柏拉圖（公元前427～公元前347年），生於雅典的一個貴族之。他的父母都是名門望族的裔，母親更是著名的政治改革梭倫的代。由於出身高貴，自幼即受到良好的教育。從20歲起受教於格拉底，從事哲學學習和研究。曾一度渴望在政治上嶄露頭角，但公元前399年格拉底被處死刑，使他放棄從事政治的願望。流亡國外，40歲回族雅典創立“阿卡德米學園”。在學園中，柏拉圖一邊講學，培養人才；一邊著述，宣講其哲學和政治哲學，前達41年之久。該學園在歷史上延續900年，是全希臘文化知識的中心。
柏拉圖是歐洲歷史上第一位保留下完整著作的思想，前共著對話25篇。有關政治法律理論的著作主要有三部，即《理想國》（成於壯年）、《政治篇》（成於中晚年）、《法律篇》（絶筆）。一般說來，《理想國》代受不了他對政治和社會的主要理想，而《法律篇》則是面對現實所寫成的有關法治的著作。
二、正義論與人治論
（一）正義之國與人的類型
柏拉圖的哲學基礎是理念與現實的區分，在柏拉圖看來，世界由“理念世界”和“摹本世界”兩部分組成。理念是精神的，是第一性的，儘管它是無形的，但它是萬物的根源，是永恆不變的真實存在；而摹本世界，則是有形的，虛假的，變化不定的，能算是理念世界的影子。人由於分享理念程度的不同，相應地便分具有金、銀、銅鐵的三不同的性質，人也就具有不同的類型和品質：
金→哲學家→智慧
銀→勇士→勇敢
銅鐵→生産勞動者→節制
然而，節制的品質不僅應當為生産勞動者所擁有，也應當成為所有三人的品質，因為一個國必須保持和諧協調，衹有當人們各其職、各守其位時，國高才口才奴才蠢才天才人才之才英才多才賢才群才唯才幹才詩才降才五才乏才文才懷才奇才才能才路才力才高才伐才格才望才理才思才郎才哲才智才雄才英才情才分才略才貌才人才子才疏可能産生“正義”的品德，成為正義之國。當個人的三品質（欲望、激情和理智）在個中協調運行秩序井然時，個人就成正義之人。這意味着理性支配欲望，精神支配肉；所以，從這個意義上說，柏拉圖所說的正義就是一種道德正義。
（二）法律與正義的關係
在柏拉圖看來，一個人品性中，都具有“較善”和“較惡”兩部分。如果較善的那部分占優勢，就控住“較惡”的那部分，他就成為自己的主人；如果他接受不良的教育，或者受壞人的薫染，他便成為“自己的奴隸”。當惡性膨脹時，就好服從外在的權威，這個外在權威就是法律。
對於柏拉圖來說，法律就是一種社會行為則，它是公道與正義的標志。但是，法律的正義與道德正義不完全相同。法律正義是“訴訟正義”，是指通過法律機器的正常運轉而獲得的果或判决。因此，法律正義是為道德正義服務的。
（三）哲學王與人治
柏拉圖認為，哲學王通過知識進行統治，比法律統治具有很大的優越性，法律遠不如和哲學家的智慧相比。因為：(1)哲學家所掌握的是一種真理，它比國機關所定的法律要高明得多；(2)“法律者強者之所好”，而現實中的法律並不必然現正義，而惡法非真正的法律；(3)法律是刻和固定的，而政治本身是柔性的。而哲學家的知識可以隨機應變；(4)一切社會都需要和諧，而這衹有哲學家通過智慧才能達到這一目標。
三、法論：立法與守法思想
（一）立法過程論
在柏拉圖看來，立法是一個“清刷”的過程，即必須對原來的舊制度和人們的品質清洗一番，方能定出新的法律。在立法時，先應當確定憲法大綱，然是定法律和規章。柏拉圖重視成文法，而認為習慣是來源於普通人的習俗。
（二）立法原則論
根本的原則是依照公正的理念定法律，應依全人民的幸福為依。就立法的重點而言，着重於培養公民的法律精神。
（三）守法論
柏拉圖從歷史的角度追溯人類社會的展程，認為國形成於契約。而契約的核心就是對法律的遵守，這就意味着，衹有守法的美德是符國的本性的。[1]
柏拉圖認為，對於有意志的公民來講，法律的統治並不具有強迫性，而是現國的良善願望。他認為：“如果法律能完全導致至善或至少是能部分地達到這樣的目的，這些法律我們都應該執行。”對公民的教育也是要引導他們執行和遵守法律；法律必須擁有權威，國官員的權力必須受到約束，所謂良法由良吏來執。
四、柏拉圖法律思想的主要評價
第一，法治主義思想是西方法律傳統源遠流長的一個傳統，對西方近代法治主義的興具有深遠的影響，成為羅馬法的重要思想基礎；
第二，概括古希臘政治哲學的精髓：最好的政治是難以實現的，而防止最壞的政治是可能的，這就是，必須運用至高無上的法律進行統治。
第三，關於“混政”的研究以及“分權原則”的論述，被學者譽為三權分立的原型。
第四，集主義方法論也開創皇后世以集為單位研究國、法律學說的先河，在柏拉圖的理念中，個人是城邦的工具和手段，並無獨立存在的價值。
B. 亞士多德的法律思想
一、亞士多德的生平與著作
亞士多德（公元前384～322年），是古希臘百科全書式的思想大，曾師從柏拉圖。其代著作是《政治學》和《雅典政》（研究158個國城邦政治制度的總結之一），此外，《倫理學》中也有大量的法律思想資料。國內苗力田教授主編的《亞士多德全集》有十之多。
二、法律正義論
（一）正義的內涵與分類
亞士多德認為，城邦以正義為基礎，由這正義衍生出法律，以判斷人間的是非麯直。正義是指人們在社會關係中所産生的一種美德。正義和不正義含有兩意思：一是指能否服從紀律；二是指一個人所取得的東西是否他應當得到的。正義又可分為“普遍的正義”和“個的正義”兩。其中“個的正義”又分為“分配的正義”和“平均的正義”兩。“分配的正義”就是求得比例的平等，這正義是從人的不平等性出的，而這不平等性是自然造成的，是固定不變的。至於“平均的正義”就是指人們之間的平等關係。這正義是以人的等價性為依，使相互利益等同。
（二）法律正義論的延伸：平等與中庸
1.平等。一是數量平等，即各人所得到的事物在數量和容量上與他人所得的相等；二是比值平等，即根各人的實際價值按比例分配與之相衡稱的事物。政治權利的分配必須以人們對於構成城邦各要素的貢獻的大小為依，誰具有比他人較為優越的政治品德，誰在城邦實現良善生活的過程中善德行為最多，誰就應該在這個城邦中享受更多的利益。
2.中庸。所謂中庸是指不偏不頗，處於兩個極端的中間。亞氏認為，人的一切行為都有過度、不及和適中三狀態，衹有中庸是美德的特性。對於社會而言也是如此，社會分為極富者（常逞強放肆以致犯罪）、極貧者（往往懶散無賴易犯小罪）和中産階級。唯有中産階級是貧富兩階級矛盾的“最好的中性的仲裁者”。因此，中産階級最適宜擔任統治者和立法者。
（三）正義與法律的關係
法律是建立在正義基礎之上的，由正義延伸出法律。正義的原則寓於實法之中。自由正義導致自然法的形成，而這成為國節制制度定實在法的依。
三、法律的定義、作用、分類
（一）關於法律的定義
法律是政治上的正義，是世所公認的公正不偏的權衡標，是理性的現，又是一個同式的契約。法律的特性包括：(1)公正性：法律是正義的現，它對一切人，包括統治者和被統治者都是平等的；(2)可變性，法律應該允許變革，當然這咱變革要慎重；(3)必須遵守性。法律是一種特殊的社會規，是人們的行為則，人人都必須遵守它。
（二）關於法律的作用
法律的作用和目的全在於為城邦的“善業”，為“善德”，為追求“公共福利”，增進人類的道德。
（三）關於法律的分類
1.自然法與定法。自然法是人類理性的現，是以正義為基礎的，是存在於社會的普遍原則，是反映“自然存在秩序”的法律；定法即實在法，是由人定的。自然法高於定法；
2.基本法和非基本法。基本法實際上也就是憲法，它規定國的治理形式，規定統治者的人數及産生的辦法，規定公民在城邦中的地位；
3.良法與惡法。凡是正宗政下定的法律為良法；凡是在變態政下定的法律為惡法；
4.成文法和習慣法。習慣法即希臘城邦中長期存在的習俗或稱禮儀。
四、法治主義理論
（一）法治的涵義
法治包含兩重意義：已成立的法律獲得普遍的服從，而大所服從的法律又應該本身是定得良好的法律。這就是說，所謂法治，即良法與守法的結。
（二）法治的具体夫現
1.立法方面：亞氏強調立法必須遵守以下原則：一是反映中産階級的利益；二是研究國的情況；三是考慮對公民尤其是青少年加強教育；四是靈活性與穩定性相結。
2.執法思想。國執政人員要嚴格執行法律。法律有明確規定的，應嚴格依法執行；法律規定不同詳的或沒有規定的，必須按照法律的原則來公正地處理和裁决案件。
3.守法思想。守法是法治的關鍵。國必須加強對公民守法觀念的培養和訓練。
（三）法治的優越性
法治的優越性是相對於人治而言的，而這優越性主要現在：第一，法律是集智慧和審慎考慮的産物；第二，法律沒有感情，不會偏私，具有公正性；第三，法律不會說話，不能象人那樣信口開河；第四，法律助規形式，具有明確性；第五，實行人治容易貽誤國大事，特是世襲更是如此；第六，時代要求實行法治，不能實行人治；第七，實行一人之治較為難，君主的能力和精力畢竟有限；第八，一人之治剝奪大輪流執政的權利。
（四）法治缺陷的彌補
在法律有所不及的地方可以取三補救措施：以個人的權力或若人聯組成的權力“作為補助”；對某些不完善的法律進行適當的變更；加強法律解釋。主要是指法律的精神（法意）來對案件作出公正的處理和裁决。
（五）法與法治的關係
法和法治是既有區又有聯繫的兩個概念，不容混淆。二者的主要區在於：
1、法是法律制度的簡稱，屬於制度的疇，是一種實際存在的東西；而法治是法律統治的簡稱，是一種治國原則和方法，是相對於“人治”而言的，是對法這實際存在東西的完善和改造。
2、法的産生和展與所有國直接相聯繫，在任何國都存在法；而法治的産生和展卻不與所有國直接相聯繫，在民主國高才口才奴才蠢才天才人才之才英才多才賢才群才唯才幹才詩才降才五才乏才文才懷才奇才才能才路才力才高才伐才格才望才理才思才郎才哲才智才雄才英才情才分才略才貌才人才子才疏存在法治。
3、法的基本要求是各項工作都法律化、制度化，做到有法可依、有法必依、執法必嚴、違法必究；而法治的基本要求是嚴格依法辦事，法律在各種社會調整措施中具有至上性、權威性和強性，不是當權者的任性。
4、實行法的主要標志，是一個國從立法、執法、司法、守法到法律監督等方面，都有比較完備的法律和制度；而實行法治的主要標志，是一個國的任何機關、團體和個人，包括國最高領導人在內，都嚴格遵守法律和依法辦事。
二者的聯繫在於：法是法治的基礎和前提條件，要實行法治，必須具有完備的法；法治是法的立足點和歸宿，法的展前途必然是最終實現法治。
五、亞士多德法律思想的特點
第一，與柏拉圖一樣，均從倫理學入手來探討理想的政治生活方式，由此開創西方法哲學的理論傳統，在黑格爾的《法哲學原理》中得到最充分的實現；
第二，將法與政治而為一進行研究，使法律社會學或者政治法律學的學科構造奠定基本的原型；
第三，具有鮮明的現實主義的特點，分析問題的立足點是考察現實，使用的方法主要是歸納法，即通過分析、比較，然得出結論。所以有人稱，柏拉圖給予人以更多的激情與理想，而亞氏則留下較成熟的唔系與邏輯；
第四，推崇法治的精神，對於西方成熟的法治理論的建立，有着重要的意義。
六、法律翻譯公司
大連三恩翻譯有限公司
我國法律列
中華人民共和國憲法 1982年12月4日 2004年3月14日
中華人民共和國反分裂國法 2005年3月14日
中華人民共和國全國人民代大會和地方各級人民代大會選舉法 1995年2月28日
中華人民共和國全國人民代大會組織法 1982年12月10日
中華人民共和國地方各級人民代大會和地方各級人民政府組織法 2004年10月27日
中華人民共和國國務院組織法 1982年12月10日
中華人民共和國人民法院組織法 1979年7月1日 1983年9月2日 2006年10月31日
中華人民共和國人民檢察院組織法 1983年9月2日
中華人民共和國立法法 2000年3月15日
中華人民共和國各級人民代大會常務委員會監督法 2006年8月27日
中華人民共和國香港特行政區基本法 1990年4月4日
中華人民共和國香港特行政區駐軍法 1996年12月30日
中華人民共和國澳門特行政區基本法 1993年3月31日
中華人民共和國澳門特行政區駐軍法 1999年6月28日
中華人民共和國民族區域自治法 2001年2月28日
中華人民共和國國徽法 1991年3月2日
中華人民共和國國旗法 1990年6月28日
中華人民共和國村民委員會組織法 1998年11月4日
中華人民共和國集會遊行示威法 1989年10月31日
中華人民共和國未成年人保護法 1991年9月4日 2006年12月29日
中華人民共和國預防未成年人犯罪法 1999年6月28日
中華人民共和國老年人權益保障法 1996年
中華人民共和國殘疾人保障法 1990年12月28日
中華人民共和國國賠償法 1994年5月12日
中華人民共和國國籍法 1980年9月10日
中華人民共和國戒嚴法 1996年3月1日
民商法
中華人民共和國民法通則 1986年4月12日
中華人民共和國物權法 2007年3月16日
中華人民共和國著作權法 1990年9月7日 2001年10月27日
中華人民共和國婚姻法 2001年4月28日
中華人民共和國收養法 1998年11月4日
中華人民共和國繼承法 1985年4月10日
中華人民共和國公司法 1993年12月29日 1999年12月25日 2004年8月28日
中華人民共和國企業破産法 2006年8月27日
中華人民共和國伙食伙房企業法 1997年2月23日 2006年8月27日
中華人民共和國農民專業作社法 2006年10月31日
行政法
中華人民共和國人民警察法1995年2月28日
中華人民共和國行政許可法 2003年8月27日
中華人民共和國行政議法 1999年4月29日
中華人民共和國行政處罰法 1996年3月17日
中華人民共和國引渡法 2000年12月28日
中華人民共和國國防法 1997年3月14日
中華人民共和國兵役法 1998年12月29日
中華人民共和國國防教育法 2001年4月28日
中華人民共和國人民防空法 1996年10月29日
中華人民共和國居民身份證法 2003年6月28日
中華人民共和國槍支管理法 1996年7月5日
中華人民共和國突事件應對法 2007年8月30日
中華人民共和國道路交通安全法 2003年10月28日
中華人民共和國消防法 1998年4月29日
中華人民共和國國安全法 1993年2月22日
中華人民共和國公務員法 2005年4月27日
中華人民共和國行政監察法 1997年5月9日
中華人民共和國檔案法 1996年7月5日
中華人民共和國保守國秘密法 1988年9月5日
中華人民共和國教育法 1995年
中華人民共和國義務教育法 1986年4月12日
中華人民共和國高等教育法 1998年8月29日
中華人民共和國職業教育法 1996年5月15日
中華人民共和國教師法 1993年10月31日
中華人民共和國民辦教育促進法 2002年12月28日
中華人民共和國科學技術普及法 2002年6月29日
中華人民共和國國通用語言文字法 2000年10月31日
中華人民共和國母嬰保健法 1994年10月27日
中華人民共和國人口與計生育法 2001年12月29日
中華人民共和國城市房地産管理法 1994年7月5日 2007年8月30日
中華人民共和國海關法 2000年7月8日
中華人民共和國氣象法 1999年10月31日
中華人民共和國防震減災法
中華人民共和國測繪法 2002年8月29日
刑法類
中華人民共和國刑法 1999年12月25日 2002年12月28日
經濟法
中華人民共和國政府採購法 2002年6月29日
中華人民共和國中外資經營企業所得稅法 1980年9月10日 1983年9月2日 1991年4月9日
中華人民共和國外國企業所得稅法 1981年12月13日 1991年4月9日
中華人民共和國外商投資企業和外國企業所得稅法 1991年4月9日 2007年3月16日
中華人民共和國企業所得稅法 2007年3月16日
中華人民共和國個人所得稅法 1980年9月10日 1993年10月31日 1999年8月30日 2005年10月27日 2007年6月29日
中華人民共和國反洗錢法 2006年10月31日
中華人民共和國銀行業監督管理法 2003年12月27日 2006年10月31日
中華人民共和國漁業法 1986年1月20日
中華人民共和國電力法 1996年
中華人民共和國民用航空法 1995年10月30日
中華人民共和國郵政法 1986年12月2日
中華人民共和國農業法 2002年12月28日
中華人民共和國子法 2000年7月8日
中華人民共和國農業機械化促進法 2004年6月25日
中華人民共和國動物防疫法 1997年7月3日 2007年8月30日
中華人民共和國反壟斷法 2007年8月30日
勞動法
中華人民共和國就業促進法 2007年8月30日
中華人民共和國勞動同法 2007年6月29日
中華人民共和國保險法 2002年10月28日
訴訟及非訴訟程序法
中華人民共和國民事訴訟法 1991年4月9日
中華人民共和國刑事訴訟法 1979年7月7日
中華人民共和國行政訴訟法 1989年4月4日
正義女神
1。忒彌斯Ｔｈｅｍｉｓ
是希臘正義與法律女神,以頭腦清晰見稱.她用蒙住雙眼，代一視同仁；右手捧着天平，代公平、公正；左手握着長劍，代正義權威。
在香港，成為法官或律師之前，都要在忒彌斯女神下宣誓。
忒彌斯，按照《神統紀》，她是大神烏拉諾斯（天）和蓋亞（地）的女兒，來成為奧林匹斯主神宙斯的第二位妻子。她的名字的原意為“大地”，轉義為“創造”、“穩定”、“堅定”，從而和法律生聯繫。早期神話，忒彌斯是解釋預言之神，說她曾經掌管特爾斐神殿，解釋神喻，來轉交給阿波羅。她還負責維持奧林匹斯山的秩序，監管儀式的執行。在古希臘的雕塑中，她的造型是一位情嚴肅的婦女，手持一架天平。她和宙斯所生的女兒有賀拉（時序女神）、歐諾彌亞（秩序女神）、狄刻（正義女神）、厄瑞斯（和平女神）、莫依賴（命運女神）等，為她分擔職責。其中和法律最有關係的是狄刻（Ｄｉｃｅ），說這位正義女神掌管白晝和黑夜大門的鑰匙，監視人間的生活，在靈魂循環時主持正義。她經常手持利劍追逐罪犯，刺殺褻瀆神靈者。她的造型往往是手持寶劍或棍棒的令人望而生畏的婦女形象。古希臘神話中經常提到的另一位正義女神是阿斯特賴亞（Ａｓｔｒａｅａ），她在地上主持正義，又升上天空為室女星座的主星“維耳戈”，純潔無瑕。她的造型是一位清純的少女，比上述的兩位要耐看得多。
2。斯提提亞Justitia ，
古羅馬神話正義女神的名字。古羅馬人接受古希臘的諸神，混入羅馬的諸神。在古羅馬帝國時代，又將一些概念擬人化，“創造”出不少神靈，其中就有正義／司法女神斯提提亞（Ｊｕｓｔｉｔｉａ，由法律ｊｕｓ一詞轉變而來），這位女神的造型混受不了希臘的忒彌斯、狄刻、阿斯特賴亞諸女神的形象，一般都是一手持天平、一手持寶劍，而且都是緊閉雙眼或者是在眼睛上蒙着條。
在歐洲中世紀末的文藝興時代，在古希臘古羅馬藝復查活的同時，羅馬法也在興，司法女神斯提提亞的造像開始出現在各個城市法院。女神仍然沿用古羅馬的造型，一手持劍一手持天平，天平示“公平”，寶劍示“正義”，緊閉雙眼示“用心靈觀察 ”。造像的背往往刻有古羅馬的法諺：“為實現正義，哪怕天崩地裂（Ｆｉａｔ ｊｕｓｔｉｔｉａ ｒｕａｔ ｃａｅｌｕｍ）。”
3。相關文化
神話傳說實際上射的是人間的現實。古希臘及古羅馬時代的法院，有很多都是民衆的會議，或是由抽簽産生的一批公民組成。法院裁判案件時的身份，有點像被臨時拉來評理的過路人，並不主動去搜集或調查證，是根訴訟雙方提交的證來判斷哪一方所講的是事實。作為法官的會議成員，在審判開始以前，往往對於案件一無所知，全靠審判的進程來瞭解情況，甚至要依靠請來說明法律的法學家來瞭解應該適用的法律。所以，法院註重的是衡量雙方的證，確認事實，實現公平正義。羅馬以設置最高裁判官來處理民事訴訟，仍舊是在法學家的幫助下註重於訴訟者證的衡量和鑒，並不插手調查，反映於神話就是手持天平的忒彌斯。重大的刑事案件會指定一些人組成委員會，負責收集證、尋找罪犯，將嫌疑人提交法院進行審理裁斷。
羅馬帝國滅亡，日耳曼各部族稱雄西歐，他們的法院大多也是部族成年男子的聚會，依舊扮演一個臨時拉來的公正人的角色。中世紀法諺“沒有原告就沒有法官”，說的就是這情況。在各王國的中央集權逐漸加強，出現發達現罪犯、搜集證的機。如英國國王亨利二世在１１６４年頒的“拉靈頓詔令”，規定王室法官在巡審判中，應在當地召集１２名與訴訟案件無關的人為證人，宣誓方向法庭提供證，以一致意見確定事實，這就是來的陪審的來源。１２７５年，英國規定重大的刑事案件都要由陪審進行調查，搜集證方向法庭起訴。但為防止調查犯罪的陪審員有先入之見，１３５２年，愛德華三世的詔令進一步規定，凡參與案件調查取證的陪審員一律不得參加該案件的審理，能作為起訴方參加訴訟作證，其證言的真實性則要由另外召集的１２名陪審員的一致意見來確認。這樣就形成專門調查取證的起訴陪審或稱“大陪審”與專門的審判陪審或稱“小陪審”。
中歐地區的展與英國的情況相仿，１２、１３世紀時各王國陸續設立王室檢察官，偵緝、起訴重大犯罪。隨着中央集權的加強，檢察官的職權逐步擴大。１５世紀時，在德意志諸國出現有關維持社會秩序的“Ｐｏｌｉｚｅｉ”法令，來又用這一詞示有關執行這些法令特設的官署機構及其人員，從而成為世西歐語言中警察（Ｐｏｌｉｚｅｉ或Ｐｏｌｉｃｅ）一詞的來源。監視、現上述違反法令的罪行，這些官署就可法院提起“警察案件”（Ｐｏｌｉｚｅｉｓａｃｈｅ）的訴訟，與原有的“司法案件”（Ｊｕｓｔｉｚｓａｃｈｅ）相對。法院本身仍然不直接插手調查案件的事實，而是由法官對控、辯雙方提交的證進行比較衡量。
由於歐洲在上述長期的歷史展中，法院始終承擔裁斷職責，因此作為法院的象徵，古希臘、古羅馬的這位正義女神形象得以長期保留蒙目的形象。她是裁判之神，被動的、守株待兔的、節制制度人的，是用天平衡量訴訟雙方提出的證，哪一方的證充分就訴；哪一方的證不足就敗訴，用寶劍加以處罰。她的職責是“裁斷”而不是現，所以眼睛應該蒙上，不會因為看見訴訟雙方而有主觀上的傾性，也不會因為受到各種擾而難以實現正義，就如她身的法諺所明的，她為實現正義應該是無所畏懼的。
Legal [fǎ lǜ]
English name: law, statute
"Law"
Latin jus,
French droit,
German Recht,
Russian право,
Are both "fair", "justice" means. From the "law" etymology of view, although equity and justice are metaphorical, but in class society, different classes have different fair concept of justice, law embodied in the ruling class can only be different fair concept of justice .
The Concept of Law Law:
---- Refer to orders or criminal law in ancient times. Developed by the legislature, the state government to ensure implementation of the rules of conduct.
Modern Dictionary ---- formulated by the legislature, the state government to ensure implementation of the rules of conduct. Law reflects the will of the ruling class, is one of the tools of class dictatorship. Stage reflects the will of the ruling, the state's citizens to develop and promulgate rules of conduct to be observed:
---- Here is a narrow legal, I am The People's Republic of China from the highest authority and its standing body - the Standing Committee of National People's Congress and its normative documents. According to China's current Constitution, the law is divided into basic laws and fundamental laws outside the law.
Basic Law:
Generally refers to ---- in a country or region has the highest legal effect of the law, its actual role and the Constitution in fact the same. "Basic Law" means the flavor is not permanent and expedient needle, in the absence of the implementation of the law under the Constitution to maintain the constitutional order of the results.
Generalized law: is defined as a whole, including legal, a statutory interpretation and administrative authorities for the implementation of laws and normative documents (such as regulations)
Narrow legal: refers specifically to the national authorities have legislative power in accordance with a legislative regulatory documents.
In the separation of powers of the state, by the administrative authority Zhihangfalv executive order enacted only for the administrative authority, civil servants are binding, except Fagui command Wai, Yuan Ze Shang Zhi Ding executive of the Chief Guize binding for the people not Fasheng . Restrict people's freedom of rights and laws must be enacted by the legislature election by the people of (the latter).
Overview of Chinese modern legal thought
China is the world's oldest countries. Chinese people of all nationalities have jointly created a splendid culture and have a glorious revolutionary tradition.
After 1840, China was gradually turned into semi-feudal, semi-feudal country. Chinese people for national independence, national liberation and democracy and freedom fought bravely.
20 century, China has undergone enormous changes in the great history.
1911 Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen, abolished the feudal monarchy, the Republic of China. However, the Chinese people against imperialism and feudalism in the historical task is not yet complete.
1949, Chairman Mao Zedong as leader of the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people of all nationalities, after a long and arduous struggle and other forms of armed struggle after the overthrew of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucrat-capitalism rule, and achieved a great victory for the new-democratic revolution, the establishment of the People's Republic. Since then, the Chinese people to hold the country's power and become masters of the country.
In China, the exploiting classes as such have been eliminated, but the class struggle will continue long in a certain range. Hostile to the Chinese people and undermine China's socialist system of domestic and foreign hostile forces and hostile elements, we must fight.
Taiwan is a part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic. To complete the great cause of reunification of the motherland is the Taiwan compatriots included the sacred duty of all Chinese people.
The People's Republic of China is the common people of all nationalities to create a unified multi-ethnic country. Equality, solidarity, mutual socialist ethnic relations have been established and will continue to strengthen. In maintaining national unity in the struggle to combat big-nation chauvinism, mainly Han chauvinism, and local nationalism. States make every effort to promote the common prosperity of all nationalities.
The achievements of the Chinese revolution and construction are inseparable from the support with the people of the world's. China's future is the future of the world closely linked. China adheres to an independent foreign policy, principles of mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence in developing diplomatic relations with other countries and economic and cultural exchanges; persist against the empire Marxism, hegemony, colonialism, and to strengthen solidarity with the peoples of the world, supports the oppressed nations and the developing countries to win and preserve national independence and develop national economy, just struggle to safeguard world peace and promoting human progress and efforts.
The People's Republic of China Constitution in the form of legal recognition of the Chinese people of all nationalities to work hard to provide the country's basic system and basic tasks of the state's fundamental law, has the highest legal force. People of all nationalities, all state organs and armed forces, all political parties and social organizations, enterprises, organizations must take the constitution as the basic criteria, and the duty to uphold the dignity of the Constitution, to guarantee its implementation.
Characteristics of Legal Thought in Ancient China
2009 Judicial Review Means in Examination
According to personal experience, I will review the Judicial Examination in 2009 are divided into the following steps:
The first step: in the 09 years before a teacher can look at the courseware, handouts. Proposed big-_select_ed teacher. These counselors understand the following questions based on previous years, which gives us the key and difficult information. Focus on understanding each teacher's teaching methods. And recommend: The best teachers and then Zhaozhao the proposition of some audio-visual and written information, so the teachers through their ideas to seize the proposition.
I bought a Chinese test in 2008 financing www.hx600.com 11 remedial classes courseware, now listen, I feel good.
Step two: buy articles in January, focused look at the inside of judicial interpretation. After opinion articles. This is part of the review method because there is no judicial interpretation of the contents of the previous articles, or articles that have been change, if a simple look at the content in front, once formed the back of a deep memory of their judicial interpretation of the review will produce into the abuses, it is suggested look at the interpretation of Article view.
The third step: in April there are new articles, and also in January bought articles of the supplement, the focus is to look inside the new laws and amended laws. Such as the labor contract law, suing, etc. and so on. After reading over the years Zhenti look to see in the last few years the focus of the subject in which together, it is convenient to our comprehensive understanding of the direction of Si Kao, dynamic.
Step four: In the April publication in mid-exam outline, and we must seize the opportunity to study the contents of the outline, identify, and over the years Zhenti content arising in duplicate each other chapters focus on the legal review, which focused on a test; to outline mentioned, but not covered in the calendar year Zhenti should focus on looking the part, it is possible that the test of the new content.
Step five: for the above sum up the highlights, see the three major focus of this. This more targeted review, not in vain. The key word to be careful to scrutiny, to understand the legal meaning inside. Volume on the proposed focus on.
Step Six: In the August before the articles should read at least two times, three to see two times over. So as to ensure the back of the simulation exercises.
Seventh step: in August will begin to conduct a comprehensive simulation exercises, beginning 2 days when a _set_ of test paper, to the time late in the day and a half can be a test paper. The best is to buy a resolution with the answer, so easy Statistical your score, and be aware of their weak side (to summarize records). in the end of August at least 15 simulated test paper.
Step eight: In early September the content of these difficulties should be grouped into good, and then a final reading, to solve their own problems previously.
Step IX: Congratulations on your exam through judicial!
Writing poetry is based refers to the format and rules. Ming Hu Ying-lin "Poetry Tau old body": "modern style of attack, service before the law." Qing Liu Da-kui "Song Yunfu Papers in Order": "busy out of it as the article said I," Poems "and" book "of the United Kingdom , Qu Song-hua, the degree of coagulation However, the air excitedly, their legal Senran, Jinhui Yu Jie, a self into his words. "Zhou Yi" Hui Feng Ci "Volume:" The article is quite legal, poem vertical and horizontal rows dawdle, do not yet slim group of learning organizations. "
Characteristics of Ancient Greek Law Thought
A. Plato's legal thinking
First, Plato's life and work
Plato is the first one to retain the history of Europe under the complete works of thinkers, the dialogue before and after book 25. Books about political and legal theory There are three main parts, namely, "Utopia" (as in the prime of life), "the politician articles" (as in the later years), "Laws" (must document). Generally speaking, the "Utopia" on behalf of his principal political and social ideals, and the "Laws" is written in the face of reality the rule of law works.
Second, Justice and the rule of man on
(A) the country of justice and the type of person
Plato's philosophy is based on the distinction between ideas and reality, in Plato's view, the world from "concept in the world" and "copy in the world," composed of two parts. Philosophy is spiritual, is primary, even though it is invisible, but it is the root of all things, is the real eternal existence; and copy in the world, it is visible, false, volatile, and can only be the shadow of the world concept. Share ideas because of the different levels, they were accordingly with the gold, silver, copper and iron in three different nature, people also have different types and qualities:
Jin → Philosophers → Wisdom
Brave warrior → Silver →
Production of copper, iron workers → moderate →
However, the quality control for the productive laborers should not only be owned by all three people also 应当 Chengwei quality, because a countries must maintain harmony, only when people play their respective roles, keep to his O'clock, national production is possible "justice" of the character, a justice of the country. When individuals of the three qualities (desire, passion and reason) to run an orderly coordination in individuals, the individuals who became justice. This means that a rational desire for domination, mental domination body; Therefore, in this sense, Plato said justice is a moral justice.
(B) the relationship between law and justice
In Plato's view, a character of the, have "less good" and "less evil" in two parts. If a more dominant part of the good, you have control of "more evil" part, he became his own master; if he accepts the bad education, or subject to influence by the bad guys, he would become "his own slaves." When inflated, the would have to submit to external authority, the external authority is the law.
For Plato, the law is a social code of conduct, it is fair and just sign. However, the law of justice and moral justice are not identical. Legal justice is the "action justice" refers to the normal operation of the machine through the legal consequences or judgments obtained. Therefore, the law of moral justice is justice services.
(C) of Philosophy and the rule of man
Plato that the philosopher king to rule through knowledge than the legal rule has a strong advantage, legal and far less than the wisdom of philosophers. Because: (1) is a philosopher by the possession of truth, than the law enacted by state organs should be much more clever; (2) "legal person strong Zhe Zhisuo good", but in reality the law does not necessarily reflect the justice, while the draconian law is not true; (3) the law is rigid and fixed, and politics itself is flexible. The philosopher's knowledge can be adaptable; (4) requires all community harmony, which only philosophers to achieve this goal through wisdom.
Third, the rule of law on: legislation and law-abiding thought
(A) of the legislative process
In Plato's view, the legislation is a "clearing brush" process, which must be the original people of the old system and the quality of some cleaning before they can work out new laws. In the legislation, constitutional framework should be established first, then the enactment of laws and regulations. Plato's emphasis on statutory law, but that practice is derived from the custom of ordinary people.
(B) Principles of Legislation
The fundamental principle is to make laws in accordance with the concept of justice and should be in accordance with the well-being of all people based. The focus on legislation, the focus on civic spirit of the law.
(C) the law of
Plato from a historical perspective traces the course of development of human society, that the state was formed in the contract. The contract is the core of compliance with the law, which means that only law-abiding virtue is in line with national nature. [1]
Plato believes that the will of the citizens for speaking, the rule of law does not have compulsory, but embody the good of the country wishes. He said: "If the law is fully able to lead to perfection or at least in part, to achieve this purpose, we should implement these laws." Citizen's education is also necessary to guide them to implement and abide by the law; law must have the authority, state officials The power must be restricted to the so-called good law enforcement by Liang Li.
Fourth, a major evaluation of legal thought Plato
First, the rule of law ideology is a long tradition of Western legal tradition, a revival of modern Western law has far-reaching impact, and became an important ideological basis of Roman law;
Second, summarizes the essence of ancient Greek political philosophy: The best politics is difficult to achieve, and to prevent the worst of politics is possible, that is, the supremacy of law must be used to rule.
Third, on the "mixed regime" research and "separation of powers principle" of discourse, by scholars hailed as the prototype of the separation of powers.
Fourth, methodological collectivism also created later as a unit of the collective state, the legal doctrine of precedent, in Plato's philosophy, the individual city-states of the tools and instruments only, no independent existence value.
B. the thought of Aristotle
First, Aristotle's life and work
Aristotle (384 BC ~ 322 BC), Greek encyclopedic thinking we had studied under Plato. The representative works are "political science" and "Athens system" (of 158 countries, one city-state summary of the political system), In addition, the "ethics" also has a lot of information on legal thinking. Domestic vaccine capacity, Professor Tien editor of the "Complete Works of Aristotle," have as many as ten volumes.
Second, the legal theory of justice
(A) the meaning of justice and classification
(B) the extension of legal justice: equality and moderation
1. Equality. First, the number of equality, that everyone received something in the number and capacity, with others from the same; Second, the ratio of equality, that is, the actual value according to their corresponding value for proportional allocation of the things said. Distribution of political rights must be elements of people that constitute the city's contribution to the size of the Wei basis minded than others, Jiao Wei who is superior political morality, Shui life in the city in the process of achieving good and Virtue largest number of acts whoever should The city-state to enjoy more benefits.
2. Mean. The so-called golden mean is the unbiased rather, in the middle of two extremes. Aristotle believes that all human actions are excessive, less than three states and moderate, moderation is the only virtue of the characteristics. The same is true for society, society is divided into very person (usually try to be brave so presumptuous crime), very poor (and often lazy rogue easy to commit a small crime) and the middle class. Only the middle class is both rich and poor class contradictions of the "best neutral arbiter." Therefore, the middle class as the most suitable rulers and legislators.
(C) the relationship between justice and the law
Law is built on the basis of justice, from justice, the law extends. Resides in the principles of justice among the substantive law. Freedom and justice has led to the formation of natural law, which became the basis for countries to develop positive law.
Third, the legal definition, function, classification
(A) of the definition of the law
The law is just politics, is the world recognized standards for fair and unbiased trade-off is the rational expression is a contract-style contract. Law features include: (1) justice: The law is the embodiment of justice, it all people, including rulers and ruled are equal; (2) variability, the law should be allowed to change, of course, have to change It argues carefully; (3) must comply with sex. Law is a special social norms, codes of conduct for people, everyone must abide by it.
(B) on the role of law
The role and purpose of the law is for the whole city's "good business" to "Virtue", the pursuit of "public welfare", to enhance human morality.
(C) the classification of law
1. Natural law and statutory law. Natural law is the embodiment of human reason, is based on justice, the existence of universal principles of society, reflecting the "natural order of existence" of the law; development of law that is law enacted by the people. Natural law than statutory law;
2. Basic and Non Basic. Basic fact is the Constitution, which provides state forms of governance, provided the number of rulers and production methods, provides the status of citizens in the city;
3. Good laws and bad laws. Any authentic system of government established under the laws of good laws; all the perverted form of government under the laws as draconian;
4. Statutory and customary law. Customary law that is long-standing custom of the Greek city-states, or etiquette.
Fourth, the rule of law theory
(A) the meaning of the rule of law
The rule of law contains two meanings: the law has been _set_ up universal obedience, they all obey the law they should be making a very good itself is legal. That is, the so-called rule of law, that is, the combination of good laws and law-abiding.
(B) a concrete manifestation of the rule of law
1. Legislation: Aristotle stressed that legislation must adhere to the following principles: First, to reflect the interests of the middle class; Second, the case study countries; Third, consider the citizens especially young people, strengthening education; Fourth, the combination of flexibility and stability .
2. Law enforcement thinking. State power officials to strictly enforce the law. The law clearly defined, should be strictly according to law enforcement; legal requirements or not different _set_ of regulations must be in accordance with the principles of law to deal with and decide the case fairly.
3. Law-abiding thought. Compliance is the key to the rule of law. States must strengthen the training of civil law-abiding behavior and training.
(C) the superiority of the rule of law
The superiority of the rule of law relative to the purposes of the rule of man, and this superiority is mainly reflected in: First, the law is the collective wisdom and careful consideration of the product; second, the law does not feelings, not favoritism, with impartiality; s Third, the law would not speak, not the Elephant Man as lip; Fourth, the legal use of standardized forms, with clarity; Fifth, the rule of man easily bungled national affairs, especially the hereditary system, even more so; the sixth, the times the rule of law , can not implement the rule of man; the seventh, the implementation of governance more difficult for one person, the sovereign's ability and his limits; eighth, one of the government deprives you turn right to govern.
(D) the rule of law to make up for deficiencies
Where the law lags behind that of remedial measures can be taken three kinds: personal power or coalition of a number of people power "as a subsidy"; on some of the imperfections make the appropriate changes to the law; strengthen the interpretation of the law. Mainly refers to the spirit of the law (France and Italy) to make a fair deal with the case and decision.
(E) the relationship between the rule of law and the rule of law
Legal system and rule of law is different but related two concepts should not be confused. The main difference between the two:
1, the rule of law is referred to the legal system, is the scope of the system is a real thing; the rule of law is called the rule of law is a governance principles and methods, as opposed to "rule by man" is concerned, and is legal stuff that real improvement and reform.
2, the rule of law and development directly linked with all countries, there is the rule of law in any country; and the rule of law and development not directly linked with all countries, only countries in the democracy there is rule of law only.
3, the basic requirements of the rule of law is the work of law and system, and according to the law, the law is strictly enforced, violators are prosecuted; the basic requirements of the rule of law is strictly according to law, law measures of social adjustment with the supremacy, authority and mandatory, not the power of willfulness.
4, the implementation of the legal system of the main symbol of a country from the legislation, law enforcement, judicial, law-abiding to legal supervision, there has been relatively complete legal and institutional; effect the rule of law, the main symbol of any organ of a country, group and individuals, including the country's top leaders, have a strict compliance with the law and the law.
Contact between the two is: the rule of law is the basis and precondition for the rule of law to the rule of law, must have a complete legal system; the rule of law and end the rule of law standpoint, the future development of the rule of law must be the ultimate realization of the rule of law.
5, the characteristics of legal thought Aristotle
First, as with Plato, are starting to explore from an ethical ideal of political life, thus creating a theoretical tradition of Western Philosophy and Hegel's "Philosophy of" been the most fully Implementation;
Second, to study law and politics combine to make the legal discipline of sociology or political jurisprudence laid the basic structure of the prototype;
Third, distinctive features of realism, of the problem is to investigate the practical standpoint, the use of the method is mainly inductive, that is, through analysis, comparison, and then draw conclusions. So have claimed that Plato for posterity with more passion and ideals, and Aristotle left behind a more mature system and logic;
Fourth, respected the rule of law, the rule of law for the mature Western theory of the establishment of great significance.
6, legal translation company
Dalian Sun Translation Co., Ltd.
List of Chinese law
The People's Republic of China Constitution, December 4, 1982 March 14, 2004
The People's Republic of China Anti-Secession Law March 14, 2005
The People's Republic of China National People's Congress and local people's congresses at all levels of the electoral law on Feb. 28, 1995
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of National People's Congress on Dec. 10, 1982
The People's Republic of China local people's congresses and local people's governments at all levels of the Organic Law of October 27, 2004
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of the State Council, December 10, 1982
Organic Law of People's Republic of China July 1, 1979 September 2, 1983 October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of the People's Procuratorate on Sept. 2, 1983
Legislation Law March 15, 2000
The People's Republic of China People's Congress Standing Committee at all levels of supervision law August 27, 2006
The People's Republic of China Hong Kong SAR Basic Law, April 4, 1990
Of the People December 30, 1996
The People's Republic of China Macao Special Administrative Region Basic Law, March 31, 1993
Garrison Law of the Macao Special Administrative Region, June 28, 1999
The People's Republic of China on Regional Ethnic Autonomy February 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China National Emblem March 2, 1991
The People's Republic of China National Flag June 28, 1990
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of Villagers Committee on November 4, 1998
Assemblies, Marches and Demonstrations October 31, 1989
The People's Republic of China on Protection of Minors Act Sept. 4, 1991 December 29, 2006
The People's Republic of China Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Act June 28, 1999
The People's Republic of China Elderly Protection Act 1996
The People's Republic of China Disabled Persons Act December 28, 1990
The People's Republic of China on State Compensation Law of May 12, 1994
The People's Republic of China Nationality Law of September 10, 1980
The People's Republic of China martial law March 1, 1996
Civil and Commercial Law
The People's Republic of China Civil Code April 12, 1986
Property Law March 16, 2007
Copyright Law September 7, 1990 October 27, 2001
The People's Republic of China Marriage Law of the April 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China Adoption November 4, 1998
The People's Republic of China Law of Succession April 10, 1985
The People's Republic of China Company Law December 29, 1993 December 25, 1999 August 28, 2004
PRC Enterprise Bankruptcy Law on Aug. 27, 2006
Partnership Enterprise Law of the People's Republic February 23, 1997 August 27, 2006
The People's Republic of China Farmers Professional Cooperatives Act October 31, 2006
Administrative law
People's Police Law of February 28, 1995
The People's Republic of China Administrative Licensing Law August 27, 2003
The People's Republic of China Administrative Review April 29, 1999
The People's Republic of China Administrative Punishment Law of March 17, 1996
The People's Republic of China Extradition Law December 28, 2000
The People's Republic of China National Defense Law of March 14, 1997
The People's Republic of China Military Service December 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China National Defense Education Act, April 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China Civil Air Defense Law October 29, 1996
The People's Republic of China Resident Identity Card Act June 28, 2003
Firearms Control Act July 5, 1996
Emergency Response Law of The People's Republic of China on Aug. 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China on Road Traffic Safety Law of 28 October 2003
Fire Control Law of April 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China State Security Law February 22, 1993
The People's Republic of China Civil Law of April 27, 2005
The People's Republic of China Administrative Supervision Law May 9, 1997
The People's Republic of China Archives Act July 5, 1996
The People's Republic of China on Guarding State Secrets Law September 5, 1988
The People's Republic of China Education Act 1995
The People's Republic of China Compulsory Education Law of April 12, 1986
The People's Republic of China Higher Education Act August 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China Vocational Education Act May 15, 1996
Teachers Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 31, 1993
The People's Republic of China Private Education Promotion Law December 28, 2002
The People's Republic of China science and technology popularization Act June 29, 2002
The People's Republic of China National Common Language Law October 31, 2000
Maternal and Child Health Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 27, 1994
The People's Republic of China Population and Family Planning Law, December 29, 2001
The People's Republic of China on Urban Real Estate Administration Law of July 5, 1994 August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China Customs Law July 8, 2000
Meteorology Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 31, 1999
The People's Republic of China Earthquake Disaster Mitigation Act
The People's Republic of China Surveying and Mapping Law of August 29, 2002
Criminal Class
The People's Republic of China Criminal Law December 25, 1999 December 28, 2002
Economic Law
The People's Republic of China Government Procurement Law June 29, 2002
The People's Republic of China Income Tax Law of September 10, 1980 September 2, 1983 April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Foreign Enterprise Income Tax Law of December 13, 1981 April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Foreign Investment Enterprises and Foreign Enterprises Income Tax Law of April 9, 1991 March 16, 2007
The People's Republic of China Enterprise Income Tax Law March 16, 2007
Personal Income Tax Law of The People's Republic of China September 10, 1980 October 31, 1993 August 30, 1999 October 27, 2005 June 29, 2007
The People's Republic of China Anti-Money Laundering Law of October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Banking Regulatory Act December 27, 2003 October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Fisheries Law of January 20, 1986
The People's Republic of China Electric Power Act 1996
The People's Republic of China Civil Aviation Law of October 30, 1995
Postal Law of December 2, 1986
The People's Republic of China Agricultural Law December 28, 2002
The People's Republic of China Seed Law July 8, 2000
The People's Republic of China Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Law of June 25, 2004
The People's Republic of China on Animal Epidemic Prevention July 3, 1997 August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China anti-monopoly law on Aug. 30, 2007
Labor Law
The People's Republic of China Employment Promotion Law August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China Labor Contract Law of June 29, 2007
The People's Republic of China Insurance Law October 28, 2002
Litigation and non-procedural law
The People's Republic of China civil procedure law April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Criminal Procedure Law of July 7, 1979
Administrative Procedure Law of The People's Republic of China April 4, 1989
Goddess of justice
1. Themis Themis
Is the Greek goddess of justice and law, to head clear and known. She muffled eyes, on behalf of non-discrimination; the right hand holding the balance, on behalf of fair and just; left hand holding the sword of justice on behalf of the authority.
In Hong Kong, before a judge or lawyer, should the goddess Artemis, under oath.
Artemis, in accordance with the "God discipline system," she is the God of Uranus (days) and Gaia (to) the daughter, later became the Olympian Zeus's second wife. Her name's intention to "Earth", escape to "create", "stable", "firm", and legal place to contact. Early mythology, Artemis is the interpretation of the god of prophecy, she is said to have been in charge of the Temple of Delphi, to explain prophecy, and later transferred to the Apollo. She is also responsible for maintaining the order of Olympus, monitoring the implementation of the ceremony. In ancient Greek sculpture, her face shape is a serious woman, carrying a balance. She and daughter born to Zeus He pulled (timing goddess), auneau Mi Asia (order of the goddess), dice (the goddess of justice), E Ruisi (the goddess of peace), MOK dependent (Fate), etc., for her contribution responsibilities. Most of them and the legal relationship is dice (Dice), said to the goddess of justice in charge of the key to the door day and night, monitoring human life, justice in the soul loop. She often armed with a sword chasing criminals who kill blasphemous. Her style is often armed with swords or clubs daunting images of women. Ancient Greek mythology, often referred to another goddess of justice is 阿斯特赖亚 (Astraea), she was on the ground for justice, and they rose to the sky as the main star virgo "dimension argo" immaculate. Her style is a pure girl, than the two to be engaging and much more.
2. Zhu Sititiya Justitia,
Roman mythology, the name of the goddess of justice. The Romans accepted the ancient Greek gods, and mixed with the Roman gods. In the Roman Empire, in turn personified some of the concepts, "created" a lot of gods, among them the justice / justice goddess Zhu Sititiya (Justitia, the word change from jus by law), the goddess Modeling a mixture of the Greek Artemis, dice, 阿斯特赖亚 various goddess's image, usually a hand-held scales, a sword in hand, and the eyes are closed or is in the eye is covered with cloth.
End of the century in Europe in the Renaissance, the revival of ancient Greek art of ancient Rome, while also revival of Roman law, the goddess of justice Zhu Sititiya the statues began to appear in court each city. Still follow the ancient Roman goddess style, hand sword in one hand scales, scales that "fair", the sword that "justice", and closed his eyes, said, "observe with the heart." Figures are often engraved on the back of Roman proverbs: "To achieve justice, even earth shattering (Fiat justitia ruat caelum)."
3. Related cultural
Myths and legends in fact reflects the human reality. Ancient Greek and Roman courts, many people are meeting, or a group of citizens chosen by lot the composition. The identity of the Court of Magistrates cases, a bit like pulling to judge by the passers-by, do not take the initiative to gather evidence or investigation, but according to evidence submitted by the parties to determine which side is speaking the truth. As a member of the judge's meeting, before the start of the trial, often know nothing about the case, thanks to the trial process to understand the situation, or even to rely on the law jurists invited to explain to understand the law should apply. Therefore, the court focused is a measure of evidence on both sides recognized the fact that, to achieve fairness and justice. After _set_ting the highest Roman magistrates to deal with civil litigation, family law is still in litigation with the help of those who pay attention to the measurement and identification of evidence, the investigation does not interfere, that is holding the balance reflected in the myth of Artemis. Major criminal cases, some people will be appointed a committee to collect evidence, search for criminals and suspects before the courts for trial findings.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, Germanic tribes rule the roost in western Europe, most of their court is a gathering of tribal men, still pulling to play a role just people. Medieval proverbs "not the plaintiff not judge", that is the case. Centralization of power in the Kingdom of the gradual strengthening only after there was found criminals, collecting evidence mechanism. Such as the King of England Henry II in 1164 promulgated the "Clarington edict" to provide the royal tour the trial judge, should be convened in a local court case 12 has nothing to do with human witnesses to give evidence to the court under oath to the same advice to establish the facts, this is the source of the jury later. 1275, the United Kingdom have provided a major criminal cases investigated by the jury to gather evidence to courts. However, in order to prevent the jury investigating the crime have preconceptions, in 1352, Edward III's decree further provides that, where evidence of the jurors involved in the investigation of cases will not be allowed to participate in the trial of the case, can only participate in the proceedings as the prosecution witness the authenticity of their testimony will have to call from the other 12 jurors to confirm the consensus. This will form a special investigation and evidence collection for prosecution of the jury or "grand jury" and the special trial jury, or "petit jury."
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