法律 [fǎ lǜ]
英文名字：law，statute
“法”
拉丁文jus,
法文droit，
德文Recht，
俄文право,
都兼有“公平”、“正义”的含义。从“法”的词源看，虽都喻意公平和正义，但在阶级社会里，不同的阶级有不同的公平、正义观，法所体现的，只能是不同统治阶级的公平、正义观。
简述：法律，即人类在社会层次的规则，社会上人与人之间关系的规范，以正义为其存在的基础，以国家的强制力为其实施的手段者。法治和法律要逐渐变得适当宽容以利于社会和谐.法一般限于宪法、法律。法属于上层建筑范畴，决定于经济基础，并为经济基础服务。法的目的在于维护有利于统治阶级的社会关系和社会秩序，是统治阶级实现其统治的一项重要工具。所以，法是阶级社会特有的社会现象，它随着阶级、阶级斗争的产生、发展而产生和发展，法律将随着阶级、阶级斗争的消灭而自行消亡。
法律的概念法律：
古时----指律令或刑法。由立法机关制定,国家政权保证执行的行为规则。
现代词典----由立法机关制定，国家政权保证执行的行为规则。法律体现统治阶级的意志，是阶级专政的工具之一。体现统治阶段的意志，国家制定和颁布的公民必须遵守的行为规则：
这里----是指狭义的法律，即由我中华人民共和国最高权力机关及其常设机关—全国人民代表大会及其常务委员会制定的规范性文件。根据我国现行宪法的规定，法律分为基本法律和基本法律以外的法律。
基本法律：
一般指----在一个国家或地区拥有最高法律效力的法律，它的实际作用与宪法实际上相同。「基本法」所味意是不永久并权宜之针，在没有实施宪法下达到有法维持宪政秩序之效果。
这里指----中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会制定和修改刑事、民事、国家机构的和其他的法律，内容涉及国家和社会生活某一方面的最基本的问题。《香港特别行政区基本法》与《澳门特别行政区基本法》属于“基本法律”的层次。基本法律以外的法律，也叫“一般法律”，是指由全国人民代表大会常务委员会制定和修改的“除应当由全国人民代表大会制定的法律以外的其他法律”(《宪法》第67条)。此外，全国人大常委会所作出的决议和决定，如果其内容属于规范性规定，而不是一般宣言或委任令之类的文件，也视为狭义的法律。它一般包括--宪法，民事法，行政法，经济法等。
广义的法律：是指法的整体，包括法律、有法律效力的解释及其行政机关为执行法律而制定的规范性文件（如规章）
狭义的法律：专指拥有立法权的国家机关依照立法程序制定的规范性文件。
在三权分立的国家，由行政机关为执行法律而制定的行政命令仅对该行政机关之公务员有拘束力，除法规命令外，原则上行政机关所制订之行政规则对于人民均不发生拘束力。而限制人民自由权利之法律必须由人民所选举之立法机关制定之（即后者）。
中国现代法律思想概述
中国是世界上历史最悠久的国家之一。中国各族人民共同创造了光辉灿烂的文化，具有光荣的革命传统。
一八四〇年以后，封建的中国逐渐变成半殖民地、半封建的国家。中国人民为国家独立、民族解放和民主自由进行了前仆后继的英勇奋斗。
二十世纪，中国发生了翻天覆地的伟大历史变革。
一九一一年孙中山先生领导的辛亥革命，废除了封建帝制，创立了中华民国。但是，中国人民反对帝国主义和封建主义的历史任务还没有完成。
一九四九年，以毛泽东主席为领袖的中国共产党领导中国各族人民，在经历了长期的艰难曲折的武装斗争和其他形式的斗争以后，终于推翻了帝国主义、封建主义和官僚资本主义的统治，取得了新民主主义革命的伟大胜利，建立了中华人民共和国。从此，中国人民掌握了国家的权力，成为国家的主人。
中华人民共和国成立以后，我国社会逐步实现了由新民主主义到社会主义的过渡。1956年生产资料私有制的社会主义改造已经完成，人剥削人的制度已经消灭，社会主义制度已经确立。工人阶级领导的、以工农联盟为基础的人民民主专政，实质上即无产阶级专政，得到巩固和发展。中国人民和中国人民解放军战胜了帝国主义、霸权主义的侵略、破坏和武装挑衅，维护了国家的独立和安全，增强了国防。经济建设取得了重大的成就，独立的、比较完整的社会主义工业体系已经基本形成，农业生产显著提高。教育、科学、文化等事业有了很大的发展，社会主义思想教育取得了明显的成效。广大人民的生活有了较大的改善。
中国新民主主义革命的胜利和社会主义事业的成就，都是中国共产党领导中国各族人民，在马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想的指引下，坚持真理，修正错误，战胜许多艰难险阻而取得的。今后国家的根本任务是集中力量进行社会主义现代化建设。中国各族人民将继续在中国共产党领导下，在马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想指引下，坚持人民民主专政，坚持社会主义道路，不断完善社会主义的各项制度，发展社会主义民主，健全社会主义法制，自力更生，艰苦奋斗，逐步实现工业、农业、国防和科学技术的现代化，把我国建设成为高度文明、高度民主的社会主义国家。
在我国，剥削阶级作为阶级已经消灭，但是阶级斗争还将在一定范围内长期存在。中国人民对敌视和破坏我国社会主义制度的国内外的敌对势力和敌对分子，必须进行斗争。
台湾是中华人民共和国的神圣领土的一部分。完成统一祖国的大业是包括台湾同胞在内的全中国人民的神圣职责。
社会主义的建设事业必须依靠工人、农民和知识分子，团结一切可以团结的力量。在长期的革命和建设过程中，已经结成由中国共产党领导的，有各民主党派和各人民团体参加的，包括全体社会主义劳动者、拥护社会主义的爱国者和拥护祖国统一的爱国者的广泛的爱国统一战线，这个统一战线将继续巩固和发展。中国人民政治协商会议是有广泛代表性的统一战线组织，过去发挥了重要的历史作用，今后在国家政治生活、社会生活和对外友好活动中，在进行社会主义现代化建设、维护国家的统一和团结的斗争中，将进一步发挥它的重要作用。
中华人民共和国是全国各族人民共同缔造的统一的多民族国家。平等、团结、互助的社会主义民族关系已经确立，并将继续加强。在维护民族团结的斗争中，要反对大民族主义，主要是大汉族主义，也要反对地方民族主义。国家尽一切努力，促进全国各民族的共同繁荣。
中国革命和建设的成就是同世界人民的支持分不开的。中国的前途是同世界的前途紧密地联系在一起的。中国坚持独立自主的对外政策，坚持互相尊重主权和领土完整、互不侵犯、互不干涉内政、平等互利、和平共处的五项原则，发展同各国的外交关系和经济、文化的交流；坚持反对帝国主义、霸权主义、殖民主义，加强同世界各国人民的团结，支持被压迫民族和发展中国家争取和维护民族独立、发展民族经济的正义斗争，为维护世界和平和促进人类进步事业而努力。
中华人民共和国宪法以法律的形式确认了中国各族人民奋斗的成果，规定了国家的根本制度和根本任务，是国家的根本法，具有最高的法律效力。全国各族人民、一切国家机关和武装力量、各政党和各社会团体、各企业事业组织，都必须以宪法为根本的活动准则，并且负有维护宪法尊严、保证宪法实施的职责。
中国古代法律思想特点
09年司法考试复习方法之我见
根据个人的经验,我将09年司法考试的复习分为以下几个步骤:
第一步:在09年前可以先看看历年的老师的课件,讲义。建议挑选名师大腕的。了解以下这些辅导老师根据历年试题，所给我们提供的重点,难点信息。着重的了解每个老师的授课方式.并且建议:最好再找找有关命题老师的一些影音和书面资料，这样能够通过它们抓住命题老师的思路。
我买了华夏考资www.hx600.com 的08年11个辅导班的课件，现在正在听，感觉不错。
第二步:在1月份买一本法条,重点先看里面的司法解释.之后再看法条.此种复习方法的原因是部分司法解释的内容有否定前面法条的,或者法条是已经更改的,如果单纯的只看前面的内容,一旦形成深刻记忆对自己后面的司法解释的复习会产成弊端,故建议先看解释后看法条.
第三步:在4月份就有全新的法条了,也有1月份所买的法条的增补本了,重点是看看里面的新法和修改后的法律.比如劳动合同法,民诉等等内容.看完了以后再看历年真题,看看在近几年所出的题目中重点在哪一块儿,这样比较方便让我们全面的了解司考的方向、动态.
第四步:在4月份中旬司法考试大纲出版,我们要抓紧时间对大纲内容进行研究，找出和历年真题中所出现的内容相互重复的法律章节进行重点复习,因为这一块考试重点；把大纲中提到的,但是在历年真题中没有涉及的部分也要着重的看,因为有可能是今年考试的全新内容.
第五步:针对上面所归纳出的重点内容,着重的看三大本.这样复习比较有针对性,还不徒劳.对于重点要仔细到字的推敲，理解里面的法理含义。建议重点放在卷一上。
第六步:在8月份之前就要把法条最少看2遍、三本看2遍了.这样才能保证后面的模拟练习.
第七步:在8月份开始就要进行全面的模拟练习,开始时可以2天一套卷子,到下旬的时候就可以在一天半一套卷子.最好是买有解析带答案的,这样方便统计自己的分数,并且能知悉自己薄弱的方面（要归纳记录）.在8月底模拟卷子最少15张.
第八步:在9月初把这些难点内容全部归纳好,再进行最后一次看书,解决自己先前所存在的问题.
第九步:恭喜你通过司法考试!
指创作诗文所依据的格式和规律。明胡应麟 《诗薮·古体上》：“近体之攻，务先法律。” 清刘大櫆 《宋运夫时文序》：“闲出其所为文章示余，《诗》《书》之英，屈宋之华，其度凝然，其气勃然，其法律森然，金辉玉洁以自成为一家之言。” 况周颐《蕙风词话》卷三：“其文章颇有法律，诗则纵横排宕，不尚纤巧织组之习。”
指道行戒律。元吴昌龄《张天师》第四折：“岂不知张真人法律精严，早仗剑都驱在五雷坛内，一个个供下状吐出真情。” 法, 也称法律（就广义而言）, 是由国家按照统治阶级的利益和意志制定或认可、并由国家强制力保证其实施的行为规范的总和．它包括宪法、法律（就狭义而言）、法令、行政法规、条例、规章、习惯法等各种成文法和不成文法．法属于上层建筑范畴, 由一定的经济基础所决定, 并为一定的经济基础服务．法是统治阶级实现其统治的一项重要工具, 它以规定人权利和义务的方式来调整人们的行为, 其目的在于维护有利于统治阶级的社会关系和社会秩序．法是阶级社会中特有的社会现象, 它伴随着阶级、阶级斗争的产生和发展而产生和发展, 也会随着阶级、阶级斗争的消亡而自行消亡．
古代原始公社制度的解体和法的产生是同时进行的, 法是阶级矛盾不可调和的产物．据我国第一部字典《说文解字》解释: ＂法, 刑也, 平之如水, 从水．法, 所以触不直者去之, 从去．＂从水, 取其平, 即法平如水, 也就是公平的意思．在西方不少民族的语言中, ＂法＂的词义, 也都兼有＂公平＂＂正义＂的含义．然而, 在阶级社会里, 不同的阶级有不同的公平、正义观, 法所体现的只能是不同统治阶级的公平、正义观．社会主义的法, 是从具有阶级性的社会规范向反映社会全体成员共同意志、维护全社会共同利益的社会规范过渡的法．它除了具有调整敌我矛盾和人民内部矛盾两类不同性质关系的功能外, 还对社会主义的物质文明和精神文明的建设有着重要的促进作用．
古希腊法律思想特点
A. 柏拉图的法律思想
一、柏拉图的生平与著作
柏拉图（公元前427～公元前347年），生于雅典的一个贵族之家。他的父母都是名门望族的后裔，母亲更是著名的政治改革家梭伦的后代。由于出身高贵，自幼即受到良好的教育。从20岁起受教于苏格拉底，从事哲学学习和研究。曾一度渴望在政治上崭露头角，但公元前399年苏格拉底被处死刑，使他放弃了从事政治的愿望。后流亡国外，40岁后回雅典并创立了“阿卡德米学园”。在学园中，柏拉图一边讲学，培养人才；一边著述，宣讲其哲学和政治哲学，前后达41年之久。该学园在历史上延续了900年，是全希腊文化知识的中心。
柏拉图是欧洲历史上第一位保留下完整著作的思想家，前后共著对话25篇。有关政治法律理论的著作主要有三部，即《理想国》（成于壮年）、《政治家篇》（成于中晚年）、《法律篇》（绝笔）。一般说来，《理想国》代表了他对政治和社会的主要理想，而《法律篇》则是面对现实所写成的有关法治的著作。
二、正义论与人治论
（一）正义之国与人的类型
柏拉图的哲学基础是理念与现实的区分，在柏拉图看来，世界由“理念世界”和“摹本世界”两部分组成。理念是精神的，是第一性的，尽管它是无形的，但它是万物的根源，是永恒不变的真实存在；而摹本世界，则是有形的，虚假的，变化不定的，只能算是理念世界的影子。人由于分享理念程度的不同，相应地便分别具有了金、银、铜铁的三种不同的性质，人也就具有不同的类型和品质：
金→哲学家→智慧
银→勇士→勇敢
铜铁→生产劳动者→节制
然而，节制的品质不仅应当为生产劳动者所拥有，也应当成为所有三种人的品质，因为一个国家必须保持和谐协调，只有当人们各尽其职、各守其位时，国家才可能产生“正义”的品德，成为正义之国。当个人的三种品质（欲望、激情和理智）在个体中协调运行秩序井然时，个人就成了正义之人。这意味着理性支配欲望，精神支配肉体；所以，从这个意义上说，柏拉图所说的正义就是一种道德正义。
（二）法律与正义的关系
在柏拉图看来，一个人品性中，都具有“较善”和“较恶”两部分。如果较善的那部分占优势，就控制住“较恶”的那部分，他就成为自己的主人；如果他接受不良的教育，或者受坏人的薰染，他便成为“自己的奴隶”。当恶性膨胀时，就只好服从外在的权威，这个外在权威就是法律。
对于柏拉图来说，法律就是一种社会行为准则，它是公道与正义的标志。但是，法律的正义与道德正义不完全相同。法律正义是“诉讼正义”，是指通过法律机器的正常运转而获得的后果或判决。因此，法律正义是为道德正义服务的。
（三）哲学王与人治
柏拉图认为，哲学王通过知识进行统治，比法律统治具有很大的优越性，法律远不如和哲学家的智慧相比。因为：(1)哲学家所掌握的是一种真理，它比国家机关所制定的法律要高明得多；(2)“法律者强者之所好”，而现实中的法律并不必然体现正义，而恶法并非真正的法律；(3)法律是刻板和固定的，而政治本身是柔性的。而哲学家的知识可以随机应变；(4)一切社会都需要和谐，而这只有哲学家通过智慧才能达到这一目标。
三、法制论：立法与守法思想
（一）立法过程论
在柏拉图看来，立法是一个“清刷”的过程，即必须对原来的旧制度和人们的品质清洗一番，方能制定出新的法律。在立法时，先应当确定宪法大纲，然后是制定法律和规章。柏拉图重视成文法，而认为习惯是来源于普通人的习俗。
（二）立法原则论
根本的原则是依照公正的理念制定法律，并应依全体人民的幸福为依据。就立法的重点而言，着重于培养公民的法律精神。
（三）守法论
柏拉图从历史的角度追溯了人类社会的发展历程，认为国家形成于契约。而契约的核心就是对法律的遵守，这就意味着，只有守法的美德才是符合国家的本性的。[1]
柏拉图认为，对于有意志的公民来讲，法律的统治并不具有强迫性，而是体现了国家的良善愿望。他认为：“如果法律能完全导致至善或至少是能部分地达到这样的目的，这些法律我们都应该执行。”对公民的教育也是要引导他们执行和遵守法律；法律必须拥有权威，国家官员的权力必须受到约束，所谓良法须由良吏来执。
四、柏拉图法律思想的主要评价
第一，法治主义思想是西方法律传统源远流长的一个传统，对西方近代法治主义的复兴具有深远的影响，并成为罗马法的重要思想基础；
第二，概括了古希腊政治哲学的精髓：最好的政治是难以实现的，而防止最坏的政治是可能的，这就是，必须运用至高无上的法律进行统治。
第三，关于“混合政体”的研究以及“分权原则”的论述，被学者誉为三权分立的原型。
第四，集体主义方法论也开创了后世以集体为单位研究国家、法律学说的先河，在柏拉图的理念中，个人只是城邦的工具和手段，并无独立存在的价值。
B. 亚里士多德的法律思想
一、亚里士多德的生平与著作
亚里士多德（公元前384～322年），是古希腊百科全书式的思想大家，曾师从柏拉图。其代表著作是《政治学》和《雅典政制》（研究158个国家城邦政治制度的总结之一），此外，《伦理学》中也有大量的法律思想资料。国内苗力田教授主编的《亚里士多德全集》有十卷之多。
二、法律正义论
（一）正义的内涵与分类
亚里士多德认为，城邦以正义为基础，由这种正义衍生出法律，以判断人间的是非曲直。正义是指人们在社会关系中所产生的一种美德。正义和不正义含有两种意思：一是指能否服从纪律；二是指一个人所取得的东西是否他应当得到的。正义又可分为“普遍的正义”和“个别的正义”两种。其中“个别的正义”又分为“分配的正义”和“平均的正义”两种。“分配的正义”就是求得比例的平等，这种正义是从人的不平等性出发的，而这种不平等性是自然造成的，是固定不变的。至于“平均的正义”就是指人们之间的平等关系。这种正义是以人的等价性为依据，使相互利益等同。
（二）法律正义论的延伸：平等与中庸
1.平等。一是数量平等，即各人所得到的事物在数量和容量上与他人所得的相等；二是比值平等，即根据各人的实际价值按比例分配与之相衡称的事物。政治权利的分配必须以人们对于构成城邦各要素的贡献的大小为依据，谁具有比他人较为优越的政治品德，谁在城邦实现良善生活的过程中善德行为最多，谁就应该在这个城邦中享受更多的利益。
2.中庸。所谓中庸是指不偏不颇，处于两个极端的中间。亚氏认为，人的一切行为都有过度、不及和适中三种状态，只有中庸才是美德的特性。对于社会而言也是如此，社会分为极富者（常逞强放肆以致犯罪）、极贫者（往往懒散无赖易犯小罪）和中产阶级。唯有中产阶级是贫富两阶级矛盾的“最好的中性的仲裁者”。因此，中产阶级最适宜担任统治者和立法者。
（三）正义与法律的关系
法律是建立在正义基础之上的，由正义延伸出法律。正义的原则寓于实体法之中。自由正义导致了自然法的形成，而这成为国家制定实在法的依据。
三、法律的定义、作用、分类
（一）关于法律的定义
法律是政治上的正义，是世所公认的公正不偏的权衡标准，是理性的体现，又是一个合同式的契约。法律的特性包括：(1)公正性：法律是正义的体现，它对一切人，包括统治者和被统治者都是平等的；(2)可变性，法律应该允许变革，当然这咱变革须要慎重；(3)必须遵守性。法律是一种特殊的社会规范，是人们的行为准则，人人都必须遵守它。
（二）关于法律的作用
法律的作用和目的全在于为了城邦的“善业”，为了“善德”，为了追求“公共福利”，增进人类的道德。
（三）关于法律的分类
1.自然法与制定法。自然法是人类理性的体现，是以正义为基础的，是存在于社会的普遍原则，是反映“自然存在秩序”的法律；制定法即实在法，是由人制定的。自然法高于制定法；
2.基本法和非基本法。基本法实际上也就是宪法，它规定国家的治理形式，规定统治者的人数及产生的办法，规定公民在城邦中的地位；
3.良法与恶法。凡是正宗政体下制定的法律为良法；凡是在变态政体下制定的法律为恶法；
4.成文法和习惯法。习惯法即希腊城邦中长期存在的习俗或称礼仪。
四、法治主义理论
（一）法治的涵义
法治包含两重意义：已成立的法律获得普遍的服从，而大家所服从的法律又应该本身是制定得良好的法律。这就是说，所谓法治，即良法与守法的结合。
（二）法治的具体体现
1.立法方面：亚氏强调立法必须遵守以下原则：一是反映中产阶级的利益；二是研究国家的情况；三是考虑对公民尤其是青少年加强教育；四是灵活性与稳定性相结合。
2.执法思想。国家执政人员要严格执行法律。法律有明确规定的，应严格依法执行；法律规定不同详的或没有规定的，必须按照法律的原则来公正地处理和裁决案件。
3.守法思想。守法是法治的关键。国家必须加强对公民守法观念的培养和训练。
（三）法治的优越性
法治的优越性是相对于人治而言的，而这种优越性主要体现在：第一，法律是集体智慧和审慎考虑的产物；第二，法律没有感情，不会偏私，具有公正性；第三，法律不会说话，不能象人那样信口开河；第四，法律借助规范形式，具有明确性；第五，实行人治容易贻误国家大事，特别是世袭制更是如此；第六，时代要求实行法治，不能实行人治；第七，实行一人之治较为困难，君主的能力和精力毕竟有限；第八，一人之治剥夺了大家轮流执政的权利。
（四）法治缺陷的弥补
在法律有所不及的地方可以采取三种补救措施：以个人的权力或若干人联合组成的权力“作为补助”；对某些不完善的法律进行适当的变更；加强法律解释。主要是指法律的精神（法意）来对案件作出公正的处理和裁决。
（五）法制与法治的关系
法制和法治是既有区别又有联系的两个概念，不容混淆。二者的主要区别在于：
1、法制是法律制度的简称，属于制度的范畴，是一种实际存在的东西；而法治是法律统治的简称，是一种治国原则和方法，是相对于“人治”而言的，是对法制这种实际存在东西的完善和改造。
2、法制的产生和发展与所有国家直接相联系，在任何国家都存在法制；而法治的产生和发展却不与所有国家直接相联系，只在民主制国家才存在法治。
3、法制的基本要求是各项工作都法律化、制度化，并做到有法可依、有法必依、执法必严、违法必究；而法治的基本要求是严格依法办事，法律在各种社会调整措施中具有至上性、权威性和强制性，不是当权者的任性。
4、实行法制的主要标志，是一个国家从立法、执法、司法、守法到法律监督等方面，都有比较完备的法律和制度；而实行法治的主要标志，是一个国家的任何机关、团体和个人，包括国家最高领导人在内，都严格遵守法律和依法办事。
二者的联系在于：法制是法治的基础和前提条件，要实行法治，必须具有完备的法制；法治是法制的立足点和归宿，法制的发展前途必然是最终实现法治。
五、亚里士多德法律思想的特点
第一，与柏拉图一样，均从伦理学入手来探讨理想的政治生活方式，由此开创了西方法哲学的理论传统，并在黑格尔的《法哲学原理》中得到了最充分的实现；
第二，将法与政治合而为一进行研究，使法律社会学或者政治法律学的学科构造奠定了基本的原型；
第三，具有鲜明的现实主义的特点，分析问题的立足点是考察现实，使用的方法主要是归纳法，即通过分析、比较，然后得出结论。所以有人称，柏拉图给予后人以更多的激情与理想，而亚氏则留下较成熟的体系与逻辑；
第四，推崇法治的精神，对于西方成熟的法治理论的建立，有着重要的意义。
六、法律翻译公司
大连三恩翻译有限公司
我国法律列表
中华人民共和国宪法 1982年12月4日 2004年3月14日
中华人民共和国反分裂国家法 2005年3月14日
中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会选举法 1995年2月28日
中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会组织法 1982年12月10日
中华人民共和国地方各级人民代表大会和地方各级人民政府组织法 2004年10月27日
中华人民共和国国务院组织法 1982年12月10日
中华人民共和国人民法院组织法 1979年7月1日 1983年9月2日 2006年10月31日
中华人民共和国人民检察院组织法 1983年9月2日
中华人民共和国立法法 2000年3月15日
中华人民共和国各级人民代表大会常务委员会监督法 2006年8月27日
中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法 1990年4月4日
中华人民共和国香港特别行政区驻军法 1996年12月30日
中华人民共和国澳门特别行政区基本法 1993年3月31日
中华人民共和国澳门特别行政区驻军法 1999年6月28日
中华人民共和国民族区域自治法 2001年2月28日
中华人民共和国国徽法 1991年3月2日
中华人民共和国国旗法 1990年6月28日
中华人民共和国村民委员会组织法 1998年11月4日
中华人民共和国集会游行示威法 1989年10月31日
中华人民共和国未成年人保护法 1991年9月4日 2006年12月29日
中华人民共和国预防未成年人犯罪法 1999年6月28日
中华人民共和国老年人权益保障法 1996年
中华人民共和国残疾人保障法 1990年12月28日
中华人民共和国国家赔偿法 1994年5月12日
中华人民共和国国籍法 1980年9月10日
中华人民共和国戒严法 1996年3月1日
民商法
中华人民共和国民法通则 1986年4月12日
中华人民共和国物权法 2007年3月16日
中华人民共和国著作权法 1990年9月7日 2001年10月27日
中华人民共和国婚姻法 2001年4月28日
中华人民共和国收养法 1998年11月4日
中华人民共和国继承法 1985年4月10日
中华人民共和国公司法 1993年12月29日 1999年12月25日 2004年8月28日
中华人民共和国企业破产法 2006年8月27日
中华人民共和国合伙企业法 1997年2月23日 2006年8月27日
中华人民共和国农民专业合作社法 2006年10月31日
行政法
中华人民共和国人民警察法1995年2月28日
中华人民共和国行政许可法 2003年8月27日
中华人民共和国行政复议法 1999年4月29日
中华人民共和国行政处罚法 1996年3月17日
中华人民共和国引渡法 2000年12月28日
中华人民共和国国防法 1997年3月14日
中华人民共和国兵役法 1998年12月29日
中华人民共和国国防教育法 2001年4月28日
中华人民共和国人民防空法 1996年10月29日
中华人民共和国居民身份证法 2003年6月28日
中华人民共和国枪支管理法 1996年7月5日
中华人民共和国突发事件应对法 2007年8月30日
中华人民共和国道路交通安全法 2003年10月28日
中华人民共和国消防法 1998年4月29日
中华人民共和国国家安全法 1993年2月22日
中华人民共和国公务员法 2005年4月27日
中华人民共和国行政监察法 1997年5月9日
中华人民共和国档案法 1996年7月5日
中华人民共和国保守国家秘密法 1988年9月5日
中华人民共和国教育法 1995年
中华人民共和国义务教育法 1986年4月12日
中华人民共和国高等教育法 1998年8月29日
中华人民共和国职业教育法 1996年5月15日
中华人民共和国教师法 1993年10月31日
中华人民共和国民办教育促进法 2002年12月28日
中华人民共和国科学技术普及法 2002年6月29日
中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法 2000年10月31日
中华人民共和国母婴保健法 1994年10月27日
中华人民共和国人口与计划生育法 2001年12月29日
中华人民共和国城市房地产管理法 1994年7月5日 2007年8月30日
中华人民共和国海关法 2000年7月8日
中华人民共和国气象法 1999年10月31日
中华人民共和国防震减灾法
中华人民共和国测绘法 2002年8月29日
刑法类
中华人民共和国刑法 1999年12月25日 2002年12月28日
经济法
中华人民共和国政府采购法 2002年6月29日
中华人民共和国中外合资经营企业所得税法 1980年9月10日 1983年9月2日 1991年4月9日
中华人民共和国外国企业所得税法 1981年12月13日 1991年4月9日
中华人民共和国外商投资企业和外国企业所得税法 1991年4月9日 2007年3月16日
中华人民共和国企业所得税法 2007年3月16日
中华人民共和国个人所得税法 1980年9月10日 1993年10月31日 1999年8月30日 2005年10月27日 2007年6月29日
中华人民共和国反洗钱法 2006年10月31日
中华人民共和国银行业监督管理法 2003年12月27日 2006年10月31日
中华人民共和国渔业法 1986年1月20日
中华人民共和国电力法 1996年
中华人民共和国民用航空法 1995年10月30日
中华人民共和国邮政法 1986年12月2日
中华人民共和国农业法 2002年12月28日
中华人民共和国种子法 2000年7月8日
中华人民共和国农业机械化促进法 2004年6月25日
中华人民共和国动物防疫法 1997年7月3日 2007年8月30日
中华人民共和国反垄断法 2007年8月30日
劳动法
中华人民共和国就业促进法 2007年8月30日
中华人民共和国劳动合同法 2007年6月29日
中华人民共和国保险法 2002年10月28日
诉讼及非诉讼程序法
中华人民共和国民事诉讼法 1991年4月9日
中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法 1979年7月7日
中华人民共和国行政诉讼法 1989年4月4日
正义女神
1。忒弥斯Ｔｈｅｍｉｓ
是希腊正义与法律女神,以头脑清晰见称.她用布蒙住双眼，代表一视同仁；右手捧着天平，代表公平、公正；左手握着长剑，代表正义权威。
在香港，成为法官或律师之前，都要在忒弥斯女神下宣誓。
忒弥斯，按照《神统纪》，她是大神乌拉诺斯（天）和盖亚（地）的女儿，后来成为奥林匹斯主神宙斯的第二位妻子。她的名字的原意为“大地”，转义为“创造”、“稳定”、“坚定”，从而和法律发生了联系。早期神话里，忒弥斯是解释预言之神，据说她曾经掌管特尔斐神殿，解释神喻，后来转交给阿波罗。她还负责维持奥林匹斯山的秩序，监管仪式的执行。在古希腊的雕塑中，她的造型是一位表情严肃的妇女，手持一架天平。她和宙斯所生的女儿有贺拉（时序女神）、欧诺弥亚（秩序女神）、狄刻（正义女神）、厄瑞斯（和平女神）、莫依赖（命运女神）等，为她分担职责。其中和法律最有关系的是狄刻（Ｄｉｃｅ），据说这位正义女神掌管白昼和黑夜大门的钥匙，监视人间的生活，在灵魂循环时主持正义。她经常手持利剑追逐罪犯，刺杀亵渎神灵者。她的造型往往是手持宝剑或棍棒的令人望而生畏的妇女形象。古希腊神话中经常提到的另一位正义女神是阿斯特赖亚（Ａｓｔｒａｅａ），她在地上主持正义，又升上天空为室女星座的主星“维耳戈”，纯洁无瑕。她的造型是一位清纯的少女，比上述的两位要耐看得多。
2。朱斯提提亚Justitia ，
古罗马神话里正义女神的名字。古罗马人接受了古希腊的诸神，并混入了罗马的诸神。在古罗马帝国时代，又将一些概念拟人化，“创造”出不少神灵，其中就有正义／司法女神朱斯提提亚（Ｊｕｓｔｉｔｉａ，由法律ｊｕｓ一词转变而来），这位女神的造型混合了希腊的忒弥斯、狄刻、阿斯特赖亚诸女神的形象，一般都是一手持天平、一手持宝剑，而且都是紧闭双眼或者是在眼睛上蒙着布条。
在欧洲中世纪末的文艺复兴时代，在古希腊古罗马艺术复活的同时，罗马法也在复兴，司法女神朱斯提提亚的造像开始出现在各个城市法院。女神仍然沿用古罗马的造型，一手持剑一手持天平，天平表示“公平”，宝剑表示“正义”，紧闭双眼表示“用心灵观察 ”。造像的背面往往刻有古罗马的法谚：“为实现正义，哪怕天崩地裂（Ｆｉａｔ ｊｕｓｔｉｔｉａ ｒｕａｔ ｃａｅｌｕｍ）。”
3。相关文化
神话传说实际上折射的是人间的现实。古希腊及古罗马时代的法院，有很多都是民众的会议，或是由抽签产生的一批公民组成。法院裁判案件时的身份，有点像被临时拉来评理的过路人，并不主动去搜集或调查证据，只是根据诉讼双方提交的证据来判断哪一方所讲的是事实。作为法官的会议成员，在审判开始以前，往往对于案件一无所知，全靠审判的进程来了解情况，甚至要依靠请来说明法律的法学家来了解应该适用的法律。所以，法院注重的是衡量双方的证据，确认事实，实现公平正义。罗马以后设置了最高裁判官来处理民事诉讼，仍旧是在法学家的帮助下注重于诉讼者证据的衡量和鉴别，并不插手调查，反映于神话就是手持天平的忒弥斯。重大的刑事案件会指定一些人组成委员会，负责收集证据、寻找罪犯，并将嫌疑人提交法院进行审理裁断。
罗马帝国灭亡后，日耳曼各部族称雄西欧，他们的法院大多也是部族成年男子的聚会，依旧扮演一个临时拉来的公正人的角色。中世纪法谚“没有原告就没有法官”，说的就是这种情况。在各王国的中央集权逐渐加强后，才出现了发现罪犯、搜集证据的机制。如英国国王亨利二世在１１６４年颁布的“克拉灵顿诏令”，规定王室法官在巡回审判中，应在当地召集１２名与诉讼案件无关的人为证人，宣誓后向法庭提供证据，以一致意见确定事实，这就是后来的陪审团的来源。１２７５年，英国规定重大的刑事案件都要由陪审团进行调查，搜集证据并向法庭起诉。但为了防止调查犯罪的陪审员有先入之见，１３５２年，爱德华三世的诏令进一步规定，凡参与案件调查取证的陪审员一律不得参加该案件的审理，只能作为起诉方参加诉讼作证，其证言的真实性则要由另外召集的１２名陪审员的一致意见来确认。这样就形成了专门调查取证的起诉陪审团或称“大陪审团”与专门的审判陪审团或称“小陪审团”。
中欧地区的发展与英国的情况相仿，１２、１３世纪时各王国陆续设立了王室检察官，侦缉、起诉重大犯罪。随着中央集权的加强，检察官的职权逐步扩大。１５世纪时，在德意志诸国出现有关维持社会秩序的“Ｐｏｌｉｚｅｉ”法令，后来又用这一词表示有关执行这些法令特设的官署机构及其人员，从而成为后世西欧语言中警察（Ｐｏｌｉｚｅｉ或Ｐｏｌｉｃｅ）一词的来源。监视、发现上述违反法令的罪行后，这些官署就可向法院提起“警察案件”（Ｐｏｌｉｚｅｉｓａｃｈｅ）的诉讼，与原有的“司法案件”（Ｊｕｓｔｉｚｓａｃｈｅ）相对。法院本身仍然不直接插手调查案件的事实，而是由法官对控、辩双方提交的证据进行比较衡量。
由于欧洲在上述长期的历史发展中，法院始终只承担裁断职责，因此作为法院的象征，古希腊、古罗马的这位正义女神形象得以长期保留蒙目的形象。她是裁判之神，被动的、守株待兔的、后发制人的，只是用天平衡量诉讼双方提出的证据，哪一方的证据充分就胜诉；哪一方的证据不足就败诉，用宝剑加以处罚。她的职责是“裁断”而不是发现，所以眼睛应该蒙上，不会因为看见诉讼双方而有主观上的倾向性，也不会因为受到各种干扰而难以实现正义，就如她身后的法谚所表明的，她为实现正义应该是无所畏惧的。
Legal [fǎ lǜ]
English name: law, statute
"Law"
Latin jus,
French droit,
German Recht,
Russian право,
Are both "fair", "justice" means. From the "law" etymology of view, although equity and justice are metaphorical, but in class society, different classes have different fair concept of justice, law embodied in the ruling class can only be different fair concept of justice .
The Concept of Law Law:
---- Refer to orders or criminal law in ancient times. Developed by the legislature, the state government to ensure implementation of the rules of conduct.
Modern Dictionary ---- formulated by the legislature, the state government to ensure implementation of the rules of conduct. Law reflects the will of the ruling class, is one of the tools of class dictatorship. Stage reflects the will of the ruling, the state's citizens to develop and promulgate rules of conduct to be observed:
---- Here is a narrow legal, I am The People's Republic of China from the highest authority and its standing body - the Standing Committee of National People's Congress and its normative documents. According to China's current Constitution, the law is divided into basic laws and fundamental laws outside the law.
Basic Law:
Generally refers to ---- in a country or region has the highest legal effect of the law, its actual role and the Constitution in fact the same. "Basic Law" means the flavor is not permanent and expedient needle, in the absence of the implementation of the law under the Constitution to maintain the constitutional order of the results.
Generalized law: is defined as a whole, including legal, a statutory interpretation and administrative authorities for the implementation of laws and normative documents (such as regulations)
Narrow legal: refers specifically to the national authorities have legislative power in accordance with a legislative regulatory documents.
In the separation of powers of the state, by the administrative authority Zhihangfalv executive order enacted only for the administrative authority, civil servants are binding, except Fagui command Wai, Yuan Ze Shang Zhi Ding executive of the Chief Guize binding for the people not Fasheng . Restrict people's freedom of rights and laws must be enacted by the legislature election by the people of (the latter).
Overview of Chinese modern legal thought
China is the world's oldest countries. Chinese people of all nationalities have jointly created a splendid culture and have a glorious revolutionary tradition.
After 1840, China was gradually turned into semi-feudal, semi-feudal country. Chinese people for national independence, national liberation and democracy and freedom fought bravely.
20 century, China has undergone enormous changes in the great history.
1911 Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen, abolished the feudal monarchy, the Republic of China. However, the Chinese people against imperialism and feudalism in the historical task is not yet complete.
1949, Chairman Mao Zedong as leader of the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people of all nationalities, after a long and arduous struggle and other forms of armed struggle after the overthrew of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucrat-capitalism rule, and achieved a great victory for the new-democratic revolution, the establishment of the People's Republic. Since then, the Chinese people to hold the country's power and become masters of the country.
In China, the exploiting classes as such have been eliminated, but the class struggle will continue long in a certain range. Hostile to the Chinese people and undermine China's socialist system of domestic and foreign hostile forces and hostile elements, we must fight.
Taiwan is a part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic. To complete the great cause of reunification of the motherland is the Taiwan compatriots included the sacred duty of all Chinese people.
The People's Republic of China is the common people of all nationalities to create a unified multi-ethnic country. Equality, solidarity, mutual socialist ethnic relations have been established and will continue to strengthen. In maintaining national unity in the struggle to combat big-nation chauvinism, mainly Han chauvinism, and local nationalism. States make every effort to promote the common prosperity of all nationalities.
The achievements of the Chinese revolution and construction are inseparable from the support with the people of the world's. China's future is the future of the world closely linked. China adheres to an independent foreign policy, principles of mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence in developing diplomatic relations with other countries and economic and cultural exchanges; persist against the empire Marxism, hegemony, colonialism, and to strengthen solidarity with the peoples of the world, supports the oppressed nations and the developing countries to win and preserve national independence and develop national economy, just struggle to safeguard world peace and promoting human progress and efforts.
The People's Republic of China Constitution in the form of legal recognition of the Chinese people of all nationalities to work hard to provide the country's basic system and basic tasks of the state's fundamental law, has the highest legal force. People of all nationalities, all state organs and armed forces, all political parties and social organizations, enterprises, organizations must take the constitution as the basic criteria, and the duty to uphold the dignity of the Constitution, to guarantee its implementation.
Characteristics of Legal Thought in Ancient China
2009 Judicial Review Means in Examination
According to personal experience, I will review the Judicial Examination in 2009 are divided into the following steps:
The first step: in the 09 years before a teacher can look at the courseware, handouts. Proposed big-_select_ed teacher. These counselors understand the following questions based on previous years, which gives us the key and difficult information. Focus on understanding each teacher's teaching methods. And recommend: The best teachers and then Zhaozhao the proposition of some audio-visual and written information, so the teachers through their ideas to seize the proposition.
I bought a Chinese test in 2008 financing www.hx600.com 11 remedial classes courseware, now listen, I feel good.
Step two: buy articles in January, focused look at the inside of judicial interpretation. After opinion articles. This is part of the review method because there is no judicial interpretation of the contents of the previous articles, or articles that have been change, if a simple look at the content in front, once formed the back of a deep memory of their judicial interpretation of the review will produce into the abuses, it is suggested look at the interpretation of Article view.
The third step: in April there are new articles, and also in January bought articles of the supplement, the focus is to look inside the new laws and amended laws. Such as the labor contract law, suing, etc. and so on. After reading over the years Zhenti look to see in the last few years the focus of the subject in which together, it is convenient to our comprehensive understanding of the direction of Si Kao, dynamic.
Step four: In the April publication in mid-exam outline, and we must seize the opportunity to study the contents of the outline, identify, and over the years Zhenti content arising in duplicate each other chapters focus on the legal review, which focused on a test; to outline mentioned, but not covered in the calendar year Zhenti should focus on looking the part, it is possible that the test of the new content.
Step five: for the above sum up the highlights, see the three major focus of this. This more targeted review, not in vain. The key word to be careful to scrutiny, to understand the legal meaning inside. Volume on the proposed focus on.
Step Six: In the August before the articles should read at least two times, three to see two times over. So as to ensure the back of the simulation exercises.
Seventh step: in August will begin to conduct a comprehensive simulation exercises, beginning 2 days when a _set_ of test paper, to the time late in the day and a half can be a test paper. The best is to buy a resolution with the answer, so easy Statistical your score, and be aware of their weak side (to summarize records). in the end of August at least 15 simulated test paper.
Step eight: In early September the content of these difficulties should be grouped into good, and then a final reading, to solve their own problems previously.
Step IX: Congratulations on your exam through judicial!
Writing poetry is based refers to the format and rules. Ming Hu Ying-lin "Poetry Tau old body": "modern style of attack, service before the law." Qing Liu Da-kui "Song Yunfu Papers in Order": "busy out of it as the article said I," Poems "and" book "of the United Kingdom , Qu Song-hua, the degree of coagulation However, the air excitedly, their legal Senran, Jinhui Yu Jie, a self into his words. "Zhou Yi" Hui Feng Ci "Volume:" The article is quite legal, poem vertical and horizontal rows dawdle, do not yet slim group of learning organizations. "
Characteristics of Ancient Greek Law Thought
A. Plato's legal thinking
First, Plato's life and work
Plato is the first one to retain the history of Europe under the complete works of thinkers, the dialogue before and after book 25. Books about political and legal theory There are three main parts, namely, "Utopia" (as in the prime of life), "the politician articles" (as in the later years), "Laws" (must document). Generally speaking, the "Utopia" on behalf of his principal political and social ideals, and the "Laws" is written in the face of reality the rule of law works.
Second, Justice and the rule of man on
(A) the country of justice and the type of person
Plato's philosophy is based on the distinction between ideas and reality, in Plato's view, the world from "concept in the world" and "copy in the world," composed of two parts. Philosophy is spiritual, is primary, even though it is invisible, but it is the root of all things, is the real eternal existence; and copy in the world, it is visible, false, volatile, and can only be the shadow of the world concept. Share ideas because of the different levels, they were accordingly with the gold, silver, copper and iron in three different nature, people also have different types and qualities:
Jin → Philosophers → Wisdom
Brave warrior → Silver →
Production of copper, iron workers → moderate →
However, the quality control for the productive laborers should not only be owned by all three people also 应当 Chengwei quality, because a countries must maintain harmony, only when people play their respective roles, keep to his O'clock, national production is possible "justice" of the character, a justice of the country. When individuals of the three qualities (desire, passion and reason) to run an orderly coordination in individuals, the individuals who became justice. This means that a rational desire for domination, mental domination body; Therefore, in this sense, Plato said justice is a moral justice.
(B) the relationship between law and justice
In Plato's view, a character of the, have "less good" and "less evil" in two parts. If a more dominant part of the good, you have control of "more evil" part, he became his own master; if he accepts the bad education, or subject to influence by the bad guys, he would become "his own slaves." When inflated, the would have to submit to external authority, the external authority is the law.
For Plato, the law is a social code of conduct, it is fair and just sign. However, the law of justice and moral justice are not identical. Legal justice is the "action justice" refers to the normal operation of the machine through the legal consequences or judgments obtained. Therefore, the law of moral justice is justice services.
(C) of Philosophy and the rule of man
Plato that the philosopher king to rule through knowledge than the legal rule has a strong advantage, legal and far less than the wisdom of philosophers. Because: (1) is a philosopher by the possession of truth, than the law enacted by state organs should be much more clever; (2) "legal person strong Zhe Zhisuo good", but in reality the law does not necessarily reflect the justice, while the draconian law is not true; (3) the law is rigid and fixed, and politics itself is flexible. The philosopher's knowledge can be adaptable; (4) requires all community harmony, which only philosophers to achieve this goal through wisdom.
Third, the rule of law on: legislation and law-abiding thought
(A) of the legislative process
In Plato's view, the legislation is a "clearing brush" process, which must be the original people of the old system and the quality of some cleaning before they can work out new laws. In the legislation, constitutional framework should be established first, then the enactment of laws and regulations. Plato's emphasis on statutory law, but that practice is derived from the custom of ordinary people.
(B) Principles of Legislation
The fundamental principle is to make laws in accordance with the concept of justice and should be in accordance with the well-being of all people based. The focus on legislation, the focus on civic spirit of the law.
(C) the law of
Plato from a historical perspective traces the course of development of human society, that the state was formed in the contract. The contract is the core of compliance with the law, which means that only law-abiding virtue is in line with national nature. [1]
Plato believes that the will of the citizens for speaking, the rule of law does not have compulsory, but embody the good of the country wishes. He said: "If the law is fully able to lead to perfection or at least in part, to achieve this purpose, we should implement these laws." Citizen's education is also necessary to guide them to implement and abide by the law; law must have the authority, state officials The power must be restricted to the so-called good law enforcement by Liang Li.
Fourth, a major evaluation of legal thought Plato
First, the rule of law ideology is a long tradition of Western legal tradition, a revival of modern Western law has far-reaching impact, and became an important ideological basis of Roman law;
Second, summarizes the essence of ancient Greek political philosophy: The best politics is difficult to achieve, and to prevent the worst of politics is possible, that is, the supremacy of law must be used to rule.
Third, on the "mixed regime" research and "separation of powers principle" of discourse, by scholars hailed as the prototype of the separation of powers.
Fourth, methodological collectivism also created later as a unit of the collective state, the legal doctrine of precedent, in Plato's philosophy, the individual city-states of the tools and instruments only, no independent existence value.
B. the thought of Aristotle
First, Aristotle's life and work
Aristotle (384 BC ~ 322 BC), Greek encyclopedic thinking we had studied under Plato. The representative works are "political science" and "Athens system" (of 158 countries, one city-state summary of the political system), In addition, the "ethics" also has a lot of information on legal thinking. Domestic vaccine capacity, Professor Tien editor of the "Complete Works of Aristotle," have as many as ten volumes.
Second, the legal theory of justice
(A) the meaning of justice and classification
(B) the extension of legal justice: equality and moderation
1. Equality. First, the number of equality, that everyone received something in the number and capacity, with others from the same; Second, the ratio of equality, that is, the actual value according to their corresponding value for proportional allocation of the things said. Distribution of political rights must be elements of people that constitute the city's contribution to the size of the Wei basis minded than others, Jiao Wei who is superior political morality, Shui life in the city in the process of achieving good and Virtue largest number of acts whoever should The city-state to enjoy more benefits.
2. Mean. The so-called golden mean is the unbiased rather, in the middle of two extremes. Aristotle believes that all human actions are excessive, less than three states and moderate, moderation is the only virtue of the characteristics. The same is true for society, society is divided into very person (usually try to be brave so presumptuous crime), very poor (and often lazy rogue easy to commit a small crime) and the middle class. Only the middle class is both rich and poor class contradictions of the "best neutral arbiter." Therefore, the middle class as the most suitable rulers and legislators.
(C) the relationship between justice and the law
Law is built on the basis of justice, from justice, the law extends. Resides in the principles of justice among the substantive law. Freedom and justice has led to the formation of natural law, which became the basis for countries to develop positive law.
Third, the legal definition, function, classification
(A) of the definition of the law
The law is just politics, is the world recognized standards for fair and unbiased trade-off is the rational expression is a contract-style contract. Law features include: (1) justice: The law is the embodiment of justice, it all people, including rulers and ruled are equal; (2) variability, the law should be allowed to change, of course, have to change It argues carefully; (3) must comply with sex. Law is a special social norms, codes of conduct for people, everyone must abide by it.
(B) on the role of law
The role and purpose of the law is for the whole city's "good business" to "Virtue", the pursuit of "public welfare", to enhance human morality.
(C) the classification of law
1. Natural law and statutory law. Natural law is the embodiment of human reason, is based on justice, the existence of universal principles of society, reflecting the "natural order of existence" of the law; development of law that is law enacted by the people. Natural law than statutory law;
2. Basic and Non Basic. Basic fact is the Constitution, which provides state forms of governance, provided the number of rulers and production methods, provides the status of citizens in the city;
3. Good laws and bad laws. Any authentic system of government established under the laws of good laws; all the perverted form of government under the laws as draconian;
4. Statutory and customary law. Customary law that is long-standing custom of the Greek city-states, or etiquette.
Fourth, the rule of law theory
(A) the meaning of the rule of law
The rule of law contains two meanings: the law has been _set_ up universal obedience, they all obey the law they should be making a very good itself is legal. That is, the so-called rule of law, that is, the combination of good laws and law-abiding.
(B) a concrete manifestation of the rule of law
1. Legislation: Aristotle stressed that legislation must adhere to the following principles: First, to reflect the interests of the middle class; Second, the case study countries; Third, consider the citizens especially young people, strengthening education; Fourth, the combination of flexibility and stability .
2. Law enforcement thinking. State power officials to strictly enforce the law. The law clearly defined, should be strictly according to law enforcement; legal requirements or not different _set_ of regulations must be in accordance with the principles of law to deal with and decide the case fairly.
3. Law-abiding thought. Compliance is the key to the rule of law. States must strengthen the training of civil law-abiding behavior and training.
(C) the superiority of the rule of law
The superiority of the rule of law relative to the purposes of the rule of man, and this superiority is mainly reflected in: First, the law is the collective wisdom and careful consideration of the product; second, the law does not feelings, not favoritism, with impartiality; s Third, the law would not speak, not the Elephant Man as lip; Fourth, the legal use of standardized forms, with clarity; Fifth, the rule of man easily bungled national affairs, especially the hereditary system, even more so; the sixth, the times the rule of law , can not implement the rule of man; the seventh, the implementation of governance more difficult for one person, the sovereign's ability and his limits; eighth, one of the government deprives you turn right to govern.
(D) the rule of law to make up for deficiencies
Where the law lags behind that of remedial measures can be taken three kinds: personal power or coalition of a number of people power "as a subsidy"; on some of the imperfections make the appropriate changes to the law; strengthen the interpretation of the law. Mainly refers to the spirit of the law (France and Italy) to make a fair deal with the case and decision.
(E) the relationship between the rule of law and the rule of law
Legal system and rule of law is different but related two concepts should not be confused. The main difference between the two:
1, the rule of law is referred to the legal system, is the scope of the system is a real thing; the rule of law is called the rule of law is a governance principles and methods, as opposed to "rule by man" is concerned, and is legal stuff that real improvement and reform.
2, the rule of law and development directly linked with all countries, there is the rule of law in any country; and the rule of law and development not directly linked with all countries, only countries in the democracy there is rule of law only.
3, the basic requirements of the rule of law is the work of law and system, and according to the law, the law is strictly enforced, violators are prosecuted; the basic requirements of the rule of law is strictly according to law, law measures of social adjustment with the supremacy, authority and mandatory, not the power of willfulness.
4, the implementation of the legal system of the main symbol of a country from the legislation, law enforcement, judicial, law-abiding to legal supervision, there has been relatively complete legal and institutional; effect the rule of law, the main symbol of any organ of a country, group and individuals, including the country's top leaders, have a strict compliance with the law and the law.
Contact between the two is: the rule of law is the basis and precondition for the rule of law to the rule of law, must have a complete legal system; the rule of law and end the rule of law standpoint, the future development of the rule of law must be the ultimate realization of the rule of law.
5, the characteristics of legal thought Aristotle
First, as with Plato, are starting to explore from an ethical ideal of political life, thus creating a theoretical tradition of Western Philosophy and Hegel's "Philosophy of" been the most fully Implementation;
Second, to study law and politics combine to make the legal discipline of sociology or political jurisprudence laid the basic structure of the prototype;
Third, distinctive features of realism, of the problem is to investigate the practical standpoint, the use of the method is mainly inductive, that is, through analysis, comparison, and then draw conclusions. So have claimed that Plato for posterity with more passion and ideals, and Aristotle left behind a more mature system and logic;
Fourth, respected the rule of law, the rule of law for the mature Western theory of the establishment of great significance.
6, legal translation company
Dalian Sun Translation Co., Ltd.
List of Chinese law
The People's Republic of China Constitution, December 4, 1982 March 14, 2004
The People's Republic of China Anti-Secession Law March 14, 2005
The People's Republic of China National People's Congress and local people's congresses at all levels of the electoral law on Feb. 28, 1995
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of National People's Congress on Dec. 10, 1982
The People's Republic of China local people's congresses and local people's governments at all levels of the Organic Law of October 27, 2004
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of the State Council, December 10, 1982
Organic Law of People's Republic of China July 1, 1979 September 2, 1983 October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of the People's Procuratorate on Sept. 2, 1983
Legislation Law March 15, 2000
The People's Republic of China People's Congress Standing Committee at all levels of supervision law August 27, 2006
The People's Republic of China Hong Kong SAR Basic Law, April 4, 1990
Of the People December 30, 1996
The People's Republic of China Macao Special Administrative Region Basic Law, March 31, 1993
Garrison Law of the Macao Special Administrative Region, June 28, 1999
The People's Republic of China on Regional Ethnic Autonomy February 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China National Emblem March 2, 1991
The People's Republic of China National Flag June 28, 1990
The People's Republic of China Organic Law of Villagers Committee on November 4, 1998
Assemblies, Marches and Demonstrations October 31, 1989
The People's Republic of China on Protection of Minors Act Sept. 4, 1991 December 29, 2006
The People's Republic of China Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Act June 28, 1999
The People's Republic of China Elderly Protection Act 1996
The People's Republic of China Disabled Persons Act December 28, 1990
The People's Republic of China on State Compensation Law of May 12, 1994
The People's Republic of China Nationality Law of September 10, 1980
The People's Republic of China martial law March 1, 1996
Civil and Commercial Law
The People's Republic of China Civil Code April 12, 1986
Property Law March 16, 2007
Copyright Law September 7, 1990 October 27, 2001
The People's Republic of China Marriage Law of the April 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China Adoption November 4, 1998
The People's Republic of China Law of Succession April 10, 1985
The People's Republic of China Company Law December 29, 1993 December 25, 1999 August 28, 2004
PRC Enterprise Bankruptcy Law on Aug. 27, 2006
Partnership Enterprise Law of the People's Republic February 23, 1997 August 27, 2006
The People's Republic of China Farmers Professional Cooperatives Act October 31, 2006
Administrative law
People's Police Law of February 28, 1995
The People's Republic of China Administrative Licensing Law August 27, 2003
The People's Republic of China Administrative Review April 29, 1999
The People's Republic of China Administrative Punishment Law of March 17, 1996
The People's Republic of China Extradition Law December 28, 2000
The People's Republic of China National Defense Law of March 14, 1997
The People's Republic of China Military Service December 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China National Defense Education Act, April 28, 2001
The People's Republic of China Civil Air Defense Law October 29, 1996
The People's Republic of China Resident Identity Card Act June 28, 2003
Firearms Control Act July 5, 1996
Emergency Response Law of The People's Republic of China on Aug. 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China on Road Traffic Safety Law of 28 October 2003
Fire Control Law of April 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China State Security Law February 22, 1993
The People's Republic of China Civil Law of April 27, 2005
The People's Republic of China Administrative Supervision Law May 9, 1997
The People's Republic of China Archives Act July 5, 1996
The People's Republic of China on Guarding State Secrets Law September 5, 1988
The People's Republic of China Education Act 1995
The People's Republic of China Compulsory Education Law of April 12, 1986
The People's Republic of China Higher Education Act August 29, 1998
The People's Republic of China Vocational Education Act May 15, 1996
Teachers Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 31, 1993
The People's Republic of China Private Education Promotion Law December 28, 2002
The People's Republic of China science and technology popularization Act June 29, 2002
The People's Republic of China National Common Language Law October 31, 2000
Maternal and Child Health Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 27, 1994
The People's Republic of China Population and Family Planning Law, December 29, 2001
The People's Republic of China on Urban Real Estate Administration Law of July 5, 1994 August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China Customs Law July 8, 2000
Meteorology Law of the People's Republic on Oct. 31, 1999
The People's Republic of China Earthquake Disaster Mitigation Act
The People's Republic of China Surveying and Mapping Law of August 29, 2002
Criminal Class
The People's Republic of China Criminal Law December 25, 1999 December 28, 2002
Economic Law
The People's Republic of China Government Procurement Law June 29, 2002
The People's Republic of China Income Tax Law of September 10, 1980 September 2, 1983 April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Foreign Enterprise Income Tax Law of December 13, 1981 April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Foreign Investment Enterprises and Foreign Enterprises Income Tax Law of April 9, 1991 March 16, 2007
The People's Republic of China Enterprise Income Tax Law March 16, 2007
Personal Income Tax Law of The People's Republic of China September 10, 1980 October 31, 1993 August 30, 1999 October 27, 2005 June 29, 2007
The People's Republic of China Anti-Money Laundering Law of October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Banking Regulatory Act December 27, 2003 October 31, 2006
The People's Republic of China Fisheries Law of January 20, 1986
The People's Republic of China Electric Power Act 1996
The People's Republic of China Civil Aviation Law of October 30, 1995
Postal Law of December 2, 1986
The People's Republic of China Agricultural Law December 28, 2002
The People's Republic of China Seed Law July 8, 2000
The People's Republic of China Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Law of June 25, 2004
The People's Republic of China on Animal Epidemic Prevention July 3, 1997 August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China anti-monopoly law on Aug. 30, 2007
Labor Law
The People's Republic of China Employment Promotion Law August 30, 2007
The People's Republic of China Labor Contract Law of June 29, 2007
The People's Republic of China Insurance Law October 28, 2002
Litigation and non-procedural law
The People's Republic of China civil procedure law April 9, 1991
The People's Republic of China Criminal Procedure Law of July 7, 1979
Administrative Procedure Law of The People's Republic of China April 4, 1989
Goddess of justice
1. Themis Themis
Is the Greek goddess of justice and law, to head clear and known. She muffled eyes, on behalf of non-discrimination; the right hand holding the balance, on behalf of fair and just; left hand holding the sword of justice on behalf of the authority.
In Hong Kong, before a judge or lawyer, should the goddess Artemis, under oath.
Artemis, in accordance with the "God discipline system," she is the God of Uranus (days) and Gaia (to) the daughter, later became the Olympian Zeus's second wife. Her name's intention to "Earth", escape to "create", "stable", "firm", and legal place to contact. Early mythology, Artemis is the interpretation of the god of prophecy, she is said to have been in charge of the Temple of Delphi, to explain prophecy, and later transferred to the Apollo. She is also responsible for maintaining the order of Olympus, monitoring the implementation of the ceremony. In ancient Greek sculpture, her face shape is a serious woman, carrying a balance. She and daughter born to Zeus He pulled (timing goddess), auneau Mi Asia (order of the goddess), dice (the goddess of justice), E Ruisi (the goddess of peace), MOK dependent (Fate), etc., for her contribution responsibilities. Most of them and the legal relationship is dice (Dice), said to the goddess of justice in charge of the key to the door day and night, monitoring human life, justice in the soul loop. She often armed with a sword chasing criminals who kill blasphemous. Her style is often armed with swords or clubs daunting images of women. Ancient Greek mythology, often referred to another goddess of justice is 阿斯特赖亚 (Astraea), she was on the ground for justice, and they rose to the sky as the main star virgo "dimension argo" immaculate. Her style is a pure girl, than the two to be engaging and much more.
2. Zhu Sititiya Justitia,
Roman mythology, the name of the goddess of justice. The Romans accepted the ancient Greek gods, and mixed with the Roman gods. In the Roman Empire, in turn personified some of the concepts, "created" a lot of gods, among them the justice / justice goddess Zhu Sititiya (Justitia, the word change from jus by law), the goddess Modeling a mixture of the Greek Artemis, dice, 阿斯特赖亚 various goddess's image, usually a hand-held scales, a sword in hand, and the eyes are closed or is in the eye is covered with cloth.
End of the century in Europe in the Renaissance, the revival of ancient Greek art of ancient Rome, while also revival of Roman law, the goddess of justice Zhu Sititiya the statues began to appear in court each city. Still follow the ancient Roman goddess style, hand sword in one hand scales, scales that "fair", the sword that "justice", and closed his eyes, said, "observe with the heart." Figures are often engraved on the back of Roman proverbs: "To achieve justice, even earth shattering (Fiat justitia ruat caelum)."
3. Related cultural
Myths and legends in fact reflects the human reality. Ancient Greek and Roman courts, many people are meeting, or a group of citizens chosen by lot the composition. The identity of the Court of Magistrates cases, a bit like pulling to judge by the passers-by, do not take the initiative to gather evidence or investigation, but according to evidence submitted by the parties to determine which side is speaking the truth. As a member of the judge's meeting, before the start of the trial, often know nothing about the case, thanks to the trial process to understand the situation, or even to rely on the law jurists invited to explain to understand the law should apply. Therefore, the court focused is a measure of evidence on both sides recognized the fact that, to achieve fairness and justice. After _set_ting the highest Roman magistrates to deal with civil litigation, family law is still in litigation with the help of those who pay attention to the measurement and identification of evidence, the investigation does not interfere, that is holding the balance reflected in the myth of Artemis. Major criminal cases, some people will be appointed a committee to collect evidence, search for criminals and suspects before the courts for trial findings.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, Germanic tribes rule the roost in western Europe, most of their court is a gathering of tribal men, still pulling to play a role just people. Medieval proverbs "not the plaintiff not judge", that is the case. Centralization of power in the Kingdom of the gradual strengthening only after there was found criminals, collecting evidence mechanism. Such as the King of England Henry II in 1164 promulgated the "Clarington edict" to provide the royal tour the trial judge, should be convened in a local court case 12 has nothing to do with human witnesses to give evidence to the court under oath to the same advice to establish the facts, this is the source of the jury later. 1275, the United Kingdom have provided a major criminal cases investigated by the jury to gather evidence to courts. However, in order to prevent the jury investigating the crime have preconceptions, in 1352, Edward III's decree further provides that, where evidence of the jurors involved in the investigation of cases will not be allowed to participate in the trial of the case, can only participate in the proceedings as the prosecution witness the authenticity of their testimony will have to call from the other 12 jurors to confirm the consensus. This will form a special investigation and evidence collection for prosecution of the jury or "grand jury" and the special trial jury, or "petit jury."
|