汉语方言 Chinese dialects 世界上使用人数最多的语言。
汉语拼音方案 the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet
汉语拼音字母 the Chinese phonetic alphabet
汉语史 history of Chinese language
世界主要语言之一。属汉藏语系，是这个语系里最主要的语言。除了中国大陆和台湾省以外，汉语还分布在新加坡、马来西亚等地。以汉语为母语的人大约有１３亿（３０００万人作为第二语言）。汉语是联合国的工作语言之一。
汉语的标准语是近几百年来以北方官话为基础逐渐形成的。它的标准音是北京音。汉语的标准语在中国大陆称为普通话，在台湾称为国语，在新加坡、马来西亚称为华语。 在广义上是指汉族的语言，狭义上指普通话，另外还有国语、华语、中文等称呼都是指汉语。毫无疑问，汉语是世界上使用人数最多的一种语言，世界上大约有1/5的人使用汉语作为母语。汉语也曾对其周边的国家的语言文字产生过重要影响。例如日语、韩语、越南语中都保留有大量的汉语借词以及汉语书写体系文字。汉语是一种中国语文。
汉语作为世界特有的象形文字语言，文字高度的统一与规范，现代汉语有统一和规范的语法，尽管方言发音差异特别大，但是书面语言规范，没有方言差异造成的书面交流障碍。汉语的超方言性对维系中华民族的统一起了巨大的作用。
汉语属于独立语，分析语。汉语的书写方式是一种象形文字的汉字。五四运动之前所使用的书面语叫做“文言”，是一种以孔子时代所使用的以“雅言”为基础的书面语。五四运动之后所推动的书面汉语通常被称为“白话”，即以北方话为基础的现代书面语。在现代汉语的书面语中，文言已经很少使用了。
都说汉语难学，其实汉语语言是很简单的，汉语中无时态变化，动词 形容词也无变化，无连读，语言简练，发音清晰，语速缓慢。是很容易学的一种语言。难学的是汉字。
语音
汉语的音节可以分析成声母、韵母、声调３部分。打头的音是声母，其余的部分是韵母，声调是整个音节的音高。把声调也看成音节的组成部分，是因为汉语的声调是辨义的。例如“汤、糖、躺、烫”４个字的声母都是[tang],韵母都是[ang]（方括弧里是国际音标，表格里的国际音标省去括弧），只是因为声调不同，意义就不一样，在语言里分别代表 ４个不同的语素，在书面上写成 ４个不同的字。
声母都是辅音。最复杂的韵母由介音、主要元音和韵尾 3部分组成。韵尾有的是辅音，有的是元音。北京音的辅音声母有22个。介音有、[u]、[y] (同ü)3个。辅音韵尾有[n]和[ŋ]，元音韵尾有[]和[u]。在组成音节的声母、介音、主要元音和韵尾 4部分里，只有主要元音不能没有，其余 3部分都不是必须出现的。这种情形可以从表 1音节的成分举的例字里看出来。北京话的声母见表 2北京话声母，北京话的韵母见表 3北京话韵母。
１９１８年由当时的教育部颁布的国语注音字母是利用汉字字形制定的一套拼音字母。这套字母把主要元音与韵尾合在一起用一个符号表示（例如：ㄠ＝[au]，ㄢ＝[an]），体现了传统的声母韵母两分的精神。注音字母广泛流传，影响很大。台湾省一直沿用至今。
１９５８年公布的汉语拼音方案采用拉丁字母（表２北京话声母、表３北京话韵母）。自1978年开始，中国人名地名一律改用汉语拼音字母拼写，取代了威妥玛式等各种旧拼法。
拼音是拼读音节的过程，就是按照普通话音节的构成规律，把声母、韵母急速连续拼合并加上声调而成为一个音节。拼音的要领是：“前音（声母）轻短后音（韵母）重，两音相连猛一碰。”拼音时要牢记普通话声母和韵母的配合规律：
声母n、l及零声母与开口呼、齐齿呼、撮口呼都有拼合关系。
声母f、g、k、h、zh、ch、r、z、c、s只同开口呼、合口呼相拼。
声母j、x、q只同齐齿呼、撮口呼相拼。
声母b、p、m、d、t不同撮口呼相拼。
开口呼、合口呼韵母同除去j、q、x外的其他声母都有拼合关系。
撮口呼韵母只同j、q、x、n、l及零声母有拼合关系。
拼音时还要注意读准声母、韵母和声调的音值。要读声母本音，不要念呼读音（教学中，在声母后面配上不同的元音，而发出的音叫呼读音）；要把韵母作为一个整体来读，不要把韵头、韵腹、韵尾分解开再临时拼合；要看清调号，读准调值。
常用的拼读方法有以下几种：
声韵两拼法——把韵母当作一个整体，拿来跟声母相拼。如：h-ào→（浩）。
声母两拼法——先找准声母发音部位，摆好发音的架势，然后一口气念出韵母，拼成音节。如：拼读bā（巴），先闭上双唇，憋住一口气，摆好发b音的姿势，然后一口念出a，成为音节。
三拼连读法——是把带介音的音节分析成声、介、韵三个部件，拼音时连读成一个音节。如：q-i-áng→qiáng（强）
声介合母和韵母连接法--是把声母和介音（介母）拼合起来，构成一个拼音部件，再同随后的韵母相拼。如：gu-āng→guāng（光）。
汉语拼音的由来
古代没有拼音，就使用反切，就是用两个认识会念的字，取第一个的声母，取第二个的韵母，拼合起来就行了。
古代，中国的回族兄弟不学汉字，学习阿拉伯语，但他们用阿拉伯文的字母来拼写口语（汉语），所以这是中国最早的拼音。
元朝，蒙古统治者用改变了的藏文的字母来拼写汉语等语言，叫八思巴字。虽然不是专门拼写汉语的，但是，也算汉语拼音的一种吧。
明朝，西方传教士用拉丁字母拼写汉语，是中国最早的拉丁字拼音。
明末清初，出现了用简单的古字表现汉语语音的拼音方式。中华民国年间，政府制定了“注音字母”，就是这个系统的集中表现。现在台湾依然使用。但是，同时也出现了拉丁字的拼音运动，而且，跟左翼人士的政治运动结合很密切。
中华人民共和国成立后，政府立即制定了“汉语拼音方案”，就是现在使用的这一套方案。联合国也承认的。
汉语拼音是中华人民共和国的汉字“拉丁化”方案，于１９５５—１９５７年文字改革时被中国文字改革委员会汉语拼音方案委员会研究制定。
该拼音方案主要用于汉语普通话读音的标注，作为汉字的一种普通话音标。１９５８年２月１１日的全国人民代表大会批准公布该方案。１９８２年，成为国际标准ISO 7098（中文罗马字母拼写法）。
目前大部分海外华人地区如新加坡在汉语教学中采用汉语拼音。
汉语拼音方案最早可以追溯到１９０６年朱文熊的《江苏新字母》和１９０８年刘孟扬的《中国音标字书》，还有１９２６年的国语罗马字和１９３１年的拉丁化中国字。所有这些汉字拉丁化方案都为汉语拼音的制定提供了基础。
１９４９年，吴玉章给毛泽东写信，提出为了有效的扫除文盲，需要迅速进行文字改革。毛泽东把信批复给郭沫若、茅盾等人研究，于１９４９年１０月成立中国文字改革协会，其中一项任务就是研究汉语拼音方案。
１９５４年，中国文字改革协会改为国务院直属的中国文字改革委员会，其间收到各种汉语拼音方案１６００多个。大致有这样几种形式：
汉字笔画式
拉丁字母式
斯拉夫字母式
几种字母的混合形式
速记式
图案式
数字形式
而最后决定采用拉丁字母作为汉语拼音的符号系统，以便于国际间的交流和合作。
【拼音的由来】
金尼阁，字四表，原名尼古拉·特里戈，１５７７年３月３日生于今法国的杜埃城，当时为比利时领土，故金尼阁自称比利时人，而陈垣等人亦称其为“比利时人”。 １５９４年１１月９日入耶稣会。１６０７年往远东传教，１６１０年（万历三十八年，即利马窦卒年）秋抵澳门，翌年春诣金陵。随郭居静、高一志二神父学习华语（另一说从郭居静及王丰肃）。郭居静神父到杭州开教，他亦同行。后往北京报告南方的教务，深得龙华民的赏识。１６１３年去罗马向教皇保罗五世“奏陈教务，并请准翻译经典，司铎用华言行圣祭，诵日课，教宗一一允准”，但因客观情况未实行。但他是“第一个向教廷请准以中文举行弥撒，行其他圣事，以及诵念‘日课’的”。
金尼阁“集利马窦笔记为蜡顶文中国开教史”即《基督教远征中国史》，１６１５年１月１４日出版（一说１６１５年２月出版）。此书全部叙述是为欧洲人撰写的。金尼阁刊行《基督教远征中国史》，题献教皇，道“书中初次精确地、忠实地描述了中国的朝廷、风俗、法律、制度以及新的教务问题”，是为欧洲人叙述中国比较完备无讹之第一部书，亦可说是第一部称得起“汉学”的著作，当时颇具声誉。是书原为利马窦神甫的意大利文纪录，经金尼阁译为拉丁文，并增加了两章，叙述马窦之病故及殡葬的事。
利玛窦１５８３年来到中国，１６０５年在北京出版了《西字奇迹》，其中有《信而步海，疑而即沉》等４篇汉字文章加了拉丁字母的注音。罗常培根据文章的汉字与拉丁文对照的译文，整理出一个包括２６个声母和４４个韵母的汉语拼音方案。这是最早用拉丁字母给汉字注音的出版物，比“小经”用阿拉伯字母给汉字拼音稍晚，“小经”大概是最早用字母文字给汉字拼音的尝试。《西字奇迹》原书已不容易找到，据说，梵蒂冈图书馆尚有藏本。
金尼阁回欧洲后，演讲招募去中国传教之人，众人被其极富魅力的鼓动所吸引，争先恐后，以致于当地教会不得不出面婉言劝阻。金尼阁在吸引和选择人才方面，可谓功不可没。同时为在中国的教会图书馆募集图书，带来教皇所赐之西书七千多部（《远西奇器图说》原作便是金尼阁带来的七千部书中之一）。
１６１９年，金尼阁再次抵达澳门。１６２１年春金尼阁“往南昌，旋又赴建昌韶州，视察教务。翌年赴杭州被难；一六二三年，往河南开封开教，翌年往山西”，1625年赴陕西。１６２６年在王徵的协助下，完成《西儒耳目资》三卷。《西儒耳目资》的目的，据他自述，“在使中国人能在三天内通晓西方文字体系”。
《西儒耳目资》作于１６２５年，１６２６年在杭州出版，自称沿袭利玛窦所创体制，即用利玛窦二十五字母“互相结合，上加五个字调记号，来拼切一切汉字的读音。这是一本用拉丁字母给汉字注音的字汇,也是一部最早用音素字母给汉字注音的字汇。注音所用的方案是在利玛窦方案的基础上修改的，人称“利、金方案”。
“利、金方案”的出现对当时中国的音韵学者有很大的启发。这两个方案是最早的汉语拼音方案，是以“官话读书音”为标准写的，适合于拼写北京音。于是汉字读音就显得极其简单，极其有条理，不但把向来被人认为繁杂的反切，开了一条所谓‘不期反而反，不期切而切’的简易途径，并且立刻引起了中国好些音韵学家对于这种简易的拼音文字向往的热忱”。这种新颖的拼音方法给中国学者以很大的启迪。明末音韵学家方以智说：“字之纷也，即缘通与借耳。若事属一字，字各一义，如远西因事乃合音。因音而成字，不重不共，不尤愈乎？”清朝学者杨选杞说：“辛卯户糊口旧金吾期翁家，其犹子芸章，一日出《西儒耳目资》以示余，予阅未终卷，顿悟切字有一定之理，因可为一定之法”。但是，在两三百年间，利玛窦和金尼阁的方案只是在外国传教士中使用，没有在中国人当中广为传播。
方密之（以智）《通雅》成于１６３９年，书中再三称引《西儒耳目资》，如说“西域音多，中原多不用也，当合悉昙等子与大西《耳目资》通之”，“字之纷也，即缘通与借耳。若事属一字，字各一义，如远西因事乃合音，因音而成字，不重不共，不尤愈乎？”甚至提出“因事乃合音，因音而成字”（此即汉字拼音化主张的萌芽）。传教士的方法震动了中国音韵学家，直接启示他们在西方拼音文字帮助下寻求对汉字记音系统更完善的描写。稍后刘献庭（继庄）的《新韵谱》即在这种刺激下撰成，钱玄同说刘氏已清楚认识到“必须用了音标，方能分析音素，方能表注任何地方之音”，罗常培《刘继庄的音韵学》一文则认为该书重点就是“着眼于统一国语与调查方言”。钱玄同甚至认为，《新韵谱》成书之年（１６９２）实可作为“国语运动”的纪元。
１６２７年，再度被召回杭州，从此就在杭州专心传教和著述。“华人曾言言词理文笔之优，欧罗巴诸司铎中殆无能及者。其远非常人所能及之记忆力，其好学不倦，虽疾病而不辍，其时常从事之译业，或译拉丁文为汉文，或译汉文为拉丁文，使之谙练语言文字，故言谈写作均佳，无论文言或俚语也”。他大部分的著作为拉丁文，写成中文的即在陕西的《西儒耳目资》一书。
金尼阁第二次来华时还带来大量外文书籍。这不仅因为他个人热爱书籍，遵循利玛窦开创的学术传教之路，而且因为金尼阁在返回西欧前接受了在华传教会让其在欧洲广泛募集图书，从而在北京等地建立教会图书馆的任务。他这次前来，不只带来了这些西学人才，让后人感兴趣，他还为中国带来了整整一个图书馆的书籍。据说，这些书都是精装本，无一重复，囊括欧洲古典名著和文艺复兴运动以后的神学、哲学、科学、文学艺术等方面的最新成就。为了募集新书和仪器，金尼阁漫游意大利、法国、德国、比利时、西班牙、葡萄牙等国，终于收集了精装图书７０００余部。金氏本人估计所收书籍和仪器在离欧时价值１万金币。为此，金尼阁拟定了一个庞大的翻译计划，联络了艾儒略、徐光启、杨廷筠、李之藻、王徵、李天经等中外人士共同翻译出版这些书籍。向达先生称这一举动：“比之玄奘求经西竺，盖不多让”。不幸的是，１６２９年１１月１４日在杭州逝世（葬于城外大方井耶稣会司铎公墓，即今杭州市西湖区留下镇桃源岭村），“西书七千部”介绍给中国知识界的计划流产。后来，李之藻和王徵等人零星翻译了其中一些著作，大部分书籍蒙上尘埃，默默地流失。1938年，北平天主教堂整理藏书楼时发现了“七千部”中残余的数百部，其中有哥白尼的《天体运行论》和开普勒的《哥白尼天文学概要》等重要的科学典籍。
一、从简略的回顾中，阐明从１９世纪末发展起来的汉语拼音运动一开始就是与语言的统一、社会的发展、民族的团结紧密结合在一起的。历史事实不止一次的证明，无论哪一种拼音设计，违背了汉民族共同语统一的发展趋势，注定会以失败告终。二、通过注音符号、国罗、北拉和汉语拼音方案的历史渊源关系，具体说明方案在哪几方面继承和发展了这几种拼音的主要优点并加以创新，从而总结了二十世纪前六十多年来中国人民创制拉丁化拼音方案的历史经验。三、通过对台湾通用拼音与汉语拼音之争的分析 ，揭示隐藏在这场发生在台湾的激烈论战的背后，其实质性问题是什么。
一、汉语拼音运动与国语和普通话
汉语拼音方案是拼写汉民族标准语的拼音方案。
汉民族标准语是在十九世纪末期兴起的对中华民族的社会、科学文化的发展产生过巨大影响的语文现代化运动中逐渐建立起来的。语文现代化运动最初指的是汉语拼音运动（当时叫“切音字运动、简字运动”）、国语运动和白话文运动。清末民初的三大语文运动有一个共同的目标，那就是通过改革语言文字，普及教育，以适应当时社会发展和科学文化发展的需要，然后富国强兵，振兴中华民族。国语运动是建立和推广汉民族标准语口语的运动，而白话文运动则是提倡用能够表达口语的白话文取代文言文作为正式书面语的运动。三个运动各有自己的追求目标，但内在关系却十分密切。就历史渊源关系说，切音字运动发生最早并引发了国语运动。其后，国语标准音的确立，注音字母的制定，一直到二十世纪五十年代的汉语规范化运动，汉语拼音方案的产生，都是由此一脉相承，相辅相成的。所以，我们的论述也由此入手。
汉语拼音运动的历史前奏可以远溯至明末，但是导致中国社会产生声势浩大的汉语拼音运动，其直接原因是中国人至今铭心刻骨的“甲午”国耻。这一点钱玄同在《注音字母和现代国音》（１９２９）一文中说得很清楚：“１８９４年（甲午），中国给日本打了一次败仗，于是国中有识之士，知道非改革政治，普及教育，不足以自存于世界，但是提到普及教育，即有一个问题发生，则汉字形体之难识，难写是也。要解决这个问题，就非另制拼音新字不可……”。于是，“推行简字以谋求普及教育的运动，日盛一日……”。其实，文字领域中的思想革新在此之前已经开始，汉字几千年来神圣不可侵犯的崇高地位已经发生动摇。甲午战争后，清政府在日本马关签订了丧权辱国的“马关条约”，除了赔偿巨额军费之外，还割让了台湾和澎湖等地。其时，朝野震惊，激发了社会民众，特别是有进取精神的知识阶层的爱国天良，大家推究中国失败的原因，一致认为“汉字不革命，则教育决不能普及，国家断不能富强。”当时，被称为“思想界之彗星”的谭嗣同就首先带头呼吁废除汉字，改用拼音文字。各界人士群起响应，纷纷起来创制简单易学的“切音新字。”清末的切音字运动，也就是汉语拼音运动就这样如火如荼地开展起来了。
据统计，清末最后十年中，至今犹有案可查的各种拼音方案就多达二十七种。这一时期的拼音方案大多为拼写某种方言而设计的，但拼音文字毕竟是一种拼写语言声音的文字，所以一开始就触及了汉民族语言的统一问题。被当时称之为“从事切音运动第一人”的卢戆章，在他的《切音新字序》（１８９２）中就提出制定拼音字母的两个基本原则：“字话一律”和“字画简易”，也就是文字表达话音，字形简单易写。同时，又倡议以南京话为“各省之正音”，这样全国“语言文字既从一律，文话皆相通，中国虽大，犹如一家。非如向者之各守疆界，各操土音之对面而无言也。”这些话显然已超出了纯粹的文字改革的范围，涉及民族语言的统一和发展了。
但是，卢戆章设计的各种拉丁化拼音方案仍然是以拼写闽广方言为主的。他后来向清政府学部呈交的《中国切音字母》也就因此被认为“不能通行各省”，“不足以统一各省之方言”而批驳了。之后不久，一种体现民族共同语发展趋向的切音方案—－王照的《官话合声字母》立刻脱颖而出了。它拼写的是当时影响最大的“京音官话”，字母形式完全采用汉字的偏旁。《官话合声字母》通行极广，遍及大半个中国，“由京津而奉天，而南京，官话字母遍及十三个省。”王照本人可谓完全把握了当时民族语言的发展趋向，他在《官话合声字母》序中就明确宣称：“语言必归划一，宜取京话……京话推广最便，故曰官话。官者公也，公用之话，自宜择其占幅员人数多者。”也正因为如此，他的《官话合声字母》得到了京师大学堂（北京大学前身）总教习吴汝伦的支持并跟张之洞以及管学大臣张百熙一起奏请朝廷在“学堂章程”中规定“于国文一科内，附入官话一门”，理由是“各国语言皆归一致”，清朝也应“以官音统一天下之语言”。他们的奏请很快得到朝廷的批准。于是，汉语拼音运动在引发了国语统一运动，并与国语统一运动合而为一的同时，得以从民间跻身政府。之后，清政府学部在“国语教育事业”（１９１１）中规定拼音“简字”的用途有二：一是拼合国语，二是范正汉字读音，并通过了一个“统一国语办法案”，规定在宣统八年（１９１６）普及国语。没想到就在这一年十月，武昌起义，辛亥革命爆发，清政府被推翻。于是，经公决并通过的“统一国语办法案”也就成了一纸空文。确定国音，制定字母，统一国语的运动，实际是由下一个社会和国民政府开展起来的。
从上面简略的回顾中，我们可以看到，从十九世纪末发展起来的汉语拼音运动，从一开始就是与语言的统一，社会的发展，民族的团结紧密结合在一起的。历史事实不止一次的证明，无论哪一种拼音设计，违背了语言统一的发展趋势，注定会以失败告终。卢戆章设制的第一个拉丁化拼音方案，以拼写闽广方言为主的《中国切音字母》，因“不能通行各省”，“不足以统一各省之方言”被批驳了。其后，又有同治进士，朝廷命官劳乃宣设计了几乎可以使用于各省主要方言的《简字全谱》（一种汉字笔画式的拼音文字），“全谱”包括《京音谱》，《宁音谱》（南京话）、《吴音谱》、《闽广谱》等，几乎涵盖了大部分方言，而且他还提出了“引南归北”的主张：“南人先就南音各谱学习，以便应用，学成之后，再学京音，以归统一。”劳乃宣本人曾得到慈禧召见，他进呈的《简字谱录》也得到御批，让“学部议奏”。即便如此，清政府学部也仍然因“分裂语言，有碍统一”，始终搁置高阁，不议不奏，而社会上也对他提出了尖锐的指责，认为照他的办法，“将使中国愈远同文之治，”骂他是“分裂语言文字的罪魁”。对照清末切音字运动中唱主角的卢戆章、劳乃宣、王照三大家，特别是劳乃宣和因参加了“百日维新”而受到通缉的“钦犯”王照他们两人的拼音方案的命运，实在是足以发人深省的。
二、汉语拼音方案与注音符号、国罗、北拉的历史渊源关系
１９１２年，民国成立后，政府继续推行国语。在推行国语的热潮中，国语标准音经过“京（音）国（音）问题”大辩论，由“以京音为主，兼顾南北”修正为纯以京音为准的新国音，其后注音字母也更名为注音符号，并成为推行国语的利器，使国语进入师范及小学语文教学中，在电台广播、电影、话剧等领域中建立了牢固的阵地。
民国时期，从官话到国语，从老国音到新国音，国语运动最重要的一条历史经验就是要使自然形成的没有明确标准的初级形式的民族共同语（官话）成为有明确规范的高级形式的民族共同语（国语和普通话），必须选择一种自然语言，作为自身存在和发展的基础。国语运动在长期的实践中终于找到了“中国语言的心”（刘复语），明确宣布以北京（系）作为统一全国语言的标准音（见《全国国语运动大会宣言》）。这是它最大的历史功绩，它为１９４９年新中国成立以后所开展的汉语规范化运动、推广普通话和汉语拼音方案的制定，奠定了基础。
从学术发展的角度看，在汉语拼音运动不同历史时期出现的国语注音符号、国语罗马字、北方话拉丁化新文字，直至五十年代后期的汉语拼音方案，显然是一脉相承的继承发展关系。汉语拼音方案的设计充分吸收了过去许多拼音设计，特别是国罗和北拉的许多宝贵经验，并广泛地听取了各方面的意见。方案固然有它匠心独运之处。但更多的是吸取并发展了历史上许多拼音设计的长处。
语法
汉语的语素绝大部分是单音节的（手│洗│民│失）。语素和语素可以组合成词（马＋路→马路│开＋关→开关）。有的语素本身就是词（手、洗），有的语素本身不是词,只能跟别的语素一起组成复合词（民→人民│失→丧失）。现代汉语里双音节词占的比重最大。大部分双音词都是按照上面提到的复合方式造成的。
文字
从目前我们能看到的最早的成批的文字资料──商朝甲骨文字算起，汉字已有３０００年的历史。由于甲骨文字已经是相当成熟的文字体系，我们可以推断汉字的发生一定远在３０００年以前。汉字的发展可以划分为两个大阶段。从甲骨文到小篆是一个阶段；从秦汉时代的隶书以下是另一个阶段。前者属于古文字的范畴，后者属于近代文字的范畴。大体说来，从隶书到今天使用的现代汉字形体上没有太大的变化。
从汉字跟汉语的关系看，汉字是一种语素文字。从汉字本身的构造看，汉字是由表意、表音的偏旁（形旁、声旁）和既不表意也不表音的记号组成的文字体系。
汉字起源于图画。在汉字产生的早期阶段，象形字的字形跟它所代表的语素的意义直接发生联系。虽然每个字也都有自己固定的读音，但是字形本身不是表音的符号，跟拼音文字的字母的性质不同。象形字的读音是它所代表的语素转嫁给它的。随着字形的演变，象形字变得越来越不象形。结果是字形跟它所代表的语素在意义上也失去了原有的联系。这个时候，字形本身既不表音，也不表义，变成了抽象的记号。如果汉语里所有的语素都是由这种既不表音也不表义的记号代表的，那么汉字可以说是一种纯记号文字。不过事实并非如此。汉字有独体字与合体字的区别。只有独体字才是纯粹的记号文字。合体字是由独体字组合造成的。从构造上说，合体字比独体字高一个层次。因为组成合体字的独体字本身虽然也是记号，可是当它作为合体字的组成成分时，它是以有音有义的“字”的身份参加的。合体字可以分成以下３类：
①形声字。形声字由表示意义的形旁和表示读音的声旁两部分组成。拿构造最简单的形声字来说，形旁和声旁都是由独体字充当的。作为形声字的组成部分，这些独体字都是有音有义的字。不过形旁只取其义，不取其音，例如“鸠”字的偏旁“鸟”；声旁则只取其音，不取其义，例如“鸠”字的偏旁“九”。由于字义和字音的演变，有些形声字的形旁或声旁现在已失去了表意或表音的功能。例如“球”本来是一种玉的名称，所以以“玉”为形旁。现在“球”字不再指玉，这个形旁就没有作用了。再如“海”字本来以“每”为声旁。由于字音的变化，现在“海”和“每”的读音相去甚远，声旁“每”也就不起作用了。有的时候，形旁和声旁都丧失了原来的功能，例如“给、等、短”。这一类字已经不能再作为形声字看待了。
形声字和非形声字之间并没有明确的界限。造字之初，形声字和它的声旁的读音本来就不一定密合。发展到现代汉字，出入就更大了。有人拿７５００多个现代合体汉字进行统计。就普通话读音来说，合体字跟声旁完全同音（声母、韵母、声调全同）的不到５％。声母、韵母相同而声调不同的约占１０％。只有韵母一项相同的约占２０％。如果我们只把前两类看作形声字，那么形声字大概只占通行汉字的１５％。如果把以上三类全看作形声字，形声字大概会占通行汉字３５％的样子。要是把标准再放宽或者完全根据来历确定形声字，那么通行汉字中形声字的百分比还要高得多。
②合体会意字。古人说“止戈为武”，“人言为信”。对于“武”、“信”两个字来说，这种解释是错误的。不过汉字体系里确实有按照这种方式造成的字，例如“不正为歪”，“不好为孬”。这一类字的特点是会合偏旁的字义来表现整个合体字的意义。这种字为数很少，只有个别的例子。
以上两类合体字里的偏旁有的有表意作用，有的有表音作用。下边一类的情形不同。 ③合体记号字。这一类合体字的偏旁既不表意，也不表音。这主要有两种情形。一是由于字音和字义的变化,原来的声旁和形旁已经不再表音、表意了。例如上文举过的“给、等、 短”一类字。 另一种情形可以举“章”字为例。 按照汉朝许慎《说文解字》的分析，“章”字从“音”从“十”。可是现在一般人说“立早章”（以区别于“弓长张”）的时候，是把它分析成“立”和“早”两部分。其实从古文字看，“章”本来是一个独体象形字，跟“音、十、立、早”都没有关系。
汉字用来记录汉语已经有３０００年以上的历史，一直沿用到今天，没有中断过。在如此长的历史时期里，汉字不仅为人们的现实生活服务，而且记录下极其丰富的文化资料；甚至跨越国界，被日本、朝鲜、越南等邻国借去记录非汉语语言。
另一方面，长期以来也不断有人批评汉字的缺点，主要是说汉字难认、难写、难于机械化（印刷排版、打字等）。因此在扫盲、儿童识字教育、文化传播等方面，都不如拼音文字效率高。
跟拼音文字比较起来，汉字有它的短处，但是也有它的长处。汉字最大的长处就是能够超越空间和时间的限制。古今汉语字音的差别很大。但由于２０００年来字形相当稳定，没有太大变化，字义的变化比较小，所以先秦两汉的古书今天一般人还能部分看懂。如果古书是用拼音文字写的，现代人就根本无法理解了。有些方言语音差别也很大，彼此不能交谈，可是写成汉字，就能互相了解，道理也是一样的。
５０年代开始进行简化汉字的工作。１９８６年重新公布的《简化字总表》规定了２０００多个简化字（包括用简化偏旁类推的字）。这项工作目前已告一段落，今后在一个时期内将保持稳定，不继续简化。因为不断简化会破坏文字的稳定性，而且简化一批字以后，原来的繁体字并不能废除。结果是汉字的总数有增无减，反而加重了学习和使用的人的负担。
关于文字拼音化问题，长期以来一直有争论。从理论上说，任何自然语言都可以用拼音文字记录。但是由于汉语方言分歧，在推广普通话的工作没有取得广泛、切实的成效以前，改用拼音文字会给方言区的人带来很大的困难。此外，由于汉字历史悠久，大量的文献都是用汉字记录的。一旦改弦易辙，势必在文献的广泛利用上造成一定困难，在社会心理和民族感情上也可能引起波动。事实上，由于长时间使用汉字这一可以表意的书写系统，汉语中可以存在大量同音字词，而且这个现象确实发生了，现在一个音节最多可以对应几十上百个汉字，如果使用拼音来记载语音，会出现不读出来就看不懂的现象，即使经过长时间的训练也无法彻底解决这个问题，因此如果真要进行汉字拉丁化的工作，决不是一朝一夕能够完成的，在汉语发展到合适的程度以前，最好搁置拉丁化的计划。
例如，鲁迅先生的著作《阿Ｑ正传》书名中的“Ｑ”字，据鲁迅自己说，也是受拉丁化的影响。
汉语不能拉丁化的有力证据
《施氏食狮史》赵元任
石室诗士施氏，嗜狮，誓食十狮。
氏时时适市视狮。
十时，适十狮适市。
是时，适施氏适市。
氏视是十狮，恃矢势，使是十狮逝世。
氏拾是十狮尸，适石室。
石室湿，氏使侍拭石室。
石室拭，氏始试食是十狮。
食时，始识是十狮，实十石狮尸。
试释是事。
备注
施氏食狮史是一篇由赵元任所写的设限文章。全文共九十二字，每字的普通话发音都是ｓｈｉ。这篇文言作品在阅读时并没有问题，但当用普通话朗读或者拉丁化作品时，问题便出现了。这是古文同音字多的缘故。这篇短文都能看懂，可是如果你读给别人听，他是无论如何也听不懂的！
方言
中国幅员辽阔，人口众多，方言情况复杂。下边把汉语方言粗分为官话和非官话两大类来说明。官话分布在长江以北地区和长江南岸九江与镇江之间沿江地带以及湖北、四川、云南、贵州４省，包括北方官话、江淮官话、西南官话几个方言区。官话区域的面积占全国３／４，人口占全国２／３。官话方言内部的一致程度比较高。从哈尔滨到昆明，相距３０００公里，两地的人通话没有多大困难。非官话方言主要分布在中国东南部，包括吴方言（江苏南部，浙江大部）、赣方言（江西大部，湖南东部，福建西北部，湖北东南部，安徽西南部）、湘方言（湖南大部，广西壮族自治区北部）、粤方言（广东大部，广西壮族自治区东南部）、闽方言（福建，台湾，广东的潮州、汕头，海南）、客家方言（广东省东部和北部，福建西部，江西南部，台湾）。非官话区域比官话区域面积小，可是方言差别大，彼此一般不能通话，甚至在同一个方言区内部（例如浙南吴方言与苏南吴方言之间、福州话和厦门话之间），交谈都有困难。汉语方言之间语音上的差别最大，词汇次之，语法方面的差别最小。语音的差别在声母的繁简、辅音韵尾的多寡以及调类的区分上表现得特别明显。例如吴方言塞音声母有浊塞音[b、d、g]、不送气清塞音[p、t、k]和送气清塞音[pʻ、tʻ、kʻ ]３套，官话方言只有后２套。广州话辅音韵尾有[m、 n、ŋ、p、t、k]６个，苏州话只有[n、 ŋ、?]３个，北京话只有[n、ŋ]2个。广州话有阴平、阳平、阴上、阳上、阴去、阳去、上阴入、中阴入、阳入９个调类。北京话有阴平、阳平、上声、去声４个调类。烟台话平声不分阴阳，所以只有平声、上声、去声３个调类，是声调系统最简单的方言之一。
由于现代方言的调类与古调类之间有相当整齐的对应关系，所以通常就用平、上、去、入等古调类的名称来标记现代方言调类。要注意的是方言的调类名称相同，并不表示调值相同。例如北京话的阳平是升调（３５），天津话的阳平是高平调（５５），而汉口话的阳平则是曲折调（２１４）。
上文说汉语方言语音的差别大，词汇和语法的差别小。这是从大体上说的。从细处看，词汇和语法上相异之处也并不少。拿词汇来说，政治、文化、科学方面的词是全国性的，可是日常生活里用的词有许多是地方性的，因方言而异。拿语法来说，方言之间在词法方面的差异比较明显。例如人称代词和指示代词的形式、形容词的后缀、动词和形容词的重叠式、象声词的构造以及名词后缀“子”和“儿”的表示方式（例如 “儿”杭州话用成音节的语素表示，而广州话和温岭话用变调表示）等等在不同方言里有时有相当大的差别。
方言之间句法上的差别可以举“把”字句和反复问句为例。“把”字句是官话区方言里十分重要的一种句式，可是粤方言和吴方言都没有这种句式。例如北京话用“把”字的句子（把衣服洗干净），广州话往往要用“动词＋宾语”的说法（洗干净件衫）。在大部分官话方言里，反复问句的形式是“ V不V”（V代表动词，例如：去不去│认得不认得）。可是在某些江淮官话和西南官话(例如昆明话)以及一部分吴方言（例如苏州话）里，反复问句的形式是“ 可 V”（可去│可认得）。
汉语的分支
汉语所包含的语言种类问题，在语言学界颇有争议。目前有两种不同的观点：一种观点认为汉语只包括汉语一种语言；另一种认为汉语包括闽语、粤语、客语、吴语、赣语、湘语等语言。中国国内的学者多数支持前者，而中国以外尤其西方多数学者从语言学的角度支持后者。支持后一种观点的人认为汉语不是一种单一的语言，而是一簇相互关联的有亲属关系的不同语言。支持前一种观点的人则将闽语、粤语、客语、吴语、赣语、湘语等列为汉语方言，例如赵元任认为标准语（普通话）是方言，闽语、粤语等也是方言。然而实际上，习惯上所称的“汉语方言”相互之间或与标准汉语之间无法互通，语言距离往往比欧洲同一语系之下的各种语言之间还要远。例如一个只会西班牙语的人可能可以使用西班牙语和另一位只会葡萄牙语的人达成沟通，但一个只会粤语的人和一位只会闽语的人对谈时，是完全听不懂对方在说什么的。
中国国内语言学家根据汉语分支的不同特点，把汉语划分为传统的七大方言。在这七大方言内部，仍存在不同的次方言区。有时这些次方言区内的使用者也不能相互理解。在不同的方言区的人的语言意识也有一定的区别。例如，一个使用粤方言的香港人可能会感到与操台山话的广东人有很多共同点，虽然他们可能不能相互理解。
在地理上的方言分歧也是很明显的。在华北官话、西北官话或者西南方话地区，相隔几百公里的人一般可以相互口头交流，但某些地区语音和词汇的变化也是很大的；然而在中国南方的许多地区，尤其是山区，较小地理范围内可能存在相互口语交流困难的方言。举一个极端的例子，如福建某地，相隔只有十公里的当地居民也许已经不能自如口头交流了。
汉语方言官话，或称官话方言等：指华北、东北及西北地区、湖北大部、四川、重庆、云南、贵州、湖南北部、江西沿江地区、安徽中北部、江苏中北部所使用的母语方言。官话大致分为华北官话、西北官话、西南官话、江淮官话，华北官话分布在北方东部，以北京话为代表，西北官话分布在北方西部，以西安话为代表，西南官话分布在南方西部，以成都话为代表，江淮官话分布在南方东部，以扬州话为江淮话的代表。上古时期的中原雅音在五胡乱华、衣冠南渡后，分化成为中古汉语语音。而现代“官话方言”，主要形成于宋元时期。官话在形成之后，在南北方分别发展，由分化成了南方官话和北方官话，为以后中国各代的官方语言，北方官话至今是现代标准汉语的基础（大陆称为普通话，台湾称为国语）。使用这一方言的人占中国人口的７０％。
需要指出的是，“官话方言”，过去曾经称为“北方方言”，并不局限于中国北方。相反，中国西南地区和江淮地区的南方方言也属于官话方言。
官话的明显特点包括：失落了全部中古入声，中古汉语中的“- p，-t，-k，-m，-n，-ng”韵尾现在只剩下“-n，-ng”，但出现了大量儿化韵“-r”韵尾。原本连接“i，ü”韵母的“g，k，h”声母已被颚音化成“j，q，x”声母。官话话在失去清浊对立的过程中，没有经过剧烈的声调分化，但出现了中古平上去入以外的轻声。因此，官话方言包含了大量的同音字以及相应产生的复合词。上述现象在其他方言中比较少见。
吴语，或称吴方言：在中国江苏南部、安徽南部、上海和浙江大部分地区使用。典型的吴语以苏州话为代表。其中安徽西南部受赣语影响，浙江南部保留了较多古代百越话特征，以至不能和作为典型吴语的太湖片吴语通话。使用人数大约为总人口的８．４％。这种方言的对清浊辅音的区分是一个很明显的特点。但吴语保留了中古汉语的模糊入声。
客家话，或称客语：在中国南方的客家人和绝大多数畲族人中广泛使用，包括广东东部、北部、福建西部、江西南部、广西东南部等地，以梅县话为代表。虽然是一种南方方言，但客家话是在北方移民南下影响中形成的。客家话因而保留了一些中古中原话的特点。使用客家话的人口大约占总人口的５％。客家方言的特点是平声，上声不分阴阳，但入声，去声分阴阳。
闽语，或称闽方言：在福建、海南、广东东部、台湾、菲律宾、新加坡、马来西亚还有其他海外的一些华人中使用。由于闽语的内部分歧比较大，通常分为闽南方言（以厦门话为代表）、闽北话、闽东话（以福州话为代表）、莆仙方言和闽中方言。闽语是所有方言中，唯一不完全与中古汉语韵书存在直接对应的方言，其中以闽南语最具影响。但是，根据现有的语音学研究，闽语的音系相当接近上古汉语的音系。
闽南语（狭义的，即闽台片闽南话）共有“-m，-n，-ng，-p，-t，-k，-ʔ”（貌似问号的国际音标是紧喉音。）在入声 [-p/-t/-k] 消失之前，先发生‘入声弱化’，[-p/-t/-k] 全部变成 ʔ。山西方言仍保有这种弱化入声）”七种辅音韵尾。闽南语是汉语中声调较复杂的方言之一，泉州音有８个声调（不含轻声），漳州音、厦门音、同安音、台湾音通常有七个声调（不含轻声）。同时，闽南语也是保留中古汉语最完整的方言之一。泉州音和漳州音是其它支系的母语，闽（南）台片的闽南语内部较为一致。广义的闽南方言还包括海南话、潮州话、浙南闽语等，使用闽南语的人口大约为总数的４．２％。
粤语：以广州话为代表，在广东广西的部分地区、香港、澳门和海外华人中被使用。粤方言是汉语中声调最复杂的方言之一，有九个声调（桂南勾漏片有十个声调）。同时也是保留中古汉语最完整的方言之一。粤语包含了p，t，k，m，n，ng六种辅音韵尾。粤语内部的分歧不大。使用粤语的人口大约为总数的５％。但是粤语中没有混合入声，可以认为粤语中保留的古汉语成分要早于吴语，但晚于闽语。
湘语，或称湘方言：在湖南使用。按是否保留浊声母分类，可分为老湘和新湘两类，其中浊声母已全部清化的新湘语相对接近西南官话。分别以长沙话（新）及双峰话（老）为代表，使用者约占总人口的５％。历史上湖南湖北两省受到北方文化的强烈影响，故湘语内部差异比较大。并且有多个时期古汉语语音特征之重叠。
赣语，以南昌话为代表，又称赣方言，古称傒语。属汉藏语系汉语，主要用于江西大部、湖南东部，安徽西南部等地。使用人数约为使用人口约5148万（详情见图，早先3000万的数据是不够准确的），是汉语七大方言区之一。赣语
http://baike.baidu.com/view/775972.htm
下面的几种方言是否构成独立的大方言区，现在尚有争议：
晋语：在山西绝大部分以及陕西北部、河北西部、河南西北部、内蒙古河套地区等地使用，以太原话为代表，有入声韵－－ [-ʔ]（这貌似问号的国际音标是紧喉音。在入声 [-p/-t/-k] 消失之前，先发生‘入声弱化’，[-p/-t/-k] 全部变成 [-ʔ]）。其白读系统与官话截然不同。以前（及现在的不少语言学学者）将其归于官话。
平话：在广西的部分地区使用。传统上将桂南平话归于粤语，近年来有人主张将桂北平话当成孤立的土语存在。
徽语：在安徽南部及赣浙苏部分毗邻地区使用。以前（及现在的部分语言学学者）将其归于吴语。
历史
汉语是世界上最古老的语言之一，是至今通用语言时间最长的语言之一。汉语的历史演变是一个很有趣的问题。汉语的书写系统——汉字，非表音文字，不能如表音文字那样直接知道同一个字历史上的发音。幸运的是，在汉字（特别是形声字）、诗歌的韵律以及对外国人名的翻译中可以找到有效的信息。
上古汉语
相传黄帝时中原有“万国”，夏朝时还有三千国，周初分封八百诸侯，而“五方之民，言语不通”（《礼记·王制》）。
上古汉语存在于周朝前期和中期（公元前１１到前７世纪），文字记录有青铜器上的刻铭、《诗经》、历史书书经以及部分《易经》。
据《礼记·中庸》第二十八章记载：“今天下车同轨，书同文，行同伦”。可见周朝建立时期就开始实行语言文字的统一。
春秋初期，见于记载的诸侯国还有１７０多个。至战国时期，形成“七雄”，“诸侯力政，不统于王，……言语异声，文字异形”（《说文解字·叙》）。
先秦诸子百家在著作中使用被称为“雅言”的共同语。“子所雅言，《诗》、《书》、执礼，皆雅言也。”（《论语·述而》）
秦朝重新统一之后，进一步规范了文字，以小篆作为正式官方文字。
中古汉语
这种汉语使用于隋朝、唐朝和宋朝（公元７世纪到１０世纪），可以分为《切韵》（公元６０１年）涉及到的早期以及《广韵》（公元１０世纪）所反映的晚期。高本汉把这个阶段称为“古代汉语”。
语言学家已能较自信地重构中古汉语的语音系统。这种证据来自几个方面：多样的现代方言、韵书以及对外语的翻译。
正如印欧语系的语言可以由现代印欧语言重构一样，中古汉语也可以由方言重建。另外，中国古代的文学家花费了很大的精力来总结汉语的语音体系，这些资料仍然是现代语言学家工作的基础。最后，汉语的语音可以从对外国语言的翻译中了解到。
近代汉语
近代汉语是古代汉语与现代汉语之间以早期白话文献为代表的汉语。
现代汉语
现代汉语是以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的汉语。
书面语和口语
书面语和口语的差别一直相当大。在“五四”时期白话文运动以前，书面语和口语的区别实际上是古今语的区别。以唐宋时代为例，当时人口里说的是白话，笔下写的是文言，即以先秦诸子和《左传》《史记》等广泛传诵的名篇为范本的古文文体。这种情形往上大概可以推到两汉时期。往下一直延续到２０世纪初叶。孙中山１９２５年立的遗嘱就还是用文言写的。不过２０００年来作为书面语的文言本身也在变化。仿古终归难以乱真，后世人模仿古语不可能不受当时口语的影响。有人指出韩愈的文章里就有明显的不合先秦语法的地方。清代桐城派古文家模仿先秦文和唐宋古文家的文章，结果当然更为驳杂。清末梁启超用一种浅显的文言文写政论文章。由于通俗易懂，风行一时，为报章杂志所广泛采用。目前台湾、香港以及海外中文报刊多数仍旧沿用这种文体。五四运动时期开展的文学革命提出了反对文言文、提倡白话文的主张。这场运动席卷全国，影响深远。短短几年之间，白话文学就站稳了脚跟。不过这种白话文学作品的语言并不是真正的口语，而是拿北方官话做底子，又受到明清白话小说相当大的影响，还带着不同程度的方言成分以及不少新兴词汇和欧化句法的混合的文体。鲁迅的作品可以作为这种文体的典型的代表。
以上说的是文学作品 。至于新闻报道、政府文告、公文、商业合同、甚至私人信件,往往还是用的文言。这一方面是传统习惯使然，另一方面也是因为文言文有简括的优点。这种情形，就全国范围来说，一直延续到４０年代末。１９４９年中华人民共和国建立以后，文言文才完全让位给白话文。除了打电报和有意拟古以外，没有人再写文言了。
上文指出，现代书面汉语是包含许多不同层次的语言成分的混合体。无论从句法上或词汇上看都是如此。拿句法来说，书面语句式除了跟口语相同的那一部分之外，有的是从文言来的,后来渐渐融化在书面语里,成为书面语句式的一部分。例如“进行、加以、予以、给予”是书面语用得十分频繁的几个动词。这些动词原来的意义已经虚化，主要的功能是放在双音动词前边以适应句法和节奏上的要求。这种句法构造来源于文言。“进行”的前身是“行”（另行议处），“加以”的前身是“加”（严加管束），“予以”和“给予”的前身是“予”（不予追究）。在文言句法里，“行、加、予”前边必须跟一个单音副词配合，造成双音节构造，后边的动词也必须是双音节的。在现代书面语里，这几个动词都双音节化了，后边还是要求跟双音节的动词，语法上的制约是一脉相承的。
现代书面语开始形成的时候，曾经从旧白话小说的语言里继承了一些句式。这个阶段现在已经结束。我们能看到的只是一些遗迹。例如“在＋处所词”的构造可以放在动词前头（“在台上坐着”），也可以放在动词后头（“坐在台上”）。在北京话里，前置的“在 ”用“跟”、用[āi] 或是 [tǎi]，后置的“在”用[·tə]，都不用“在”。用“在”的说法是从旧白话小说里继承下来的。
有些书面语句式是受外国语（英语、日语、俄语等）的直接或间接（通过翻译作品）的影响产生的。在这方面可以举一个影响全部书面语句式的重要语法现象作为例证。上文曾经提到，汉语里主语和谓语关系松散。句子的主语往往可以不说出来。有些句子甚至根本没有主语。现代口语和古汉语都是如此。可是现代书面语要求句子在形式上都要有主语。如果没有，就会感到结构不完整，逻辑上不周密。这显然是受了印欧语的影响。
书面语在词汇方面的特点是双音词的比重大。书面语双音词除了从文言里继承下来的一部分以外，大都是１９世纪末叶以来１００多年间新出现的。其中一部分是从日文转借过来的，另一部分是新造的。新创造的词大都是利用原有的语素 （书面上就是汉字） 造成的复合词。这种构词方式是能产的，生命力很强。
汉语是精确的。记得在本人早年读书的时候，语文课本上堂而皇之地写着：“走拼音化道路是汉语的必然趋势。”其中最主要的一条理由便是，英文可以打字，而汉语不能。随着计算机技术的发展，汉字的键盘输入速度已远远超过英文，而且速度还在不断快速提高。可英文输入呢？却似乎滞步不前了。
汉语的发展
汉字的构词法巧夺天工。词头前缀、词尾后缀是英文常用的构词法。
Saccharose(糖精)和Saccharomycetes(酵母菌)有相同的拉丁词头，但记住它们即便对英美人士也非易事，至少我测试过的几个母语是英文的工科研究生是这样。一维的串状结构是导致其不醒目不明了的直接原因。试问读书至研究生，连酵母菌与糖精都不知道，又该叫人作何感想呢？
用汉字组词描述起来简洁明了。即便是没吃过糖精、没用过酵母菌的没受过教育的中国人，他也明白糖精可能是糖的“精炼部分”，比糖更甜(尽管这不确切)；酵母菌是“一种能引起发酵的细菌”。但英文就不能如此简单地组词，即便组出来也恐怕令人难以接受：糖精=Sugessece="Sugar"+"Essence"(“糖”与“精”合起来)，酵母菌=Yeabacteria="Yeast"+"Bacteria"(“发酵”与“细菌”合起来)。这岂不是太不像话了？
与拼音文字一维串状前后缀构词法不同，汉字是通过二维方式构字的。例如：
“人”在无门的四堵墙内便成了“囚”；
“木”在无门的四堵墙内要受“困”；
“露”--下“雨”天在大马“路”上要暴“露”在雨水之下了；
“米”(与粮食有关)“唐”(表声)=“糖”；
柴“禾”上长“草”=“菌”；
“木”“林”“森”——分别是tree、woods和forest的意思，但比较之下哪一种构词法更好？答案一目了然。
在当今的英语社会，早期英文造字所遵循的拉丁词根早字法也已逐渐被甩开了，类似以上造的 Sugessece，Yeabacteria可一点都不是笑话，日常生活中天天都有。商店里不同品牌的巧克力、糖果总会有不同的名字，有些名字在字典里找不到，它们会随某个厂家的某种巧克力糖的产生而产生，消亡而消亡。当一个澳大利亚人读到这个词时，他不会意识到这是北美某个地区的很受欢迎的一种糖果，多半只能和中国人一样摇摇头罢了。
信息科技时代偏爱汉字。不知您是否了解《模糊数学》、《模糊控制》或《神经网络》等新学科领域？如果接触过，您便会理解人类的艺术、哲学、感觉看似不“精确”，但实为目前它们超越了当今人类的知识水平所能精确描述的范围。随着人类认识能力的提高，它们逐渐会被人类以全新的知识结构所精确地把握，以上所举的新学科只是这一新知识结构序幕的小插曲。汉字集中体现了东方艺术哲学，是中华民族的文化底蕴之所在。限于目前的科技水平，它的智慧我们尚不能完全认识，对它的发掘方兴未艾。这种说法不是没有根据的的，毕竟15年前也没有人意识到传统汉字出版业要被淘汰；10年前的人没有料到汉字的输入会比英文快，而且还会更快；5年前的人没有想到传统的报业媒体会被逐渐淘汰，《南方都市报》会与百年老报《大公报》站在同一起跑线上，在互联网上抢码字新闻。谁又不敢断言若干年之后汉字编程不可能或不如英文呢？
汉字是灵活的，但需要灵活的人使用；汉字是聪明的，但有赖于聪明人的开发；汉字是充满智慧的，需要有智慧的人认识到她的价值。为汉语骄傲！更为坚信汉语时代即将到来的中国人的热情与信心而欢呼！
Chinese Dialects Chinese dialects in the world to use the largest number of languages.
Chinese Phonetic Alphabet the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet
Phonetic alphabet the Chinese phonetic alphabet
History of Chinese language Chinese history
One of the world's major languages. Is a Sino-Tibetan language, is the most important language in the language. In addition to outside the Chinese mainland and Taiwan, Chinese is also located in Singapore and Malaysia. Native Chinese National People's Congress to about 13 billion (3000 million as a second language). Chinese is one of the working languages of the United Nations.
Chinese as the world's unique hieroglyphic language, writing a high degree of unification and standardization, there is uniformity and standardization of modern Chinese grammar, although particularly large differences in dialect pronunciation, but the written language norms, there is no difference in dialect written communication barriers caused. Super dialects of Chinese on maintaining the unity of the Chinese nation has played a huge role.
Chinese is an independent language of English. Chinese way is a kind of hieroglyphic writing Chinese characters. 54 written language used before exercise is called "classical" is a kind of Confucius used to "elegant language" based on written language. Fourth Movement promoted after the written Chinese is often referred to as "vernacular," that is based on the North, then the modern written language. Written in modern Chinese, classical Chinese is rarely used.
Said Chinese difficult to learn, in fact, the Chinese language is very simple, no tenses in Chinese, verbs adjectives have no change, no tonal language concise, articulate, talks slowly. Is easy to learn language. Difficult to learn Chinese characters.
Voice
Chinese syllables can be analyzed into consonants, vowels, tones part 3. Heading is a consonant sound, the rest are vowels and tones is the pitch of the syllable. The tone is also seen as an integral part of the syllable, because Chinese is righteous tone is identified. Such as "soup, sugar, lying, hot," four words consonants are [tang], vowels are [ang] (square brackets is the IPA, the IPA table in brackets omitted), because the tone is different, meaning not the same language in representing four different morpheme, in writing, written in four different characters.
Initials are consonants. The most complex vowel sound by the medium, the main vowel and coda three parts. Some coda consonants, some vowels. Beijing consonant consonant sounds 22. Medials there, [u], [y] (with ü) 3 个. Final consonants are [n] and [ŋ], Yuan Endings are [] and [u]. In the composition of syllables, medium tone, the main vowel, and coda Part 4, only the main vowel can not do without, and the remaining three parts must not occur. This situation can give the composition in Table 1 syllable word in the cases seen. Beijing dialect of consonants in Table 2 Initials, Finals mother Beijing, Beijing, Beijing, then the finals in Table 3 Vowels.
1918 issued by the then Ministry of Education, is the use of Chinese Characters in Mandarin phonetic alphabet developed a _set_ of phonetic alphabets. The letter to the main vowel and coda together with a symbol (for example: ㄠ = [au], ㄢ = [an]), embodies the traditional spirit of consonant vowel two points. Phonetic alphabet widespread significant influence. Taiwan has been in use ever since.
Published in 1958, using the Latin alphabet Pinyin (Initials, Finals mother Beijing Table 2, Table 3 of the Beijing dialect vowel). Since 1978, Chinese names all use phonetic alphabet spelling of place names, place of Wade and other old-style spelling.
Phonetic spelling syllable is the process of composition is in accordance with the laws of Mandarin syllables, the consonants, vowels combined with rapid continuous tone and fight a syllable. Pinyin is the gist: "before the sound (consonant) tone light and short (vowels) re, the two connected fierce slightest sound." Pinyin Mandarin to keep in mind when matching initial and final rule:
Consonants n, l and the zero consonant with the opening call, Sarkozy call teeth, Cuokou call has put together relationship.
Consonant f, g, k, h, zh, ch, r, z, c, s only with the open call, hekou call juxtaposition.
Consonants j, x, q only teeth with Sarkozy calls, Cuokou call juxtaposition.
Consonants b, p, m, d, t call juxtaposition of different Cuokou.
Open call, hekou call finals with removing j, q, x outside the relationship between other consonants are put together.
Cuokou call finals only with j, q, x, n, l and the relationship between the zero on_set_ has put together.
Note also that time when the quasi-phonetic consonants, vowels and tones of the tone value. To read initials of the sound, do not read call pronunciation (teaching, in the back with a different consonant vowel sound called the call issued in pronunciation); make finals as a whole to read, not to rhyme head rhyme abdomen, coda decomposition and then open the temporary flattening; to see the transfer number, pronunciation tones.
Spelling commonly used methods of the following:
Rhyme two spellings - the finals as a whole, brought juxtaposition with consonants. Such as: h-ào → (Ho).
Initial two spellings - first identify the initials of articulation, pronunciation posture gracefully, and then read the finals breath, makes up syllables. Such as: spelling bā (Pakistan), first shut lips, Biezhu breath, gracefully made b sound position, and a read out of a, a syllable.
Three fight tonal method - is referred to with the syllables of sound into the sound, shellfish, and rhyme of three components, when running words into a phonetic syllable. Such as: qi-áng → qiáng (strong)
Mediated co-parent and vowel sound connection method - is the initial and medium tone (referred mother) put together, which form a phonetic component, and then with the following vowel juxtaposition. Such as: gu-āng → guāng (light).
Origin of Chinese Phonetic Alphabet
No ancient alphabet, the use of tangent, that is, knowledge will be read with two words, take the first consonant, taking second in the finals, put together up on the line.
Ancient China's Muslim Brothers do not learn Chinese, learn Arabic, but they used Arabic letters to spell spoken (Mandarin), so this is the first alphabet.
Yuan Dynasty, Mongolia, the Tibetan ruler used to change the letters to spell Chinese and other languages, called pa Script. Although not specifically spelled in Chinese, but it is also considered a Chinese phonetic alphabet.
Ming Dynasty, the Western missionary with the Latin alphabet spelling of Chinese, is the first Latin alphabet characters.
Late Ming and early Qing dynasties, the ancient emergence of the word with a simple phonetic way of the performance of Chinese speech. Republic of China, the government formulated the "phonetic alphabet" is the concentrated expression of the system. Now Taiwan is still used. However, there has also been the Latin word spelling exercise, and, with the combination of left-wing political movement is very close.
The People's Republic of China was established, the government immediately develop a "Chinese Phonetic Alphabet", is now using this package. The United Nations also recognized.
Pinyin is the Chinese People's Republic, "Latin" of the program, written in 1955-1957 on the reform of the Chinese Pinyin characters Reform Commission, the Commission of the development.
The program is mainly used for Mandarin phonetic pronunciation of the mark, as a Mandarin Chinese phonetic symbols. February 11, 1958 of the National People's Congress approved the program announced. In 1982, an international standard ISO 7098 (Chinese spelling of the Roman alphabet).
At present, most overseas Chinese communities, such as Singapore, the use of Pinyin in Chinese language teaching.
Chinese Phonetic Alphabet can be traced back as early as 1906, Zhu Wen Xiong's "Jiangsu letters" and 1908 Liu Mengyang "Chinese phonetic character book", as well as the national language of Rome in 1926 and 1931 the Latin word of Chinese characters. All of these characters are for the Hanyu Pinyin romanization scheme provides the basis for the development.
In 1949, Wu Yuzhang letter to Mao Zedong proposed to be effective literacy, language reform swiftly. Letter of approval to the Guo Mao Zedong, Mao and others study, in October 1949 _set_ up the reform of Chinese characters Association, one of the tasks is to study the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet.
1954, The Association of Chinese characters into Chinese characters directly under the State Council Reform Commission, during which all received more than 1600 Chinese Phonetic Alphabet. Generally have such forms:
Chinese Character Type
Latin-style
Slavic alphabet style
Mixed form of several letters
Shorthand style
Design style
Digital form
The final decision to adopt the Latin alphabet as the Hanyu Pinyin system of signs to facilitate the international exchange and cooperation.
【Origin】 Pinyin
1583 Matteo Ricci came to China in Beijing in 1605 published "The West the word miracle," including "the letter and further sea, doubt that Shen" and four characters plus the Latin alphabet of phonetic article. Luo C under article characters contrast with the Latin translation of an order includes 26 consonants and 44 vowels of the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet. This is the first to use the Latin alphabet to the phonetic character of the publication, than the "small by" using the Arabic alphabet to the Chinese Pinyin later, "Little by" writing letters about the first attempts to Pinyin. "Western word miracle" of the original book is no longer easy to find, said the Vatican Library there collection.
Kinney Court back to Europe, the speech to the Chinese mission to recruit the person, everyone is encouraged glamor attracted to vie with each other, so that the local church felt compelled to politely discouraged. Kinney Court in attracting and _select_ing talented people, has made undeniable contributions. At the same time the church library in China to collect books and bring the Pope is giving the book more than 7000 West Division ("Far West, said device map" is the original Kinney Court's 7000 book, bring one).
In 1619, Kinney Court once again arrived in Macau. Kinney Spring 1621 cabinet "to Nanchang, Xuan You go Jianchang Shaozhou, visit the Senate. The following year went to Hangzhou to be difficult; in 1623, Kaifeng, Henan Province opened to teach the following year to the Shanxi", in 1625 went to Shaanxi. Wang Zheng, 1626 in assistance to complete the "Western Scholars" in three volumes. "Western Scholars" The purpose, according to his own account, "the Chinese people in three days proficient in Western writing systems."
"Western Scholars" as in 1625, published in 1626 in Hangzhou, claiming to follow the system created by Matteo Ricci, the Ricci 25 with the letter "combination with each other, adding five words tone marks to spell all All the pronunciation of Chinese characters. This is a character with the Latin alphabet to the phonetic vocabulary, but also the first with a letter to the Chinese phonetic sounds of words. phonetic scheme used is based on Ricci modified program, called "Lee , the fellowship program. "
"Lee, the fellowship program," The emergence of China was greatly inspired by phonological scholars. These two programs are the first Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is "studying Mandarin tone" as the standard written for spelling Beijing sound. So Pronunciation becomes very simple, very structured, not only to always been regarded as the tangent complex, opened a so-called 'anti-unexpected but, unexpectedly, cut and cut' the easy way, and immediately got the Chinese better phonology home yearning for such a simple phonetic system of enthusiasm. "spelling of this novel approach to the Chinese scholars to a great inspiration. phonology scientist Fang Yi Ming said:" The word of the divergent also, that margin through and by ear . If something is a word, a meaning of each word, such as the Far West because the incident is the chorus. Sound made by the word, not weight not total, not View more Down? "Yang Qing scholars _select_ed Qi said:" Xin Mao families make ends meet on the Disparity of the old Kingo, the Jewish son of Yun Zhang, day out, "Western Scholars" to show I, I did not read the final volume, all words have a certain insight of the reason, because for some of the Act. "However, in two or three hundred years, Ricci and Kinney Court program is the use of foreign missionaries, not widely disseminated among the Chinese people.
Party secrets (in Chile), "Elegance" as in 1639, the book said repeatedly cited "Western Scholars", such as saying "sound more Western, Central Plains and more do not have, when combined with the Atlantic such sub Siddham" eyes and ears capital "through the" "character of the divergent also, that margin through and by ear. If the matter is the word, one meaning of each word, such as the Far West because the incident is a chorus, sounds made by words, not weight not total, In particular, almost no more? "or that" because the incident is vocals, sound made by the word "(that is, advocates of the burgeoning Chinese Characters). Missionary approach shocked the Chinese phonology scientist, direct revelation they seek the help of the Western alphabetic character recorded sound system better description. Later Liu Xianting (after Zhuang) "new rhyme spectrum" that is, in this stimulation Zhuancheng, said Liu Qian Xuantong clearly recognized that "must be a phonetic analysis can only phonemes before they can form anywhere in the note sound ", Luo C," Ji-village in phonology, "an updated version of that book focused on is the" focus on the unity of the investigation Mandarin dialect. " Qian Xuantong even think that the "new rhyme spectrum," a book of the year (1692) Solid as a "National Language Movement" of the era.
1627, was again recalled, Hangzhou, Hangzhou from this focus on mission and in writing. "Chinese language has made reasonable writing style is superior, the Europa Almost all priests in the incompetent and those who. Its far, people all over the memory, their willingness to learn, though the disease stopped working, its always in the translation industry, or the translation of the Latin Writing for Science, or Science for the Latin translation, so proficient language, so conversations are good writing, whether classical or slang it. " Most of his work as a Latin, written in Chinese that is, in Shaanxi, "Western Scholars," a book.
Kinney Court the second time China has brought a lot of foreign language books Shihai. Not only because of his personal love of books, follow the missionary Matteo Ricci, the road to create an academic, but also because Kinney House before returning to Western Europe, accepted the mission in China will make its extensive in Europe to collect books and to build churches and other places in Beijing Books Museum of the task. He came to this not only brought these Western people, so that future generations might be interested, he also has brought a whole library of books. It is said that these books are hardcover, without a repeat, include classic and Renaissance Europe, after theology, philosophy, science, literature and arts of the latest achievements. In order to collect new books and equipment, Kinney House Tour of Italy, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal and other countries, and finally collected the remnants of 7,000 hardcover books. I estimate the Guinness Book of books and equipment received from Europe in the time value of 10,000 gold coins. To this end, Kinney Court developed a huge translation program, contact the Aleni, Xu Guangqi, Yangting Jun, Li Zao, Wang Zheng, Tian and other Chinese and foreign joint translation by the publication of these books. Mr. Xiang Da, said the move: "Xuan Zang than the demand by Xi Zhu, cover much so." Unfortunately, November 14, 1629 in Hangzhou death (buried outside of generous well Jesuit priests Cemetery, term of the present town of Hangzhou West Lake District, Taoyuan Village left), "West 7000 book" Introduction to the Chinese intellectuals program abortion. Later, Li and Wang Zheng, who algae sporadic translation of some of the works, most of the books covered with dust, quietly lost. In 1938, Beijing Catholic order library building and found a "7000" in the remnants of hundreds, including Copernicus's "Celestial Bodies" and about the Kepler's "Copernican astronomy Summary" and other important science books.
1, movement and Mandarin and Mandarin Chinese Pinyin
Pinyin spelling of Chinese national standard language is a phonetic program.
Chinese national standard language in the late nineteenth century, the rise of the Chinese nation's social, scientific and cultural development of language exerted great influence in the modernization movement gradually built up. Language modernization movement initially refers to Hanyu Pinyin movement (then called "invented a character campaign, Simplified movement"), National Language Movement and the vernacular movement. Late Qing movement of the three languages of a common goal, that is by reforming language, education, social development and to meet the time needs of the development of science and culture, and then Enriching and revitalize the Chinese nation. Mandarin is the establishment and promotion of Chinese national standard spoken language of the sport, promote the use of the vernacular movement is able to replace the classical expression of the vernacular spoken as the official written language of the campaign. Three sports have their own pursuits, but the internal relations are very close. From an historical relationship that invented a word and led the first movement occurred Mandarin. Since then, the establishment of standard pronunciation in Mandarin, phonetic alphabet of the development, until the twentieth century Chinese fifties Standardization, Pinyin generation, are thus the same strain, complement each other. Therefore, our discussion has thus start.
Pinyin movement as a prelude to going back to the late Ming, but led to massive Chinese Pinyin Chinese society movement, the direct reason is that Chinese people are still Mingxinkegu the "Sino-Japanese" national disgrace. Qian Xuan Tong that the "phonetic alphabet and the sounds of modern China" (1929) stated very clearly in the article: "1894 (Sino-Japanese War), China to Japan fought a battle, so junior insight, that non-reform politics, education, not self-existence in the world, but that universal education, that is, a problem occurs, then the difficulty of Chinese characters know, writing is also difficult. To solve this problem, another system of non-phonetic words is not new ... .... " Thus, "The implementation of simple words to search for universal education movement, the increasing prevalence of day ... ...." In fact, the text in the field of innovative thinking before this started thousands of years, sacred and inviolable character of high status has been shaken. Sino-Japanese War, the Qing government signed in Shimonoseki, Japan humiliating "Treaty of Shimonoseki," in addition to huge military compensation in addition to ceding Taiwan and Penghu. The time, government and shocked, inspired the community people, particularly the aggressive 精神 intellectual community, whose patriotic conscience is Dajia standpoint of scientific China causes of failure, agreed that "the revolution of Chinese characters, then Education must not be Puji, Guo Jia Duan Buneng prosperous." At that time , known as the "thinkers of the comet," the Tan on the first lead in calling for abolition of characters, use alphabetic writing. All walks of life rallied together to respond to, one after another up and create easy to learn, "invented a new word." Invented a word campaign late Qing Dynasty, Hanyu Pinyin is carried out campaigns in full swing this way again.
However, Lu Zhang stupid design of the various Latin alphabet spelling program is still based mainly in Fujian dialect widely. He later submitted to the Faculty of the Qing government "China invented a letter" will therefore be considered "can not access the provinces," "unity of the provinces not dialect" and refuted. Soon after, a reflection of national trends invented a common language development program - Wang Chao's "Mandarin chorus letter" immediately stood out was. It was the most influential spelling "Beijing Mandarin tone", the letters form complete with Chinese characters radical. "Mandarin chorus letter" wide passage, over half in China, "by Beijing and Tianjin and Mukden, and Nanjing, Mandarin characters throughout 13 provinces." Wang Zhao himself has fully grasped the trend was the development of national language, he "Mandarin chorus letter" in the Preface clearly stated: "Language will go flat, should take to Beijing, then ... ... Beijing, then promote the most will be, twenty years before and Mandarin. officials are public and also, the public of the case, since the appropriate choice of its total size size more persons. "because of this, his" Mandarin chorus letter "was Peking Imperial University (the predecessor of Beijing University) chief teacher Wu Rulun the support and management science with Minister Zhang and Zhang Baixi petitioned the court with the" charter school "specified" in Chinese within a Division, attached into the Mandarin one, "because" States are owned by the same language ", the Qing Dynasty should be the" official language of the world sound unified. " They quickly petitioned the court's approval. Thus, Pinyin Mandarin unification movement led movement, and merged with the Mandarin, while the Unity Movement, to the government from the private ranks. After the Qing government in the Faculty of the "national language education" (1911), the provisions of Pinyin "simple words" used for two purposes: First, put together in Mandarin, the pronunciation of second Fanzheng Han, and adopted a "unified national language means the case" to require in Xuantong eight (1916) popular Mandarin. Did not expect this year in October, the Wuchang Uprising, 1911 Revolution broke out, the Qing government was overthrown. Thus, by referendum and adopted the "unified national language approach case" will become a dead letter. Determine the country sound, the development of alphabets, unified national language of movement, actually is the next national government in society and up.
From the brief review of the above, we can see from the Chinese phonetic alphabet developed in the late nineteenth century movement, from the beginning and the unity of language, social development, national unity and close together. Proof of historical facts more than once, no matter what kind of alphabet designs, contrary to the language uniform trend is destined to fail. Zhang Lu stupid the first Latin based system of Romanization to spell Fujian dialect widely based "China invented a letter," because the "can not access the provinces," "unity of the provinces not dialect" is refuted. Subsequently, there Tongzhi jinshi Zhaotingmingguan Lao Nai designed almost all provinces the main dialect used in "Simplified Chinese full spectrum" (a Chinese-style phonetic strokes), "full spectrum" includes "Beijing Sound Spectrum" , "I would rather sound spectrum" (Nanjing dialect), "Wu sound spectrum", "Min broad-spectrum", etc., almost covering most of the dialect, and he also proposed a "go north south cited" idea: "Southern Man first on South Sound the spectrum of learning for application after your studies, then science Beijing sound to return and integration. "labor is declared Empress I have been summoned, he was into the" Simplified spectral record, "also received Royal Assent, allowing the" Faculty meeting played. " Even so, the Qing government still Faculty for "split language is not conducive to unity", and always hold the shelf, no discussion is not playing, but the community also his sharp criticism, that according to his means, "will make China more well with the text of the rule, "calling him the" chief culprit in splitting the language. " He invented a character movement control play a leading role Qing Lu stupid chapter, Lao Nai Wang Chiu three of us, especially labor is declared and for participating in the "Hundred Days Reform" being wanted "Qin Fan," the king of the alphabet according to their program of two fate, it is sobering enough.
Second, Chinese Phonetic Alphabet and phonetic symbols, the National Law, relations between North and Latin America history
In 1912, after the founding of the Republic, the Government continued to promote Mandarin. Upsurge in the implementation of Mandarin, Mandarin Accent through the "Beijing (Music) Country (Music) problem" great debate, from the "Beijing-based sound, both north and south" to the pure tone subject to Beijing's new country sound, its also renamed after the phonetic alphabet phonetic symbol and tool for introducing Mandarin to Mandarin into the normal and primary school language teaching, in a radio broadcast, film, drama and other fields to establish a solid position.
From the perspective of academic development, in Pinyin movement emerged in different historical periods Mandarin phonetic symbols, Mandarin Romanization, so north of the new Latin words, until the late fifties the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is clearly the development of relations between the succession line of succession. Chinese Phonetic Alphabet design fully absorbed in the past many phonetic design, especially Romania and North and Latin America countries valuable experience, and have listened to the views of all sides. While the program has its Unique Perspective of the Department. But more is learned and developed many of the history of phonetic design strengths.
Grammar
Most of Chinese monosyllabic morpheme (wash hands │ │ China │ loss). Morpheme and the morpheme can be combined into words (Ma + Road → Open + road │ → switch off). Some morpheme itself is the word (hand washing), some morpheme is not a word, morpheme can only together with the other composed of compound words (people → people → │ lose loss). Two-syllable words in modern Chinese accounted for the most. Most are two-syllable word in accordance with the above-mentioned result of complex ways.
Writing
From the moment we can see the first batch of text information ─ ─ counting the Shang oracle bone inscriptions, Chinese have 3,000 years of history. Because Oracle has a very mature character writing system, we can infer the occurrence of certain characters well years ago in 3000. The development of Chinese characters can be divided into two major phases. From Oracle to Xiaozhuan is a stage; of Han Dynasty official script from the following is another stage. The former is the scope of ancient writing, which belongs to the category of modern language. Generally speaking, from the official script to use today on modern Chinese characters did not change significantly.
Chinese characters with Chinese relations, Chinese character is a morpheme words. From the structure of Chinese characters themselves look Chinese is ideographic, phonetic radical with (shape next to the sound side), and neither intended nor phonetic form of the sign language system consisting of.
Origin of Chinese Characters in the picture. Produced in the early stages of Chinese characters, pictograms of the shape of the morpheme with the meaning it represents a direct contact occurs. Although every word has its own fixed pronunciation, but the shape itself is not phonetic symbols, alphabetic letters with different nature. Pictographic character is that it represents the pronunciation of morpheme onto it. With the evolution of shape, becoming less and less pictographic hieroglyphs. The result is shaped with the morpheme it represents lost in the original sense of the link. This time, shaped itself is neither phonetic nor semantic, into abstract sign. If the Chinese word for all this not by morpheme phonetic meaning of the sign is not representative of the table, then the character can be said to mark a kind of pure text. But is not the case. Chinese characters have unique characters and compound characters of distinction. Only single characters is a sign of pure text. Compound characters are combined by the result of independent characters. From the structure, said compound characters than a single high-level characters. Because of the unique composition of compound characters characters themselves though are marked, but when it is a fit composition of the word, it is a sound a sense of "character" of the capacity of. Compound characters can be divided into the following three categories:
② fit Associative. The ancients said, "just as Wu Ge," "hide the letter." For the "Wu" and "trust" the word, this interpretation is wrong. However, inside the Chinese system has caused in this way the word, such as "straight for the crooked," "bad for the Nao." This class is characterized by the word convergence is identical to the meaning of words to express the meaning of the compound characters. Very few such words, only individual examples.
Chinese characters have been used to record more than 3,000 years of history, has been in use to this day, never stopped. In such a long period of time, the Chinese people's real life, not only for the service, and record the rich cultural information; even across national boundaries, are Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other neighboring countries to records by non-Chinese language.
On the other hand, has long been criticism of Chinese characters are also disadvantages, the main character is that hard to believe, hard to write, difficult to mechanization (print layout, typing, etc.). Therefore, literacy, child literacy, education, culture, communication and so on, are not as phonetic and high efficiency.
Compared with alphabetic writing, Chinese characters has its weaknesses, but also has its strengths. Chinese greatest strengths is the ability to transcend space and time constraints. Ancient and modern Chinese pronunciation is a lot different. However, to shape fairly stable in 2000, did not change much, meaning the change is relatively small, so an old Qin and Han people today can read part. If the ancient books is written with alphabetic writing, modern people would simply not understand. Some dialect differences are large, they can not talk, but written in Chinese characters, will be able to understand each other, the reason is the same.
Simplified Chinese characters began 50 years of work. 1986 re-released "Master List of Simplified Chinese Characters" provides more than 2000 Simplified Chinese (including simplified radical analogy with words). This work has now come to an end, the future will remain stable within a period not to simplify. Been simplified because the text would undermine the stability, and simplify the number of characters after the original complex characters and not be abolished. The result is ever-increasing number of Chinese characters, instead of increasing the learning and use of the burden.
Pinyin on the text of the question, has long been controversial. In theory, any natural language can be used phonetic records. However, due to dialect differences, in the promotion of Putonghua is not broad, practical results before use phonetic dialect area will bring great difficulties. In addition, Chinese long history and a large number of documents are recorded in Chinese characters. Once the change course, bound to the extensive use of in the literature have created some difficulty in social psychology and may cause fluctuations in national sentiment. In fact, prolonged use of Chinese characters that can be ideographic writing system, there can be a large number of homonyms in Chinese words, and this phenomenon does occur, and now corresponds to a syllable up to tens of hundreds of Chinese characters, if you use pinyin to record voice, there will not read them I can not understand the phenomenon, even after a long period of training can not completely solve this problem, so if you really want to work for Romanization, can not be completed overnight, in the Chinese developed to fit extent before, the best Latin-based program on hold.
For instance, Mr. Lu's book "The Story of Ah Q" in the title of "Q" word, according to Lu Xun said to himself, but also by the influence of Latin.
Latin Chinese can not be strong evidence of
"Shi's History of Food Lion," Chao
Shishi Shi Shi Shi Shi, L. Lion, vowed to eat ten lions.
He often as the Lion City.
10 o'clock, ten lions at the market.
Is when the city of Shi happened.
He looked at those 10 lions, the use of arrows, so that is the ten lions to die.
He bundled up the 10 lion carcasses stone chamber.
Shishi wet, so that paternity swab's stone chamber.
Shishi Shi, he then tried to eat those ten lions.
Food when he realized that those ten lions were in fact ten stone lion corpses.
Interpreting is a matter of.
Notes
Sterling is a food lion history written by the Chao restrictions article. The full text is 90 words, each word of Mandarin pronunciation is shi. This classical works and no problems in reading, but when read in Mandarin or Latin-based works, the problem appeared. This is a classical Chinese homophone many. This essay can be read, but if you read to someone else, he is in any case did not understand!
Dialect
China's vast territory, large population and complicated dialects. Below the thick dialect into Mandarin Chinese and non-Mandarin to illustrate the two categories. Mandarin located in the south bank of the Yangtze River and Yangtze River areas north of Jiujiang and Zhenjiang area between the river and Hubei, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou four provinces, including northern Mandarin, JAC Mandarin, Southwestern Mandarin dialect area a few. Mandarin area of the region accounts for 3 / 4 of the population accounts for 2 / 3. Mandarin dialect relatively high degree of internal consistency. From Harbin to Kunming, 3,000 km apart, the two people who talk without major difficulty. Non-Mandarin dialects are mainly distributed in southeastern China, including Wu dialect (southern Jiangsu Province, Zhejiang most), Gan dialect (most of Jiangxi, Hunan, eastern, north-western Fujian, southeastern Hubei, Anhui, south-west), Hunan dialect (in Hunan Department of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region North), Cantonese (Guangdong most, southeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), Min dialects (Fujian, Taiwan, Guangdong, Chaozhou, Shantou and Hainan), Hakka dialects (the eastern and northern Guangdong Province, western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, Taiwan). Non-Mandarin Mandarin area than the area of the region is small, but large differences in dialect, generally can not talk to each other, even within the same dialect area (eg southern Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu Wu dialect Wu dialect, between Fuzhou and Xiamen words between words), conversation are difficult. Chinese dialect differences between the voice on the largest, followed by vocabulary, grammar, the differences in the minimum. Voice of the difference in the on_set_ of the simplified, the size of final consonants, and tone class distinction was especially evident on. For example, Wu dialect plosive consonants are voiced stops [b, d, g], unaspirated voiceless stop [p, t, k] and aspirated voiceless stop [p, t, k] 3 _set_s, and Mandarin after only 2 _set_s. Cantonese final consonants are [m, n, ŋ, p, t, k] 6 个, Suzhou dialect only [n, ŋ,?] 3 个, Beijing dialect only [n, ŋ] 2 个. There Cantonese Tones Yangping, IIA, IIB, IIIA and IIIB, the IVA, the IVA and IVB nine tones. Beijing dialect has Tones IB and IIIA from mid falling tone 4 tone. Yantai, then level tone, regardless of yin and yang, only a level tone, rising tone, falling tone three tone classes is a tone system, one of the most simple dialect.
As the modern and the ancient dialect of the Tones Tones very neat correspondence between the relations, so usually use the flat, on the go, enter the name of such ancient tones to mark the modern dialect tone. Note that the name of the Tones of the same dialect, does not mean that the same tone value. Such as Beijing, then the second tone is rising tone (35), Tianjin, then the second tone is a high level tone (55), and Hankou, then the second tone is tortuous tune (214).
Syntactic differences between dialects can give "Ba" and repeated questions as an example. "Ba" is the Mandarin dialects very important area of a sentence, but the Wu dialect Cantonese and no such sentence. For example, Beijing would use "the" word of the sentence (clean clothes), Cantonese is often to use "verb + object" to say (clean piece of clothing). In most of the Mandarin dialect, the repeated questions of the form "V is not V" (V on behalf of the verb, such as: go or not │ recognize not recognize). However, in some of the JAC and the Southwest Mandarin Mandarin (for example, if Kunming), and part of the Wu dialect (such as Suzhou dialect), the repeated questions of the form "can be V" (to go │ can recognize).
Chinese branch
Chinese language contained in the issue, controversial in linguistics. There are two different views: One view is that Chinese and only Chinese language; the other that the Chinese, including Min, and Cantonese, Hakka, Wu, Gan, Xiang and other languages. Most scholars in China to support the former, while the majority of scholars outside of China, particularly in the West to support the latter from a linguistic point of view. Support the latter view argued that not a single Chinese language, but a cluster of interrelated relatives in different languages. Those who support the former view will be Min, Cantonese, Hakka, Wu, Gan, Xiang Chinese dialects such as, for example, Chao considered the standard language (Mandarin) is a dialect, Min, Cantonese and other dialects also. However, in practice, customarily called "dialect" with each other or with the standard can not communicate between the Chinese language more often than from the same language under the European languages but also far between. For example, a person will only be available in Spanish Spanish and Portuguese, another person will reach a communication, but one can only Cantonese and one can only shed light on when people are totally deaf understand what each other said.
China under the Chinese branch of the different linguistic characteristics of the Chinese dialects is divided into the traditional seven. Within seven dialects in this, there are still areas of different sub-dialects. Sometimes these sub-dialects in the region of the user can not understand each other. Different dialect areas in the language of human consciousness is quite different. For example, one may use the Cantonese dialect of Hong Kong people feel and speak the Taishan dialect of Cantonese have a lot in common, although they may not understand each other.
Geographical differences in the dialect is also very obvious. Mandarin in the north, northwest or southwest, then Mandarin area, several hundred kilometers apart from each other and the general oral communication, but certain parts of speech and vocabulary is also a great change; However, in many parts of southern China, especially in mountainous areas, may exist within the geographical scale oral communication difficulties between the dialects. Give an extreme example, such as Fujian province, the gap is only 10 km of local residents may have can not be freely exchanged verbal.
Chinese dialects Mandarin, or Mandarin dialects: that of North China, Northeast and Northwest regions, most of Hubei, Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, northern Jiangxi Province along the Yangtze River, north-central Anhui, Jiangsu and north-central dialect language used. Mandarin can be divided into North Mandarin, Northwest Mandarin, Southwestern Mandarin, JAC Mandarin, North Mandarin located in the north east of Beijing, then to represent the northwest Mandarin located in the north west to Xi'an, then to represent the southwest Mandarin located in the south west, If the representative of Chengdu, located in the south of Jianghuai Mandarin east of Yangzhou, then if the JAC representatives. Ya sound ancient period in the Central Plains of China in the five casually, dressed crossed, the differentiation into Middle Chinese voice. The modern "Mandarin dialect," formed in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. Mandarin in the formation of later, North and South 分别 of development, and differentiated into South Mandarin and northern Mandarin for future Chinese generations of official language, the North Mandarin has a Modern Standard Base (continents, as Mandarin, Taiwan, known as Mandarin) . Use of this dialect accounts for 70% of China's population.
Be pointed out that "Mandarin dialect", in the past referred to as "northern dialect," not confined to northern China. On the contrary, in southwest China and the Huaihe region belong to the Southern dialect Mandarin dialect.
Mandarin obvious features include: loss of all the MC Entering, Middle Chinese in "- p,-t,-k,-m,-n,-ng" coda is left "-n,-ng", but emergence of a large number of children of Rhyme "-r" coda. The original connection "i, ü" and finals "g, k, h" has been palatalized consonant into "j, q, x" initials. Mandarin words in the loss of voicing opposition in the process of differentiation has not been dramatic tone, but there up into the square outside the Middle softly. Therefore, the Mandarin dialects contain a large number of homonyms and the corresponding compounds produced. The phenomenon is relatively rare in other dialects.
Wu, or Wu dialect: in southern Jiangsu, southern Anhui, Shanghai and Zhejiang, the majority of regions. Typically represented by Wu in Suzhou dialect. Southwest of Anhui Province is affected by the Gan language, southern Zhejiang, if retained more features of the ancient Bai Yue, and even can not, and as typical of the Taihu Wu Wu calls. The number of users is about 8.4% of the total population. This dialect of consonants on the voicing distinction is a very distinctive features. But Wu retained fuzzy Middle Chinese entering tone.
Hakka, or Hakka: Hakka in southern China and most widely used among She, including Guangdong, eastern, northern, western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, Guangxi, south-east and other places to Meixian it represented. Although a Southern dialect, but the Hakka immigrants moving south in the north formed. Hakka and thus retained some characteristics of medieval Central Plains words. Using the Hakka population of about 5% of the total population. Hakka dialect is characterized by level tone, rising tone, regardless of yin and yang, but the entering tone, falling tone Yin and Yang.
Min, Min dialect, or: in Fujian, Hainan, Guangdong, eastern Taiwan, the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, a number of other overseas Chinese to use. Min's internal divisions as larger, usually divided into Minnan dialect (in Xiamen, then as the representative) and the Northern words, if Fujian (Fuzhou, then as the representative), and central Fujian Putian and dialects. Min of all dialects, the only incomplete and there is a direct correspondence Rhyming Dictionary of Medieval Chinese dialects, of which the most influential Taiwanese. However, according to research existing voice, sound system very close to the Min Ancient Chinese phonology.
Cantonese: Cantonese as representative of some areas in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Macao and overseas Chinese has been used. Cantonese is the Chinese dialect in the tone one of the most complex, has nine tones (there are 10 pieces Guinan goulou tone). Also to retain the most complete medieval dialect of Chinese. Cantonese contains p, t, k, m, n, ng six final consonants. Differences within the little Cantonese. Using the Cantonese population of about 5% of the total. However, there is no mixing Cantonese Tone can be considered to retain the ancient Chinese Cantonese ingredients to early Wu, but later in the Min.
Xiang, or Hunan dialect: in Hunan use. Classified according to whether to retain voiced initials, can be divided into two types of old Xiang Xiang and the new, which have been voiced initials Xiang Qinghua relatively close to the new Southwest Mandarin. Changsha, respectively, then (the new) and Twin Peaks, then (the old) to represent the user about 5% of the total population. The history of Hunan and Hubei provinces strongly influenced by northern cultures, so Xiang larger internal differences. And multiple periods of overlapping speech features in ancient Chinese.
Gan, Nanchang, then as the representative, also known dialect, called as servant language. Sino-Tibetan languages are Chinese, mainly used for most of Jiangxi, Hunan, eastern, southwestern Anhui and other places. The number of users is about to use a population of about 51.48 million (see chart, previous data on 30 million is inaccurate), is the seven major dialect of Chinese. Gan language
http://baike.baidu.com/view/775972.htm
The following are several dialects constitute separate major dialect areas, are still controversial:
Jin Language: Most of Shanxi and Shaanxi in the north west of Hebei, Henan, northwestern region of Inner Loop and other places used as the representative of Taiyuan, then there into the Finals - [-ʔ] (which looks like a question mark in the International Phonetic Alphabet is tight guttural. In Tone [-p/-t/-k] disappear before occurrence of 'entering tone weakening', [-p/-t/-k] all became [-ʔ]). The Mandarin pronunciation system and different. Previous (and now many linguistic scholars) to its attributed Mandarin.
Ping words: use in some parts of Guangxi. Pinghua traditionally attributed to Cantonese, Guangxi Beijing in recent years been advocated as an isolated dialect words there.
Hui words: southern Anhui, and Jiangxi and Zhejiang in the Soviet part of the adjacent regions. Previous (and now part of the linguistic scholars) to attributed Wu.
History
Chinese is the language of the world's most ancient one, is by far the longest common language for one of the languages. The evolution of Chinese history is a very interesting question. Chinese writing system - characters, non-phonetic, not as phonetic as directly aware of the history of a word with the pronunciation. Fortunately, the characters (especially the form of sound words), poetry, rhythm and the translation of foreign names can be found in effective information.
Ancient Chinese
According to legend, when the Yellow Emperor in the original "nations", Xia country when there are 3000, 800 weekly feudal lords, and the "five-party of the people speak the same language" ("Book of North Song").
Exist in the early Zhou Dynasty Ancient Chinese and medium-term (11 to the first 7 century BC), written records of the Inscriptions on the bronzes, "The Book of Songs," written by and part history book, "Book of Changes."
According to "Book of Mean" twenty-eight chapters it reads: "Today got off with the track, and the writing, line homotopy." Can be seen during the Zhou dynasty began to implement a unified language.
The early spring, found in the vassal state also recorded more than 170. To the Warring States period, the formation of "Minao", "Zhu Hou Lizheng, no unification on the King, ... ... words sound different, special forms of writing" ("Origin of Chinese Characters Syria").
100 in the writings of philosophers used to be called "elegant language" in common language. "Ya Yan," Poetry "," book ", the Executive ceremony, are also elegant language." ("The Analects of Confucius described the")
After the reunification of the Qin Dynasty, to further standardize the text to Xiaozhuan official language as an official.
Middle Chinese
This Chinese language used in Sui, Tang and Song Dynasty (7th century to 10th century), can be divided into "Qieyun" (AD 601) involved early, and "Rhyme" (10th century) reflected late. Karlgren this stage, known as "Ancient Chinese."
Linguists have been able to reconstruct a more self-confident voice of Middle Chinese system. This evidence comes from several sources: a variety of modern dialects, phonology, and foreign language translation.
As the Indo-European languages can be reconstructed from the modern Indo-European languages, as well as by Middle Chinese dialect reconstruction. In addition, the ancient Chinese writers spent a great deal of effort to sum up the Chinese language voice system, the information is still the basis for the work of modern linguists. Finally, the Chinese voice from the translation of foreign languages learned.
Modern Chinese
Modern Chinese is among the ancient Chinese and modern Chinese literature in the vernacular, represented by the early Chinese.
Modern Chinese
Modern Chinese dialects are based on the North, then to a model of modern Chinese writings for the syntax of Chinese.
Written and spoken
The difference between written and spoken language has been considerable. In the "54" period before the Vernacular Movement, the distinction between written and spoken language is in fact the distinction between ancient and modern languages. Case Study of the Tang and Song era, when the population of the vernacular that is they wrote the classical Chinese, that is, philosophers and "Zuo Zhuan", "Historical Records" and a wide range widely read poem in classical style for the template. This situation can probably push up to the Han Dynasty. Down lasted until the early 20th century. Wills 1925, Sun Yat-sen on or use of classical Chinese writing. However, in 2000 as the classical Chinese written language itself is also changing. Antique difficult after all the real thing, not after the people of the world can not imitate the old saying was spoken of. Han Yu's article was that there is significant parts of sub-Qin syntax. Qin Tong Cheng Qing prose writer in imitation of the text and prose writer of the article in the Tang and Song, the result will certainly be more heterogeneous. Liang Qing Dynasty classical Chinese written in a plain political essays. As easy to understand, all the rage, as newspapers and magazines are widely used. At present, Taiwan, Hong Kong and overseas Chinese newspapers still follow most of this style. May 4th Movement carried out against the classical Chinese literary revolution raised to promote the idea of the vernacular. The movement swept the country, far-reaching. Few years, the vernacular literature on hold. But this vernacular literature is not really speaking the language, but do take the North Mandarin base and, with the Ming and Qing vernacular fiction considerable influence, also with varying degrees of Dialect and the number of new vocabulary and syntax Europeanization mixed style. Lu Xun's works can be used as such a style typical example.
Above that the literature. As news reports, a government statement, documents, business contracts, and even private letters, often still use the classical. That was the traditional custom dictates, on the other hand also because of the advantages of classical Chinese has a nutshell. This case, the whole country, has been extended to the 40 end of the decade. 1949 The People's Republic of China is established, the classical Chinese was fully gave way to the vernacular. In addition to cable and other interested in archaism, no one had to write classical Chinese.
As noted above, modern written Chinese is the language that contains many different levels of mixture components. In terms of syntax or vocabulary point of view it was. Take syntax, the written language with spoken language in addition to the same sentence that part, and some come from the classical Chinese, and later gradually melt in the written language, the part of a written sentence. Such as "conduct, to be given" is used quite frequently written a few verbs. The original meaning of these verbs have been empty, and the main function is to be placed in front of two-tone verb to suit the requirements of syntax and rhythm. This syntactic structure derived from the classical Chinese. "Conduct" of the formerly "OK" (further proposed office), "to" the formerly "plus" (strict control), "be" and "give" the formerly "I" (not prosecuted). In the classical syntax, the "line, plus, to the" front of the adverb must be followed with a single tone, resulting in two-syllable structure, the verb must also be behind the two-syllable. In the modern written language, the these verbs disyllabism, and back or a request with the two-syllable verbs, grammatical constraints is the same strain.
Modern written language began to take shape when the novel was from the old vernacular language in inherited some sentences. This phase is now over. We can see only some ruins. Such as "word in + location" in the structure can be placed in front of the verb ("sitting at the table"), also can be placed behind the verb ("sitting on the stage"). In the Beijing dialect, the prefix "in" use "with" use [āi] or [tǎi], post-"in" with [· tə], are not "the." Use "in" argument is from the old vernacular novel inherited.
Some written sentence is subject to foreign language (English, Japanese, Russian, etc.) directly or indirectly (through translations) of elections. In this context can give an important influence all written sentences grammatical phenomena as an example. Mentioned above, Chinese in the loose relationship between subject and predicate. Sentence is often the subject may not say so. Some sentences or no subject. Modern and Ancient Chinese spoken true. But the demands of modern written form should have a subject in a sentence. If no, would feel the structure is not complete, the logic is not careful. This is obviously affected by the Indo-European influence.
The characteristics of written language in the vocabulary is a two-syllable word in the proportion. Two-syllable words written in addition to classical inherited from the outside part, are 19th century the 100 years since the new emerging. Some of them come from the Japanese lend, and the other is a new creation. The new words are mostly used to create the original morpheme (writing Chinese characters is) caused by compound words. Impetuous is Nengchan, and strong vitality.
Chinese is accurate. I remember in my early school days, openly language textbook was written: "Walking the road is the Chinese pinyin inevitable trend." The most important one reason is that English can be typing, but Chinese can not. With the development of computer technology, keyboard input of Chinese characters has been far more than the English rate, and speed also been rapidly increasing. Can enter it in English? Seems not to be moved further delay.
The development of Chinese
Character of word formation wonderful workmanship. Prefix prefix, suffix suffix is commonly used in English word formation.
Saccharose (saccharin) and Saccharomycetes (yeast) have the same Latin prefix, but remember they are not easy, even on the American people, at least I've tested a few speakers of English engineering graduate is the case. One-dimensional string-like structure is not eye-catching lead to a direct cause is unknown. How to graduate school, and even yeast and saccharin are not aware that someone is Jiaoren think?
Group of words with Chinese characters to describe it concise. Even without eating saccharin, never used yeast uneducated Chinese, he also understand that saccharin may be sugar, "refining part of the" sweeter than sugar (although it inaccurate); yeast is "a can cause fermentation of the bacteria. " But the English can not be so simple group of words, even if the group am not unacceptable: saccharin = Sugessece = "Sugar" + "Essence" ("Sugar" and "spirit" together), yeast = Yeabacteria = "Yeast "+" Bacteria "(" fermentation "and" bacteria "together). Would that not be too much for it?
One-dimensional string-like with phonetic word formation before the suffix is different from two-dimensional character through the way of configuration. For example:
"Person" in nowhere in the four walls become "prisoners";
"Wood" in nowhere to be within the four walls of "difficulties";
"Lucy" - under the "Rain" days in Malaysia, "Road" to violence, "Lucy" in the rain under a;
"M" (food-related) "Don" (Table Voice) = "sugar";
CHAI "rice" on the long "grass" = "bacteria";
"Wood" "forest" "forest" - are the tree, woods and forest means, but what kind of comparison Morphology better? Answer at a glance.
In today's English Society, followed by the early English Characters and Latin roots as early as the word, has been gradually pulling away, similar to the above made Sugessece, Yeabacteria not be a little joke, daily life every day. Stores of different brands of chocolate, candy will always have different names, some names not found in the dictionary, they will with a factory production and generate some kind of chocolate, die die. When an Australian read the word, he does not realize that this is an area very popular in North America as a candy, as most Chinese people can only shook his head Bale.
Preference information technology era character. I do not know whether you understand the "fuzzy math", "fuzzy control" or "neural networks" and other new disciplines? If you come into contact with, you will understand the human art, philosophy, sense of seemingly "precise", but actually they are beyond the current level of knowledge of mankind today can accurately describe the scope. With the ability to increase human knowledge, they gradually will be a whole new knowledge of human structure accurately grasp new subject cited above is the new knowledge structure off the episode. Oriental Art Chinese character embodies the philosophy of the Chinese nation's culture lies. Limited to the current technological level, it's wisdom we are still not fully understanding its excavation in the ascendant. This claim is not unfounded, after all, no one realized that 15 years ago, traditional Chinese publishing industry to be eliminated; 10 years ago people did not expect the input Chinese characters faster than the English, but also faster; 5 years before the press did not think the traditional media will be gradually phased out, "Nanfang Dushi Bao" with the century-old newspaper "Ta Kung Pao" stand on the same starting line, the Internet news rush codeword. Character who does not venture to assert, after a number of years program is not possible or not as good as English?
Chinese characters are flexible, but need flexible people to use; character is smart, but depends on the development of smart people; character is full of wisdom, intelligent people need to realize her value. Pride for the Chinese! More convinced that the coming era of Chinese people's enthusiasm and confidence of Chinese cheered!
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