漢語方言 Chinese dialects 世界上使用人數最多的語言。
漢語拼音方案 the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet
漢語拼音字母 the Chinese phonetic alphabet
漢語史 history of Chinese language
世界主要語言之一。屬漢藏語係，是這個語係裏最主要的語言。除了中國大陸和臺灣省以外，漢語還分佈在新加坡、馬來西亞等地。以漢語為母語的人大約有１３億（３０００萬人作為第二語言）。漢語是聯合國的工作語言之一。
漢語的標準語是近幾百年來以北方官話為基礎逐漸形成的。它的標準音是北京音。漢語的標準語在中國大陸稱為普通話，在臺灣稱為國語，在新加坡、馬來西亞稱為華語。 在廣義上是指漢族的語言，狹義上指普通話，另外還有國語、華語、中文等稱呼都是指漢語。毫無疑問，漢語是世界上使用人數最多的一種語言，世界上大約有1/5的人使用漢語作為母語。漢語也曾對其周邊的國傢的語言文字産生過重要影響。例如日語、韓語、越南語中都保留有大量的漢語藉詞以及漢語書寫體係文字。漢語是一種中國語文。
漢語作為世界特有的象形文字語言，文字高度的統一與規範，現代漢語有統一和規範的語法，儘管方言發音差異特別大，但是書面語言規範，沒有方言差異造成的書面交流障礙。漢語的超方言性對維係中華民族的統一起了巨大的作用。
漢語屬於獨立語，分析語。漢語的書寫方式是一種象形文字的漢字。五四運動之前所使用的書面語叫做“文言”，是一種以孔子時代所使用的以“雅言”為基礎的書面語。五四運動之後所推動的書面漢語通常被稱為“白話”，即以北方話為基礎的現代書面語。在現代漢語的書面語中，文言已經很少使用了。
都說漢語難學，其實漢語語言是很簡單的，漢語中無時態變化，動詞 形容詞也無變化，無連讀，語言簡練，發音清晰，語速緩慢。是很容易學的一種語言。難學的是漢字。
語音
漢語的音節可以分析成聲母、韻母、聲調３部分。打頭的音是聲母，其餘的部分是韻母，聲調是整個音節的音高。把聲調也看成音節的組成部分，是因為漢語的聲調是辨義的。例如“湯、糖、躺、燙”４個字的聲母都是[tang],韻母都是[ang]（方括弧裏是國際音標，表格裏的國際音標省去括弧），衹是因為聲調不同，意義就不一樣，在語言裏分別代表 ４個不同的語素，在書面上寫成 ４個不同的字。
聲母都是輔音。最復雜的韻母由介音、主要元音和韻尾 3部分組成。韻尾有的是輔音，有的是元音。北京音的輔音聲母有22個。介音有、[u]、[y] (同ü)3個。輔音韻尾有[n]和[ŋ]，元音韻尾有[]和[u]。在組成音節的聲母、介音、主要元音和韻尾 4部分裏，衹有主要元音不能沒有，其餘 3部分都不是必須出現的。這種情形可以從表 1音節的成分舉的例字裏看出來。北京話的聲母見表 2北京話聲母，北京話的韻母見表 3北京話韻母。
１９１８年由當時的教育部頒布的國語註音字母是利用漢字字形製定的一套拼音字母。這套字母把主要元音與韻尾合在一起用一個符號表示（例如：ㄠ＝[au]，ㄢ＝[an]），體現了傳統的聲母韻母兩分的精神。註音字母廣泛流傳，影響很大。臺灣省一直沿用至今。
１９５８年公佈的漢語拼音方案采用拉丁字母（表２北京話聲母、表３北京話韻母）。自1978年開始，中國人名地名一律改用漢語拼音字母拼寫，取代了威妥瑪式等各種舊拼法。
拼音是拼讀音節的過程，就是按照普通話音節的構成規律，把聲母、韻母急速連續拼合併加上聲調而成為一個音節。拼音的要領是：“前音（聲母）輕短後音（韻母）重，兩音相連猛一碰。”拼音時要牢記普通話聲母和韻母的配合規律：
聲母n、l及零聲母與開口呼、齊齒呼、撮口呼都有拼合關係。
聲母f、g、k、h、zh、ch、r、z、c、s衹同開口呼、合口呼相拼。
聲母j、x、q衹同齊齒呼、撮口呼相拼。
聲母b、p、m、d、t不同撮口呼相拼。
開口呼、合口呼韻母同除去j、q、x外的其他聲母都有拼合關係。
撮口呼韻母衹同j、q、x、n、l及零聲母有拼合關係。
拼音時還要註意讀準聲母、韻母和聲調的音值。要讀聲母本音，不要念呼讀音（教學中，在聲母後面配上不同的元音，而發出的音叫呼讀音）；要把韻母作為一個整體來讀，不要把韻頭、韻腹、韻尾分解開再臨時拼合；要看清調號，讀準調值。
常用的拼讀方法有以下幾種：
聲韻兩拼法——把韻母當作一個整體，拿來跟聲母相拼。如：h-ào→（浩）。
聲母兩拼法——先找準聲母發音部位，擺好發音的架勢，然後一口氣念出韻母，拼成音節。如：拼讀bā（巴），先閉上雙唇，憋住一口氣，擺好發b音的姿勢，然後一口念出a，成為音節。
三拼連讀法——是把帶介音的音節分析成聲、介、韻三個部件，拼音時連讀成一個音節。如：q-i-áng→qiáng（強）
聲介合母和韻母連接法--是把聲母和介音（介母）拼合起來，構成一個拼音部件，再同隨後的韻母相拼。如：gu-āng→guāng（光）。
漢語拼音的由來
古代沒有拼音，就使用反切，就是用兩個認識會念的字，取第一個的聲母，取第二個的韻母，拼合起來就行了。
古代，中國的回族兄弟不學漢字，學習阿拉伯語，但他們用阿拉伯文的字母來拼寫口語（漢語），所以這是中國最早的拼音。
元朝，蒙古統治者用改變了的藏文的字母來拼寫漢語等語言，叫八思巴字。雖然不是專門拼寫漢語的，但是，也算漢語拼音的一種吧。
明朝，西方傳教士用拉丁字母拼寫漢語，是中國最早的拉丁字拼音。
明末清初，出現了用簡單的古字表現漢語語音的拼音方式。中華民國年間，政府製定了“註音字母”，就是這個係統的集中表現。現在臺灣依然使用。但是，同時也出現了拉丁字的拼音運動，而且，跟左翼人士的政治運動結合很密切。
中華人民共和國成立後，政府立即製定了“漢語拼音方案”，就是現在使用的這一套方案。聯合國也承認的。
漢語拼音是中華人民共和國的漢字“拉丁化”方案，於１９５５—１９５７年文字改革時被中國文字改革委員會漢語拼音方案委員會研究製定。
該拼音方案主要用於漢語普通話讀音的標註，作為漢字的一種普通話音標。１９５８年２月１１日的全國人民代表大會批準公佈該方案。１９８２年，成為國際標準ISO 7098（中文羅馬字母拼寫法）。
目前大部分海外華人地區如新加坡在漢語教學中采用漢語拼音。
漢語拼音方案最早可以追溯到１９０６年朱文熊的《江蘇新字母》和１９０８年劉孟揚的《中國音標字書》，還有１９２６年的國語羅馬字和１９３１年的拉丁化中國字。所有這些漢字拉丁化方案都為漢語拼音的製定提供了基礎。
１９４９年，吳玉章給毛澤東寫信，提出為了有效的掃除文盲，需要迅速進行文字改革。毛澤東把信批復給郭沫若、茅盾等人研究，於１９４９年１０月成立中國文字改革協會，其中一項任務就是研究漢語拼音方案。
１９５４年，中國文字改革協會改為國務院直屬的中國文字改革委員會，其間收到各種漢語拼音方案１６００多個。大致有這樣幾種形式：
漢字筆畫式
拉丁字母式
斯拉夫字母式
幾種字母的混合形式
速記式
圖案式
數字形式
而最後决定采用拉丁字母作為漢語拼音的符號係統，以便於國際間的交流和合作。
【拼音的由來】
金尼閣，字四表，原名尼古拉·特裏戈，１５７７年３月３日生於今法國的杜埃城，當時為比利時領土，故金尼閣自稱比利時人，而陳垣等人亦稱其為“比利時人”。 １５９４年１１月９日入耶穌會。１６０７年往遠東傳教，１６１０年（萬歷三十八年，即利馬竇卒年）秋抵澳門，翌年春詣金陵。隨郭居靜、高一志二神父學習華語（另一說從郭居靜及王豐肅）。郭居靜神父到杭州開教，他亦同行。後往北京報告南方的教務，深得竜華民的賞識。１６１３年去羅馬嚮教皇保羅五世“奏陳教務，並請準翻譯經典，司鐸用華言行聖祭，誦日課，教宗一一允準”，但因客觀情況未實行。但他是“第一個嚮教廷請準以中文舉行彌撒，行其他聖事，以及誦念‘日課’的”。
金尼閣“集利馬竇筆記為蠟頂文中國開教史”即《基督教遠征中國史》，１６１５年１月１４日出版（一說１６１５年２月出版）。此書全部敘述是為歐洲人撰寫的。金尼閣刊行《基督教遠征中國史》，題獻教皇，道“書中初次精確地、忠實地描述了中國的朝廷、風俗、法律、制度以及新的教務問題”，是為歐洲人敘述中國比較完備無訛之第一部書，亦可說是第一部稱得起“漢學”的著作，當時頗具聲譽。是書原為利馬竇神甫的意大利文紀錄，經金尼閣譯為拉丁文，並增加了兩章，敘述馬竇之病故及殯葬的事。
利瑪竇１５８３年來到中國，１６０５年在北京出版了《西字奇跡》，其中有《信而步海，疑而即沉》等４篇漢字文章加了拉丁字母的註音。羅常培根據文章的漢字與拉丁文對照的譯文，整理出一個包括２６個聲母和４４個韻母的漢語拼音方案。這是最早用拉丁字母給漢字註音的出版物，比“小經”用阿拉伯字母給漢字拼音稍晚，“小經”大概是最早用字母文字給漢字拼音的嘗試。《西字奇跡》原書已不容易找到，據說，梵蒂岡圖書館尚有藏本。
金尼閣回歐洲後，演講招募去中國傳教之人，衆人被其極富魅力的鼓動所吸引，爭先恐後，以致於當地教會不得不出面婉言勸阻。金尼閣在吸引和選擇人才方面，可謂功不可沒。同時為在中國的教會圖書館募集圖書，帶來教皇所賜之西書七千多部（《遠西奇器圖說》原作便是金尼閣帶來的七千部書中之一）。
１６１９年，金尼閣再次抵達澳門。１６２１年春金尼閣“往南昌，旋又赴建昌韶州，視察教務。翌年赴杭州被難；一六二三年，往河南開封開教，翌年往山西”，1625年赴陝西。１６２６年在王徵的協助下，完成《西儒耳目資》三捲。《西儒耳目資》的目的，據他自述，“在使中國人能在三天內通曉西方文字體係”。
《西儒耳目資》作於１６２５年，１６２６年在杭州出版，自稱沿襲利瑪竇所創體製，即用利瑪竇二十五字母“互相結合，上加五個字調記號，來拼切一切漢字的讀音。這是一本用拉丁字母給漢字註音的字匯,也是一部最早用音素字母給漢字註音的字匯。註音所用的方案是在利瑪竇方案的基礎上修改的，人稱“利、金方案”。
“利、金方案”的出現對當時中國的音韻學者有很大的啓發。這兩個方案是最早的漢語拼音方案，是以“官話讀書音”為標準寫的，適合於拼寫北京音。於是漢字讀音就顯得極其簡單，極其有條理，不但把嚮來被人認為繁雜的反切，開了一條所謂‘不期反而反，不期切而切’的簡易途徑，並且立刻引起了中國好些音韻學家對於這種簡易的拼音文字嚮往的熱忱”。這種新穎的拼音方法給中國學者以很大的啓迪。明末音韻學家方以智說：“字之紛也，即緣通與藉耳。若事屬一字，字各一義，如遠西因事乃合音。因音而成字，不重不共，不尤愈乎？”清朝學者楊選杞說：“辛卯戶糊口舊金吾期翁傢，其猶子蕓章，一日出《西儒耳目資》以示餘，予閱未終捲，頓悟切字有一定之理，因可為一定之法”。但是，在兩三百年間，利瑪竇和金尼閣的方案衹是在外國傳教士中使用，沒有在中國人當中廣為傳播。
方密之（以智）《通雅》成於１６３９年，書中再三稱引《西儒耳目資》，如說“西域音多，中原多不用也，當合悉曇等子與大西《耳目資》通之”，“字之紛也，即緣通與藉耳。若事屬一字，字各一義，如遠西因事乃合音，因音而成字，不重不共，不尤愈乎？”甚至提出“因事乃合音，因音而成字”（此即漢字拼音化主張的萌芽）。傳教士的方法震動了中國音韻學家，直接啓示他們在西方拼音文字幫助下尋求對漢字記音係統更完善的描寫。稍後劉獻庭（繼莊）的《新韻譜》即在這種刺激下撰成，錢玄同說劉氏已清楚認識到“必須用了音標，方能分析音素，方能表註任何地方之音”，羅常培《劉繼莊的音韻學》一文則認為該書重點就是“着眼於統一國語與調查方言”。錢玄同甚至認為，《新韻譜》成書之年（１６９２）實可作為“國語運動”的紀元。
１６２７年，再度被召回杭州，從此就在杭州專心傳教和著述。“華人曾言言詞理文筆之優，歐羅巴諸司鐸中殆無能及者。其遠非常人所能及之記憶力，其好學不倦，雖疾病而不輟，其時常從事之譯業，或譯拉丁文為漢文，或譯漢文為拉丁文，使之諳練語言文字，故言談寫作均佳，無論文言或俚語也”。他大部分的著作為拉丁文，寫成中文的即在陝西的《西儒耳目資》一書。
金尼閣第二次來華時還帶來大量外文書籍。這不僅因為他個人熱愛書籍，遵循利瑪竇開創的學術傳教之路，而且因為金尼閣在返回西歐前接受了在華傳教會讓其在歐洲廣泛募集圖書，從而在北京等地建立教會圖書館的任務。他這次前來，不衹帶來了這些西學人才，讓後人感興趣，他還為中國帶來了整整一個圖書館的書籍。據說，這些書都是精裝本，無一重複，囊括歐洲古典名著和文藝復興運動以後的神學、哲學、科學、文學藝術等方面的最新成就。為了募集新書和儀器，金尼閣漫遊意大利、法國、德國、比利時、西班牙、葡萄牙等國，終於收集了精裝圖書７０００餘部。金氏本人估計所收書籍和儀器在離歐時價值１萬金幣。為此，金尼閣擬定了一個龐大的翻譯計劃，聯絡了艾儒略、徐光啓、楊廷筠、李之藻、王徵、李天經等中外人士共同翻譯出版這些書籍。嚮達先生稱這一舉動：“比之玄奘求經西竺，蓋不多讓”。不幸的是，１６２９年１１月１４日在杭州逝世（葬於城外大方井耶穌會司鐸公墓，即今杭州市西湖區留下鎮桃源嶺村），“西書七千部”介紹給中國知識界的計劃流産。後來，李之藻和王徵等人零星翻譯了其中一些著作，大部分書籍蒙上塵埃，默默地流失。1938年，北平天主教堂整理藏書樓時發現了“七千部”中殘餘的數百部，其中有哥白尼的《天體運行論》和開普勒的《哥白尼天文學概要》等重要的科學典籍。
一、從簡略的回顧中，闡明從１９世紀末發展起來的漢語拼音運動一開始就是與語言的統一、社會的發展、民族的團结緊密結合在一起的。歷史事實不止一次的證明，無論哪一種拼音設計，違背了漢民族共同語統一的發展趨勢，註定會以失敗告終。二、通過註音符號、國羅、北拉和漢語拼音方案的歷史淵源關係，具體說明方案在哪幾方面繼承和發展了這幾種拼音的主要優點並加以創新，從而總結了二十世紀前六十多年來中國人民創製拉丁化拼音方案的歷史經驗。三、通過對臺灣通用拼音與漢語拼音之爭的分析 ，揭示隱藏在這場發生在臺灣的激烈論戰的背後，其實質性問題是什麽。
一、漢語拼音運動與國語和普通話
漢語拼音方案是拼寫漢民族標準語的拼音方案。
漢民族標準語是在十九世紀末期興起的對中華民族的社會、科學文化的發展産生過巨大影響的語文現代化運動中逐漸建立起來的。語文現代化運動最初指的是漢語拼音運動（當時叫“切音字運動、簡字運動”）、國語運動和白話文運動。清末民初的三大語文運動有一個共同的目標，那就是通過改革語言文字，普及教育，以適應當時社會發展和科學文化發展的需要，然後富國強兵，振興中華民族。國語運動是建立和推廣漢民族標準語口語的運動，而白話文運動則是提倡用能夠表達口語的白話文取代文言文作為正式書面語的運動。三個運動各有自己的追求目標，但內在關係卻十分密切。就歷史淵源關係說，切音字運動發生最早並引發了國語運動。其後，國語標準音的確立，註音字母的製定，一直到二十世紀五十年代的漢語規範化運動，漢語拼音方案的産生，都是由此一脈相承，相輔相成的。所以，我們的論述也由此入手。
漢語拼音運動的歷史前奏可以遠溯至明末，但是導致中國社會産生聲勢浩大的漢語拼音運動，其直接原因是中國人至今銘心刻骨的“甲午”國恥。這一點錢玄同在《註音字母和現代國音》（１９２９）一文中說得很清楚：“１８９４年（甲午），中國給日本打了一次敗仗，於是國中有識之士，知道非改革政治，普及教育，不足以自存於世界，但是提到普及教育，即有一個問題發生，則漢字形體之難識，難寫是也。要解决這個問題，就非另製拼音新字不可……”。於是，“推行簡字以謀求普及教育的運動，日盛一日……”。其實，文字領域中的思想革新在此之前已經開始，漢字幾千年來神聖不可侵犯的崇高地位已經發生動搖。甲午戰爭後，清政府在日本馬關簽訂了喪權辱國的“馬關條約”，除了賠償巨額軍費之外，還割讓了臺灣和澎湖等地。其時，朝野震驚，激發了社會民衆，特別是有進取精神的知識階層的愛國天良，大傢推究中國失敗的原因，一致認為“漢字不革命，則教育决不能普及，國傢斷不能富強。”當時，被稱為“思想界之彗星”的譚嗣同就首先帶頭呼籲廢除漢字，改用拼音文字。各界人士群起響應，紛紛起來創製簡單易學的“切音新字。”清末的切音字運動，也就是漢語拼音運動就這樣如火如荼地開展起來了。
據統計，清末最後十年中，至今猶有案可查的各種拼音方案就多達二十七種。這一時期的拼音方案大多為拼寫某種方言而設計的，但拼音文字畢竟是一種拼寫語言聲音的文字，所以一開始就觸及了漢民族語言的統一問題。被當時稱之為“從事切音運動第一人”的盧戇章，在他的《切音新字序》（１８９２）中就提出製定拼音字母的兩個基本原則：“字話一律”和“字畫簡易”，也就是文字表達話音，字形簡單易寫。同時，又倡議以南京話為“各省之正音”，這樣全國“語言文字既從一律，文話皆相通，中國雖大，猶如一傢。非如嚮者之各守疆界，各操土音之對面而無言也。”這些話顯然已超出了純粹的文字改革的範圍，涉及民族語言的統一和發展了。
但是，盧戇章設計的各種拉丁化拼音方案仍然是以拼寫閩廣方言為主的。他後來嚮清政府學部呈交的《中國切音字母》也就因此被認為“不能通行各省”，“不足以統一各省之方言”而批駁了。之後不久，一種體現民族共同語發展趨嚮的切音方案—－王照的《官話合聲字母》立刻脫穎而出了。它拼寫的是當時影響最大的“京音官話”，字母形式完全采用漢字的偏旁。《官話合聲字母》通行極廣，遍及大半個中國，“由京津而奉天，而南京，官話字母遍及十三個省。”王照本人可謂完全把握了當時民族語言的發展趨嚮，他在《官話合聲字母》序中就明確宣稱：“語言必歸劃一，宜取京話……京話推廣最便，故曰官話。官者公也，公用之話，自宜擇其占幅員人數多者。”也正因為如此，他的《官話合聲字母》得到了京師大學堂（北京大學前身）總教習吳汝倫的支持並跟張之洞以及管學大臣張百熙一起奏請朝廷在“學堂章程”中規定“於國文一科內，附入官話一門”，理由是“各國語言皆歸一致”，清朝也應“以官音統一天下之語言”。他們的奏請很快得到朝廷的批準。於是，漢語拼音運動在引發了國語統一運動，並與國語統一運動合而為一的同時，得以從民間躋身政府。之後，清政府學部在“國語教育事業”（１９１１）中規定拼音“簡字”的用途有二：一是拼合國語，二是範正漢字讀音，並通過了一個“統一國語辦法案”，規定在宣統八年（１９１６）普及國語。沒想到就在這一年十月，武昌起義，辛亥革命爆發，清政府被推翻。於是，經公决並通過的“統一國語辦法案”也就成了一紙空文。確定國音，製定字母，統一國語的運動，實際是由下一個社會和國民政府開展起來的。
從上面簡略的回顧中，我們可以看到，從十九世紀末發展起來的漢語拼音運動，從一開始就是與語言的統一，社會的發展，民族的團结緊密結合在一起的。歷史事實不止一次的證明，無論哪一種拼音設計，違背了語言統一的發展趨勢，註定會以失敗告終。盧戇章設製的第一個拉丁化拼音方案，以拼寫閩廣方言為主的《中國切音字母》，因“不能通行各省”，“不足以統一各省之方言”被批駁了。其後，又有同治進士，朝廷命官勞乃宣設計了幾乎可以使用於各省主要方言的《簡字全譜》（一種漢字筆畫式的拼音文字），“全譜”包括《京音譜》，《寧音譜》（南京話）、《吳音譜》、《閩廣譜》等，幾乎涵蓋了大部分方言，而且他還提出了“引南歸北”的主張：“南人先就南音各譜學習，以便應用，學成之後，再學京音，以歸統一。”勞乃宣本人曾得到慈禧召見，他進呈的《簡字譜錄》也得到禦批，讓“學部議奏”。即便如此，清政府學部也仍然因“分裂語言，有礙統一”，始終擱置高閣，不議不奏，而社會上也對他提出了尖銳的指責，認為照他的辦法，“將使中國愈遠同文之治，”駡他是“分裂語言文字的罪魁”。對照清末切音字運動中唱主角的盧戇章、勞乃宣、王照三大傢，特別是勞乃宣和因參加了“百日維新”而受到通緝的“欽犯”王照他們兩人的拼音方案的命運，實在是足以發人深省的。
二、漢語拼音方案與註音符號、國羅、北拉的歷史淵源關係
１９１２年，民國成立後，政府繼續推行國語。在推行國語的熱潮中，國語標準音經過“京（音）國（音）問題”大辯論，由“以京音為主，兼顧南北”修正為純以京音為準的新國音，其後註音字母也更名為註音符號，並成為推行國語的利器，使國語進入師範及小學語文教學中，在電臺廣播、電影、話劇等領域中建立了牢固的陣地。
民國時期，從官話到國語，從老國音到新國音，國語運動最重要的一條歷史經驗就是要使自然形成的沒有明確標準的初級形式的民族共同語（官話）成為有明確規範的高級形式的民族共同語（國語和普通話），必須選擇一種自然語言，作為自身存在和發展的基礎。國語運動在長期的實踐中終於找到了“中國語言的心”（劉復語），明確宣佈以北京（係）作為統一全國語言的標準音（見《全國國語運動大會宣言》）。這是它最大的歷史功績，它為１９４９年新中國成立以後所開展的漢語規範化運動、推廣普通話和漢語拼音方案的製定，奠定了基礎。
從學術發展的角度看，在漢語拼音運動不同歷史時期出現的國語註音符號、國語羅馬字、北方話拉丁化新文字，直至五十年代後期的漢語拼音方案，顯然是一脈相承的繼承發展關係。漢語拼音方案的設計充分吸收了過去許多拼音設計，特別是國羅和北拉的許多寶貴經驗，並廣泛地聽取了各方面的意見。方案固然有它匠心獨運之處。但更多的是吸取並發展了歷史上許多拼音設計的長處。
語法
漢語的語素絶大部分是單音節的（手│洗│民│失）。語素和語素可以組合成詞（馬＋路→馬路│開＋關→開關）。有的語素本身就是詞（手、洗），有的語素本身不是詞,衹能跟別的語素一起組成復合詞（民→人民│失→喪失）。現代漢語裏雙音節詞占的比重最大。大部分雙音詞都是按照上面提到的復合方式造成的。
文字
從目前我們能看到的最早的成批的文字資料──商朝甲骨文字算起，漢字已有３０００年的歷史。由於甲骨文字已經是相當成熟的文字體係，我們可以推斷漢字的發生一定遠在３０００年以前。漢字的發展可以劃分為兩個大階段。從甲骨文到小篆是一個階段；從秦漢時代的隸書以下是另一個階段。前者屬於古文字的範疇，後者屬於近代文字的範疇。大體說來，從隸書到今天使用的現代漢字形體上沒有太大的變化。
從漢字跟漢語的關係看，漢字是一種語素文字。從漢字本身的構造看，漢字是由表意、表音的偏旁（形旁、聲旁）和既不表意也不表音的記號組成的文字體係。
漢字起源於圖畫。在漢字産生的早期階段，象形字的字形跟它所代表的語素的意義直接發生聯繫。雖然每個字也都有自己固定的讀音，但是字形本身不是表音的符號，跟拼音文字的字母的性質不同。象形字的讀音是它所代表的語素轉嫁給它的。隨着字形的演變，象形字變得越來越不象形。結果是字形跟它所代表的語素在意義上也失去了原有的聯繫。這個時候，字形本身既不表音，也不表義，變成了抽象的記號。如果漢語裏所有的語素都是由這種既不表音也不表義的記號代表的，那麽漢字可以說是一種純記號文字。不過事實並非如此。漢字有獨體字與合體字的區別。衹有獨體字纔是純粹的記號文字。合體字是由獨體字組合造成的。從構造上說，合體字比獨體字高一個層次。因為組成合體字的獨體字本身雖然也是記號，可是當它作為合體字的組成成分時，它是以有音有義的“字”的身份參加的。合體字可以分成以下３類：
①形聲字。形聲字由表示意義的形旁和表示讀音的聲旁兩部分組成。拿構造最簡單的形聲字來說，形旁和聲旁都是由獨體字充當的。作為形聲字的組成部分，這些獨體字都是有音有義的字。不過形旁衹取其義，不取其音，例如“鳩”字的偏旁“鳥”；聲旁則衹取其音，不取其義，例如“鳩”字的偏旁“九”。由於字義和字音的演變，有些形聲字的形旁或聲旁現在已失去了表意或表音的功能。例如“球”本來是一種玉的名稱，所以以“玉”為形旁。現在“球”字不再指玉，這個形旁就沒有作用了。再如“海”字本來以“每”為聲旁。由於字音的變化，現在“海”和“每”的讀音相去甚遠，聲旁“每”也就不起作用了。有的時候，形旁和聲旁都喪失了原來的功能，例如“給、等、短”。這一類字已經不能再作為形聲字看待了。
形聲字和非形聲字之間並沒有明確的界限。造字之初，形聲字和它的聲旁的讀音本來就不一定密合。發展到現代漢字，出入就更大了。有人拿７５００多個現代合體漢字進行統計。就普通話讀音來說，合體字跟聲旁完全同音（聲母、韻母、聲調全同）的不到５％。聲母、韻母相同而聲調不同的約占１０％。衹有韻母一項相同的約占２０％。如果我們衹把前兩類看作形聲字，那麽形聲字大概衹占通行漢字的１５％。如果把以上三類全看作形聲字，形聲字大概會占通行漢字３５％的樣子。要是把標準再放寬或者完全根據來歷確定形聲字，那麽通行漢字中形聲字的百分比還要高得多。
②合體會意字。古人說“止戈為武”，“人言為信”。對於“武”、“信”兩個字來說，這種解釋是錯誤的。不過漢字體係裏確實有按照這種方式造成的字，例如“不正為歪”，“不好為孬”。這一類字的特點是會合偏旁的字義來表現整個合體字的意義。這種字為數很少，衹有個別的例子。
以上兩類合體字裏的偏旁有的有表意作用，有的有表音作用。下邊一類的情形不同。 ③合體記號字。這一類合體字的偏旁既不表意，也不表音。這主要有兩種情形。一是由於字音和字義的變化,原來的聲旁和形旁已經不再表音、表意了。例如上文舉過的“給、等、 短”一類字。 另一種情形可以舉“章”字為例。 按照漢朝許慎《說文解字》的分析，“章”字從“音”從“十”。可是現在一般人說“立早章”（以區別於“弓長張”）的時候，是把它分析成“立”和“早”兩部分。其實從古文字看，“章”本來是一個獨體象形字，跟“音、十、立、早”都沒有關係。
漢字用來記錄漢語已經有３０００年以上的歷史，一直沿用到今天，沒有中斷過。在如此長的歷史時期裏，漢字不僅為人們的現實生活服務，而且記錄下極其豐富的文化資料；甚至跨越國界，被日本、朝鮮、越南等鄰國藉去記錄非漢語語言。
另一方面，長期以來也不斷有人批評漢字的缺點，主要是說漢字難認、難寫、難於機械化（印刷排版、打字等）。因此在掃盲、兒童識字教育、文化傳播等方面，都不如拼音文字效率高。
跟拼音文字比較起來，漢字有它的短處，但是也有它的長處。漢字最大的長處就是能夠超越空間和時間的限製。古今漢語字音的差別很大。但由於２０００年來字形相當穩定，沒有太大變化，字義的變化比較小，所以先秦兩漢的古書今天一般人還能部分看懂。如果古書是用拼音文字寫的，現代人就根本無法理解了。有些方言語音差別也很大，彼此不能交談，可是寫成漢字，就能互相瞭解，道理也是一樣的。
５０年代開始進行簡化漢字的工作。１９８６年重新公佈的《簡化字總表》規定了２０００多個簡化字（包括用簡化偏旁類推的字）。這項工作目前已告一段落，今後在一個時期內將保持穩定，不繼續簡化。因為不斷簡化會破壞文字的穩定性，而且簡化一批字以後，原來的繁體字並不能廢除。結果是漢字的總數有增無減，反而加重了學習和使用的人的負擔。
關於文字拼音化問題，長期以來一直有爭論。從理論上說，任何自然語言都可以用拼音文字記錄。但是由於漢語方言分歧，在推廣普通話的工作沒有取得廣泛、切實的成效以前，改用拼音文字會給方言區的人帶來很大的睏難。此外，由於漢字歷史悠久，大量的文獻都是用漢字記錄的。一旦改弦易轍，勢必在文獻的廣泛利用上造成一定睏難，在社會心理和民族感情上也可能引起波動。事實上，由於長時間使用漢字這一可以表意的書寫係統，漢語中可以存在大量同音字詞，而且這個現象確實發生了，現在一個音節最多可以對應幾十上百個漢字，如果使用拼音來記載語音，會出現不讀出來就看不懂的現象，即使經過長時間的訓練也無法徹底解决這個問題，因此如果真要進行漢字拉丁化的工作，决不是一朝一夕能夠完成的，在漢語發展到合適的程度以前，最好擱置拉丁化的計劃。
例如，魯迅先生的著作《阿Ｑ正傳》書名中的“Ｑ”字，據魯迅自己說，也是受拉丁化的影響。
漢語不能拉丁化的有力證據
《施氏食獅史》趙元任
石室詩士施氏，嗜獅，誓食十獅。
氏時時適市視獅。
十時，適十獅適市。
是時，適施氏適市。
氏視是十獅，恃矢勢，使是十獅逝世。
氏拾是十獅屍，適石室。
石室濕，氏使侍拭石室。
石室拭，氏始試食是十獅。
食時，始識是十獅，實十石獅屍。
試釋是事。
備註
施氏食獅史是一篇由趙元任所寫的設限文章。全文共九十二字，每字的普通話發音都是ｓｈｉ。這篇文言作品在閱讀時並沒有問題，但當用普通話朗讀或者拉丁化作品時，問題便出現了。這是古文同音字多的緣故。這篇短文都能看懂，可是如果你讀給別人聽，他是無論如何也聽不懂的！
方言
中國幅員遼闊，人口衆多，方言情況復雜。下邊把漢語方言粗分為官話和非官話兩大類來說明。官話分佈在長江以北地區和長江南岸九江與鎮江之間沿江地帶以及湖北、四川、雲南、貴州４省，包括北方官話、江淮官話、西南官話幾個方言區。官話區域的面積占全國３／４，人口占全國２／３。官話方言內部的一致程度比較高。從哈爾濱到昆明，相距３０００公裏，兩地的人通話沒有多大睏難。非官話方言主要分佈在中國東南部，包括吳方言（江蘇南部，浙江大部）、贛方言（江西大部，湖南東部，福建西北部，湖北東南部，安徽西南部）、湘方言（湖南大部，廣西壯族自治區北部）、粵方言（廣東大部，廣西壯族自治區東南部）、閩方言（福建，臺灣，廣東的潮州、汕頭，海南）、客傢方言（廣東省東部和北部，福建西部，江西南部，臺灣）。非官話區域比官話區域面積小，可是方言差別大，彼此一般不能通話，甚至在同一個方言區內部（例如浙南吳方言與蘇南吳方言之間、福州話和廈門話之間），交談都有睏難。漢語方言之間語音上的差別最大，詞彙次之，語法方面的差別最小。語音的差別在聲母的繁簡、輔音韻尾的多寡以及調類的區分上表現得特別明顯。例如吳方言塞音聲母有濁塞音[b、d、g]、不送氣清塞音[p、t、k]和送氣清塞音[pʻ、tʻ、kʻ ]３套，官話方言衹有後２套。廣州話輔音韻尾有[m、 n、ŋ、p、t、k]６個，蘇州話衹有[n、 ŋ、?]３個，北京話衹有[n、ŋ]2個。廣州話有陰平、陽平、陰上、陽上、陰去、陽去、上陰入、中陰入、陽入９個調類。北京話有陰平、陽平、上聲、去聲４個調類。煙臺話平聲不分陰陽，所以衹有平聲、上聲、去聲３個調類，是聲調係統最簡單的方言之一。
由於現代方言的調類與古調類之間有相當整齊的對應關係，所以通常就用平、上、去、入等古調類的名稱來標記現代方言調類。要註意的是方言的調類名稱相同，並不表示調值相同。例如北京話的陽平是升調（３５），天津話的陽平是高平調（５５），而漢口話的陽平則是麯折調（２１４）。
上文說漢語方言語音的差別大，詞彙和語法的差別小。這是從大體上說的。從細處看，詞彙和語法上相異之處也並不少。拿詞彙來說，政治、文化、科學方面的詞是全國性的，可是日常生活裏用的詞有許多是地方性的，因方言而異。拿語法來說，方言之間在詞法方面的差異比較明顯。例如人稱代詞和指示代詞的形式、形容詞的後綴、動詞和形容詞的重疊式、象聲詞的構造以及名詞後綴“子”和“兒”的表示方式（例如 “兒”杭州話用成音節的語素表示，而廣州話和溫嶺話用變調表示）等等在不同方言裏有時有相當大的差別。
方言之間句法上的差別可以舉“把”字句和反復問句為例。“把”字句是官話區方言裏十分重要的一種句式，可是粵方言和吳方言都沒有這種句式。例如北京話用“把”字的句子（把衣服洗幹淨），廣州話往往要用“動詞＋賓語”的說法（洗幹淨件衫）。在大部分官話方言裏，反復問句的形式是“ V不V”（V代表動詞，例如：去不去│認得不認得）。可是在某些江淮官話和西南官話(例如昆明話)以及一部分吳方言（例如蘇州話）裏，反復問句的形式是“ 可 V”（可去│可認得）。
漢語的分支
漢語所包含的語言種類問題，在語言學界頗有爭議。目前有兩種不同的觀點：一種觀點認為漢語衹包括漢語一種語言；另一種認為漢語包括閩語、粵語、客語、吳語、贛語、湘語等語言。中國國內的學者多數支持前者，而中國以外尤其西方多數學者從語言學的角度支持後者。支持後一種觀點的人認為漢語不是一種單一的語言，而是一簇相互關聯的有親屬關係的不同語言。支持前一種觀點的人則將閩語、粵語、客語、吳語、贛語、湘語等列為漢語方言，例如趙元任認為標準語（普通話）是方言，閩語、粵語等也是方言。然而實際上，習慣上所稱的“漢語方言”相互之間或與標準漢語之間無法互通，語言距離往往比歐洲同一語係之下的各種語言之間還要遠。例如一個衹會西班牙語的人可能可以使用西班牙語和另一位衹會葡萄牙語的人達成溝通，但一個衹會粵語的人和一位衹會閩語的人對談時，是完全聽不懂對方在說什麽的。
中國國內語言學家根據漢語分支的不同特點，把漢語劃分為傳統的七大方言。在這七大方言內部，仍存在不同的次方言區。有時這些次方言區內的使用者也不能相互理解。在不同的方言區的人的語言意識也有一定的區別。例如，一個使用粵方言的香港人可能會感到與操臺山話的廣東人有很多共同點，雖然他們可能不能相互理解。
在地理上的方言分歧也是很明顯的。在華北官話、西北官話或者西南方話地區，相隔幾百公裏的人一般可以相互口頭交流，但某些地區語音和詞彙的變化也是很大的；然而在中國南方的許多地區，尤其是山區，較小地理範圍內可能存在相互口語交流睏難的方言。舉一個極端的例子，如福建某地，相隔衹有十公裏的當地居民也許已經不能自如口頭交流了。
漢語方言官話，或稱官話方言等：指華北、東北及西北地區、湖北大部、四川、重慶、雲南、貴州、湖南北部、江西沿江地區、安徽中北部、江蘇中北部所使用的母語方言。官話大致分為華北官話、西北官話、西南官話、江淮官話，華北官話分佈在北方東部，以北京話為代表，西北官話分佈在北方西部，以西安話為代表，西南官話分佈在南方西部，以成都話為代表，江淮官話分佈在南方東部，以揚州話為江淮話的代表。上古時期的中原雅音在五胡亂華、衣冠南渡後，分化成為中古漢語語音。而現代“官話方言”，主要形成於宋元時期。官話在形成之後，在南北方分別發展，由分化成了南方官話和北方官話，為以後中國各代的官方語言，北方官話至今是現代標準漢語的基礎（大陸稱為普通話，臺灣稱為國語）。使用這一方言的人占中國人口的７０％。
需要指出的是，“官話方言”，過去曾經稱為“北方方言”，並不局限於中國北方。相反，中國西南地區和江淮地區的南方方言也屬於官話方言。
官話的明顯特點包括：失落了全部中古入聲，中古漢語中的“- p，-t，-k，-m，-n，-ng”韻尾現在衹剩下“-n，-ng”，但出現了大量兒化韻“-r”韻尾。原本連接“i，ü”韻母的“g，k，h”聲母已被顎音化成“j，q，x”聲母。官話話在失去清濁對立的過程中，沒有經過劇烈的聲調分化，但出現了中古平上去入以外的輕聲。因此，官話方言包含了大量的同音字以及相應産生的復合詞。上述現象在其他方言中比較少見。
吳語，或稱吳方言：在中國江蘇南部、安徽南部、上海和浙江大部分地區使用。典型的吳語以蘇州話為代表。其中安徽西南部受贛語影響，浙江南部保留了較多古代百越話特徵，以至不能和作為典型吳語的太湖片吳語通話。使用人數大約為總人口的８．４％。這種方言的對清濁輔音的區分是一個很明顯的特點。但吳語保留了中古漢語的模糊入聲。
客傢話，或稱客語：在中國南方的客傢人和絶大多數畲族人中廣泛使用，包括廣東東部、北部、福建西部、江西南部、廣西東南部等地，以梅縣話為代表。雖然是一種南方方言，但客傢話是在北方移民南下影響中形成的。客傢話因而保留了一些中古中原話的特點。使用客傢話的人口大約占總人口的５％。客傢方言的特點是平聲，上聲不分陰陽，但入聲，去聲分陰陽。
閩語，或稱閩方言：在福建、海南、廣東東部、臺灣、菲律賓、新加坡、馬來西亞還有其他海外的一些華人中使用。由於閩語的內部分歧比較大，通常分為閩南方言（以廈門話為代表）、閩北話、閩東話（以福州話為代表）、莆仙方言和閩中方言。閩語是所有方言中，唯一不完全與中古漢語韻書存在直接對應的方言，其中以閩南語最具影響。但是，根據現有的語音學研究，閩語的音係相當接近上古漢語的音係。
閩南語（狹義的，即閩臺片閩南話）共有“-m，-n，-ng，-p，-t，-k，-ʔ”（貌似問號的國際音標是緊喉音。）在入聲 [-p/-t/-k] 消失之前，先發生‘入聲弱化’，[-p/-t/-k] 全部變成 ʔ。山西方言仍保有這種弱化入聲）”七種輔音韻尾。閩南語是漢語中聲調較復雜的方言之一，泉州音有８個聲調（不含輕聲），漳州音、廈門音、同安音、臺灣音通常有七個聲調（不含輕聲）。同時，閩南語也是保留中古漢語最完整的方言之一。泉州音和漳州音是其它支係的母語，閩（南）臺片的閩南語內部較為一致。廣義的閩南方言還包括海南話、潮州話、浙南閩語等，使用閩南語的人口大約為總數的４．２％。
粵語：以廣州話為代表，在廣東廣西的部分地區、香港、澳門和海外華人中被使用。粵方言是漢語中聲調最復雜的方言之一，有九個聲調（桂南勾漏片有十個聲調）。同時也是保留中古漢語最完整的方言之一。粵語包含了p，t，k，m，n，ng六種輔音韻尾。粵語內部的分歧不大。使用粵語的人口大約為總數的５％。但是粵語中沒有混合入聲，可以認為粵語中保留的古漢語成分要早於吳語，但晚於閩語。
湘語，或稱湘方言：在湖南使用。按是否保留濁聲母分類，可分為老湘和新湘兩類，其中濁聲母已全部清化的新湘語相對接近西南官話。分別以長沙話（新）及雙峰話（老）為代表，使用者約占總人口的５％。歷史上湖南湖北兩省受到北方文化的強烈影響，故湘語內部差異比較大。並且有多個時期古漢語語音特徵之重疊。
贛語，以南昌話為代表，又稱贛方言，古稱傒語。屬漢藏語係漢語，主要用於江西大部、湖南東部，安徽西南部等地。使用人數約為使用人口約5148萬（詳情見圖，早先3000萬的數據是不夠準確的），是漢語七大方言區之一。贛語
http://baike.baidu.com/view/775972.htm
下面的幾種方言是否構成獨立的大方言區，現在尚有爭議：
晉語：在山西絶大部分以及陝西北部、河北西部、河南西北部、內蒙古河套地區等地使用，以太原話為代表，有入聲韻－－ [-ʔ]（這貌似問號的國際音標是緊喉音。在入聲 [-p/-t/-k] 消失之前，先發生‘入聲弱化’，[-p/-t/-k] 全部變成 [-ʔ]）。其白讀係統與官話截然不同。以前（及現在的不少語言學學者）將其歸於官話。
平話：在廣西的部分地區使用。傳統上將桂南平話歸於粵語，近年來有人主張將桂北平話當成孤立的土語存在。
徽語：在安徽南部及贛浙蘇部分毗鄰地區使用。以前（及現在的部分語言學學者）將其歸於吳語。
歷史
漢語是世界上最古老的語言之一，是至今通用語言時間最長的語言之一。漢語的歷史演變是一個很有趣的問題。漢語的書寫係統——漢字，非表音文字，不能如表音文字那樣直接知道同一個字歷史上的發音。幸運的是，在漢字（特別是形聲字）、詩歌的韻律以及對外國人名的翻譯中可以找到有效的信息。
上古漢語
相傳黃帝時中原有“萬國”，夏朝時還有三千國，周初分封八百諸侯，而“五方之民，言語不通”（《禮記·王製》）。
上古漢語存在於周朝前期和中期（公元前１１到前７世紀），文字記錄有青銅器上的刻銘、《詩經》、歷史書書經以及部分《易經》。
據《禮記·中庸》第二十八章記載：“今天下車同軌，書同文，行同倫”。可見周朝建立時期就開始實行語言文字的統一。
春秋初期，見於記載的諸侯國還有１７０多個。至戰國時期，形成“七雄”，“諸侯力政，不統於王，……言語異聲，文字異形”（《說文解字·敘》）。
先秦諸子百傢在著作中使用被稱為“雅言”的共同語。“子所雅言，《詩》、《書》、執禮，皆雅言也。”（《論語·述而》）
秦朝重新統一之後，進一步規範了文字，以小篆作為正式官方文字。
中古漢語
這種漢語使用於隋朝、唐朝和宋朝（公元７世紀到１０世紀），可以分為《切韻》（公元６０１年）涉及到的早期以及《廣韻》（公元１０世紀）所反映的晚期。高本漢把這個階段稱為“古代漢語”。
語言學家已能較自信地重構中古漢語的語音係統。這種證據來自幾個方面：多樣的現代方言、韻書以及對外語的翻譯。
正如印歐語係的語言可以由現代印歐語言重構一樣，中古漢語也可以由方言重建。另外，中國古代的文學家花費了很大的精力來總結漢語的語音體係，這些資料仍然是現代語言學家工作的基礎。最後，漢語的語音可以從對外國語言的翻譯中瞭解到。
近代漢語
近代漢語是古代漢語與現代漢語之間以早期白話文獻為代表的漢語。
現代漢語
現代漢語是以北方話為基礎方言，以典範的現代白話文著作為語法規範的漢語。
書面語和口語
書面語和口語的差別一直相當大。在“五四”時期白話文運動以前，書面語和口語的區別實際上是古今語的區別。以唐宋時代為例，當時人口裏說的是白話，筆下寫的是文言，即以先秦諸子和《左傳》《史記》等廣泛傳誦的名篇為範本的古文文體。這種情形往上大概可以推到兩漢時期。往下一直延續到２０世紀初葉。孫中山１９２５年立的遺囑就還是用文言寫的。不過２０００年來作為書面語的文言本身也在變化。仿古終歸難以亂真，後世人模仿古語不可能不受當時口語的影響。有人指出韓愈的文章裏就有明顯的不合先秦語法的地方。清代桐城派古文傢模仿先秦文和唐宋古文傢的文章，結果當然更為駁雜。清末梁啓超用一種淺顯的文言文寫政論文章。由於通俗易懂，風行一時，為報章雜志所廣泛采用。目前臺灣、香港以及海外中文報刊多數仍舊沿用這種文體。五四運動時期開展的文學革命提出了反對文言文、提倡白話文的主張。這場運動席捲全國，影響深遠。短短幾年之間，白話文學就站穩了腳跟。不過這種白話文學作品的語言並不是真正的口語，而是拿北方官話做底子，又受到明清白話小說相當大的影響，還帶着不同程度的方言成分以及不少新興詞彙和歐化句法的混合的文體。魯迅的作品可以作為這種文體的典型的代表。
以上說的是文學作品 。至於新聞報道、政府文告、公文、商業合同、甚至私人信件,往往還是用的文言。這一方面是傳統習慣使然，另一方面也是因為文言文有簡括的優點。這種情形，就全國範圍來說，一直延續到４０年代末。１９４９年中華人民共和國建立以後，文言文才完全讓位給白話文。除了打電報和有意擬古以外，沒有人再寫文言了。
上文指出，現代書面漢語是包含許多不同層次的語言成分的混合體。無論從句法上或詞彙上看都是如此。拿句法來說，書面語句式除了跟口語相同的那一部分之外，有的是從文言來的,後來漸漸融化在書面語裏,成為書面語句式的一部分。例如“進行、加以、予以、給予”是書面語用得十分頻繁的幾個動詞。這些動詞原來的意義已經虛化，主要的功能是放在雙音動詞前邊以適應句法和節奏上的要求。這種句法構造來源於文言。“進行”的前身是“行”（另行議處），“加以”的前身是“加”（嚴加管束），“予以”和“給予”的前身是“予”（不予追究）。在文言句法裏，“行、加、予”前邊必須跟一個單音副詞配合，造成雙音節構造，後邊的動詞也必須是雙音節的。在現代書面語裏，這幾個動詞都雙音節化了，後邊還是要求跟雙音節的動詞，語法上的製約是一脈相承的。
現代書面語開始形成的時候，曾經從舊白話小說的語言裏繼承了一些句式。這個階段現在已經結束。我們能看到的衹是一些遺跡。例如“在＋處所詞”的構造可以放在動詞前頭（“在臺上坐着”），也可以放在動詞後頭（“坐在臺上”）。在北京話裏，前置的“在 ”用“跟”、用[āi] 或是 [tǎi]，後置的“在”用[·tə]，都不用“在”。用“在”的說法是從舊白話小說裏繼承下來的。
有些書面語句式是受外國語（英語、日語、俄語等）的直接或間接（通過翻譯作品）的影響産生的。在這方面可以舉一個影響全部書面語句式的重要語法現象作為例證。上文曾經提到，漢語裏主語和謂語關係鬆散。句子的主語往往可以不說出來。有些句子甚至根本沒有主語。現代口語和古漢語都是如此。可是現代書面語要求句子在形式上都要有主語。如果沒有，就會感到結構不完整，邏輯上不周密。這顯然是受了印歐語的影響。
書面語在詞彙方面的特點是雙音詞的比重大。書面語雙音詞除了從文言裏繼承下來的一部分以外，大都是１９世紀末葉以來１００多年間新出現的。其中一部分是從日文轉藉過來的，另一部分是新造的。新創造的詞大都是利用原有的語素 （書面上就是漢字） 造成的復合詞。這種構詞方式是能産的，生命力很強。
漢語是精確的。記得在本人早年讀書的時候，語文課本上堂而皇之地寫着：“走拼音化道路是漢語的必然趨勢。”其中最主要的一條理由便是，英文可以打字，而漢語不能。隨着計算機技術的發展，漢字的鍵盤輸入速度已遠遠超過英文，而且速度還在不斷快速提高。可英文輸入呢？卻似乎滯步不前了。
漢語的發展
漢字的構詞法巧奪天工。詞頭前綴、詞尾後綴是英文常用的構詞法。
Saccharose(糖精)和Saccharomycetes(酵母菌)有相同的拉丁詞頭，但記住它們即便對英美人士也非易事，至少我測試過的幾個母語是英文的工科研究生是這樣。一維的串狀結構是導致其不醒目不明了的直接原因。試問讀書至研究生，連酵母菌與糖精都不知道，又該叫人作何感想呢？
用漢字組詞描述起來簡潔明了。即便是沒吃過糖精、沒用過酵母菌的沒受過教育的中國人，他也明白糖精可能是糖的“精煉部分”，比糖更甜(儘管這不確切)；酵母菌是“一種能引起發酵的細菌”。但英文就不能如此簡單地組詞，即便組出來也恐怕令人難以接受：糖精=Sugessece="Sugar"+"Essence"(“糖”與“精”合起來)，酵母菌=Yeabacteria="Yeast"+"Bacteria"(“發酵”與“細菌”合起來)。這豈不是太不像話了？
與拼音文字一維串狀前後綴構詞法不同，漢字是通過二維方式構字的。例如：
“人”在無門的四堵墻內便成了“囚”；
“木”在無門的四堵墻內要受“睏”；
“露”--下“雨”天在大馬“路”上要暴“露”在雨水之下了；
“米”(與糧食有關)“唐”(表聲)=“糖”；
柴“禾”上長“草”=“菌”；
“木”“林”“森”——分別是tree、woods和forest的意思，但比較之下哪一種構詞法更好？答案一目瞭然。
在當今的英語社會，早期英文造字所遵循的拉丁詞根早字法也已逐漸被甩開了，類似以上造的 Sugessece，Yeabacteria可一點都不是笑話，日常生活中天天都有。商店裏不同品牌的巧剋力、糖果總會有不同的名字，有些名字在字典裏找不到，它們會隨某個廠傢的某種巧剋力糖的産生而産生，消亡而消亡。當一個澳大利亞人讀到這個詞時，他不會意識到這是北美某個地區的很受歡迎的一種糖果，多半衹能和中國人一樣搖搖頭罷了。
信息科技時代偏愛漢字。不知您是否瞭解《模糊數學》、《模糊控製》或《神經網絡》等新學科領域？如果接觸過，您便會理解人類的藝術、哲學、感覺看似不“精確”，但實為目前它們超越了當今人類的知識水平所能精確描述的範圍。隨着人類認識能力的提高，它們逐漸會被人類以全新的知識結構所精確地把握，以上所舉的新學科衹是這一新知識結構序幕的小插麯。漢字集中體現了東方藝術哲學，是中華民族的文化底藴之所在。限於目前的科技水平，它的智慧我們尚不能完全認識，對它的發掘方興未艾。這種說法不是沒有根據的的，畢竟15年前也沒有人意識到傳統漢字出版業要被淘汰；10年前的人沒有料到漢字的輸入會比英文快，而且還會更快；5年前的人沒有想到傳統的報業媒體會被逐漸淘汰，《南方都市報》會與百年老報《大公報》站在同一起跑綫上，在互聯網上搶碼字新聞。誰又不敢斷言若幹年之後漢字編程不可能或不如英文呢？
漢字是靈活的，但需要靈活的人使用；漢字是聰明的，但有賴於聰明人的開發；漢字是充滿智慧的，需要有智慧的人認識到她的價值。為漢語驕傲！更為堅信漢語時代即將到來的中國人的熱情與信心而歡呼！
Chinese Dialects Chinese dialects in the world to use the largest number of languages.
Chinese Phonetic Alphabet the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet
Phonetic alphabet the Chinese phonetic alphabet
History of Chinese language Chinese history
One of the world's major languages. Is a Sino-Tibetan language, is the most important language in the language. In addition to outside the Chinese mainland and Taiwan, Chinese is also located in Singapore and Malaysia. Native Chinese National People's Congress to about 13 billion (3000 million as a second language). Chinese is one of the working languages of the United Nations.
Chinese as the world's unique hieroglyphic language, writing a high degree of unification and standardization, there is uniformity and standardization of modern Chinese grammar, although particularly large differences in dialect pronunciation, but the written language norms, there is no difference in dialect written communication barriers caused. Super dialects of Chinese on maintaining the unity of the Chinese nation has played a huge role.
Chinese is an independent language of English. Chinese way is a kind of hieroglyphic writing Chinese characters. 54 written language used before exercise is called "classical" is a kind of Confucius used to "elegant language" based on written language. Fourth Movement promoted after the written Chinese is often referred to as "vernacular," that is based on the North, then the modern written language. Written in modern Chinese, classical Chinese is rarely used.
Said Chinese difficult to learn, in fact, the Chinese language is very simple, no tenses in Chinese, verbs adjectives have no change, no tonal language concise, articulate, talks slowly. Is easy to learn language. Difficult to learn Chinese characters.
Voice
Chinese syllables can be analyzed into consonants, vowels, tones part 3. Heading is a consonant sound, the rest are vowels and tones is the pitch of the syllable. The tone is also seen as an integral part of the syllable, because Chinese is righteous tone is identified. Such as "soup, sugar, lying, hot," four words consonants are [tang], vowels are [ang] (square brackets is the IPA, the IPA table in brackets omitted), because the tone is different, meaning not the same language in representing four different morpheme, in writing, written in four different characters.
Initials are consonants. The most complex vowel sound by the medium, the main vowel and coda three parts. Some coda consonants, some vowels. Beijing consonant consonant sounds 22. Medials there, [u], [y] (with ü) 3 个. Final consonants are [n] and [ŋ], Yuan Endings are [] and [u]. In the composition of syllables, medium tone, the main vowel, and coda Part 4, only the main vowel can not do without, and the remaining three parts must not occur. This situation can give the composition in Table 1 syllable word in the cases seen. Beijing dialect of consonants in Table 2 Initials, Finals mother Beijing, Beijing, Beijing, then the finals in Table 3 Vowels.
1918 issued by the then Ministry of Education, is the use of Chinese Characters in Mandarin phonetic alphabet developed a _set_ of phonetic alphabets. The letter to the main vowel and coda together with a symbol (for example: ㄠ = [au], ㄢ = [an]), embodies the traditional spirit of consonant vowel two points. Phonetic alphabet widespread significant influence. Taiwan has been in use ever since.
Published in 1958, using the Latin alphabet Pinyin (Initials, Finals mother Beijing Table 2, Table 3 of the Beijing dialect vowel). Since 1978, Chinese names all use phonetic alphabet spelling of place names, place of Wade and other old-style spelling.
Phonetic spelling syllable is the process of composition is in accordance with the laws of Mandarin syllables, the consonants, vowels combined with rapid continuous tone and fight a syllable. Pinyin is the gist: "before the sound (consonant) tone light and short (vowels) re, the two connected fierce slightest sound." Pinyin Mandarin to keep in mind when matching initial and final rule:
Consonants n, l and the zero consonant with the opening call, Sarkozy call teeth, Cuokou call has put together relationship.
Consonant f, g, k, h, zh, ch, r, z, c, s only with the open call, hekou call juxtaposition.
Consonants j, x, q only teeth with Sarkozy calls, Cuokou call juxtaposition.
Consonants b, p, m, d, t call juxtaposition of different Cuokou.
Open call, hekou call finals with removing j, q, x outside the relationship between other consonants are put together.
Cuokou call finals only with j, q, x, n, l and the relationship between the zero on_set_ has put together.
Note also that time when the quasi-phonetic consonants, vowels and tones of the tone value. To read initials of the sound, do not read call pronunciation (teaching, in the back with a different consonant vowel sound called the call issued in pronunciation); make finals as a whole to read, not to rhyme head rhyme abdomen, coda decomposition and then open the temporary flattening; to see the transfer number, pronunciation tones.
Spelling commonly used methods of the following:
Rhyme two spellings - the finals as a whole, brought juxtaposition with consonants. Such as: h-ào → (Ho).
Initial two spellings - first identify the initials of articulation, pronunciation posture gracefully, and then read the finals breath, makes up syllables. Such as: spelling bā (Pakistan), first shut lips, Biezhu breath, gracefully made b sound position, and a read out of a, a syllable.
Three fight tonal method - is referred to with the syllables of sound into the sound, shellfish, and rhyme of three components, when running words into a phonetic syllable. Such as: qi-áng → qiáng (strong)
Mediated co-parent and vowel sound connection method - is the initial and medium tone (referred mother) put together, which form a phonetic component, and then with the following vowel juxtaposition. Such as: gu-āng → guāng (light).
Origin of Chinese Phonetic Alphabet
No ancient alphabet, the use of tangent, that is, knowledge will be read with two words, take the first consonant, taking second in the finals, put together up on the line.
Ancient China's Muslim Brothers do not learn Chinese, learn Arabic, but they used Arabic letters to spell spoken (Mandarin), so this is the first alphabet.
Yuan Dynasty, Mongolia, the Tibetan ruler used to change the letters to spell Chinese and other languages, called pa Script. Although not specifically spelled in Chinese, but it is also considered a Chinese phonetic alphabet.
Ming Dynasty, the Western missionary with the Latin alphabet spelling of Chinese, is the first Latin alphabet characters.
Late Ming and early Qing dynasties, the ancient emergence of the word with a simple phonetic way of the performance of Chinese speech. Republic of China, the government formulated the "phonetic alphabet" is the concentrated expression of the system. Now Taiwan is still used. However, there has also been the Latin word spelling exercise, and, with the combination of left-wing political movement is very close.
The People's Republic of China was established, the government immediately develop a "Chinese Phonetic Alphabet", is now using this package. The United Nations also recognized.
Pinyin is the Chinese People's Republic, "Latin" of the program, written in 1955-1957 on the reform of the Chinese Pinyin characters Reform Commission, the Commission of the development.
The program is mainly used for Mandarin phonetic pronunciation of the mark, as a Mandarin Chinese phonetic symbols. February 11, 1958 of the National People's Congress approved the program announced. In 1982, an international standard ISO 7098 (Chinese spelling of the Roman alphabet).
At present, most overseas Chinese communities, such as Singapore, the use of Pinyin in Chinese language teaching.
Chinese Phonetic Alphabet can be traced back as early as 1906, Zhu Wen Xiong's "Jiangsu letters" and 1908 Liu Mengyang "Chinese phonetic character book", as well as the national language of Rome in 1926 and 1931 the Latin word of Chinese characters. All of these characters are for the Hanyu Pinyin romanization scheme provides the basis for the development.
In 1949, Wu Yuzhang letter to Mao Zedong proposed to be effective literacy, language reform swiftly. Letter of approval to the Guo Mao Zedong, Mao and others study, in October 1949 _set_ up the reform of Chinese characters Association, one of the tasks is to study the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet.
1954, The Association of Chinese characters into Chinese characters directly under the State Council Reform Commission, during which all received more than 1600 Chinese Phonetic Alphabet. Generally have such forms:
Chinese Character Type
Latin-style
Slavic alphabet style
Mixed form of several letters
Shorthand style
Design style
Digital form
The final decision to adopt the Latin alphabet as the Hanyu Pinyin system of signs to facilitate the international exchange and cooperation.
【Origin】 Pinyin
1583 Matteo Ricci came to China in Beijing in 1605 published "The West the word miracle," including "the letter and further sea, doubt that Shen" and four characters plus the Latin alphabet of phonetic article. Luo C under article characters contrast with the Latin translation of an order includes 26 consonants and 44 vowels of the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet. This is the first to use the Latin alphabet to the phonetic character of the publication, than the "small by" using the Arabic alphabet to the Chinese Pinyin later, "Little by" writing letters about the first attempts to Pinyin. "Western word miracle" of the original book is no longer easy to find, said the Vatican Library there collection.
Kinney Court back to Europe, the speech to the Chinese mission to recruit the person, everyone is encouraged glamor attracted to vie with each other, so that the local church felt compelled to politely discouraged. Kinney Court in attracting and _select_ing talented people, has made undeniable contributions. At the same time the church library in China to collect books and bring the Pope is giving the book more than 7000 West Division ("Far West, said device map" is the original Kinney Court's 7000 book, bring one).
In 1619, Kinney Court once again arrived in Macau. Kinney Spring 1621 cabinet "to Nanchang, Xuan You go Jianchang Shaozhou, visit the Senate. The following year went to Hangzhou to be difficult; in 1623, Kaifeng, Henan Province opened to teach the following year to the Shanxi", in 1625 went to Shaanxi. Wang Zheng, 1626 in assistance to complete the "Western Scholars" in three volumes. "Western Scholars" The purpose, according to his own account, "the Chinese people in three days proficient in Western writing systems."
"Western Scholars" as in 1625, published in 1626 in Hangzhou, claiming to follow the system created by Matteo Ricci, the Ricci 25 with the letter "combination with each other, adding five words tone marks to spell all All the pronunciation of Chinese characters. This is a character with the Latin alphabet to the phonetic vocabulary, but also the first with a letter to the Chinese phonetic sounds of words. phonetic scheme used is based on Ricci modified program, called "Lee , the fellowship program. "
"Lee, the fellowship program," The emergence of China was greatly inspired by phonological scholars. These two programs are the first Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is "studying Mandarin tone" as the standard written for spelling Beijing sound. So Pronunciation becomes very simple, very structured, not only to always been regarded as the tangent complex, opened a so-called 'anti-unexpected but, unexpectedly, cut and cut' the easy way, and immediately got the Chinese better phonology home yearning for such a simple phonetic system of enthusiasm. "spelling of this novel approach to the Chinese scholars to a great inspiration. phonology scientist Fang Yi Ming said:" The word of the divergent also, that margin through and by ear . If something is a word, a meaning of each word, such as the Far West because the incident is the chorus. Sound made by the word, not weight not total, not View more Down? "Yang Qing scholars _select_ed Qi said:" Xin Mao families make ends meet on the Disparity of the old Kingo, the Jewish son of Yun Zhang, day out, "Western Scholars" to show I, I did not read the final volume, all words have a certain insight of the reason, because for some of the Act. "However, in two or three hundred years, Ricci and Kinney Court program is the use of foreign missionaries, not widely disseminated among the Chinese people.
Party secrets (in Chile), "Elegance" as in 1639, the book said repeatedly cited "Western Scholars", such as saying "sound more Western, Central Plains and more do not have, when combined with the Atlantic such sub Siddham" eyes and ears capital "through the" "character of the divergent also, that margin through and by ear. If the matter is the word, one meaning of each word, such as the Far West because the incident is a chorus, sounds made by words, not weight not total, In particular, almost no more? "or that" because the incident is vocals, sound made by the word "(that is, advocates of the burgeoning Chinese Characters). Missionary approach shocked the Chinese phonology scientist, direct revelation they seek the help of the Western alphabetic character recorded sound system better description. Later Liu Xianting (after Zhuang) "new rhyme spectrum" that is, in this stimulation Zhuancheng, said Liu Qian Xuantong clearly recognized that "must be a phonetic analysis can only phonemes before they can form anywhere in the note sound ", Luo C," Ji-village in phonology, "an updated version of that book focused on is the" focus on the unity of the investigation Mandarin dialect. " Qian Xuantong even think that the "new rhyme spectrum," a book of the year (1692) Solid as a "National Language Movement" of the era.
1627, was again recalled, Hangzhou, Hangzhou from this focus on mission and in writing. "Chinese language has made reasonable writing style is superior, the Europa Almost all priests in the incompetent and those who. Its far, people all over the memory, their willingness to learn, though the disease stopped working, its always in the translation industry, or the translation of the Latin Writing for Science, or Science for the Latin translation, so proficient language, so conversations are good writing, whether classical or slang it. " Most of his work as a Latin, written in Chinese that is, in Shaanxi, "Western Scholars," a book.
Kinney Court the second time China has brought a lot of foreign language books Shihai. Not only because of his personal love of books, follow the missionary Matteo Ricci, the road to create an academic, but also because Kinney House before returning to Western Europe, accepted the mission in China will make its extensive in Europe to collect books and to build churches and other places in Beijing Books Museum of the task. He came to this not only brought these Western people, so that future generations might be interested, he also has brought a whole library of books. It is said that these books are hardcover, without a repeat, include classic and Renaissance Europe, after theology, philosophy, science, literature and arts of the latest achievements. In order to collect new books and equipment, Kinney House Tour of Italy, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal and other countries, and finally collected the remnants of 7,000 hardcover books. I estimate the Guinness Book of books and equipment received from Europe in the time value of 10,000 gold coins. To this end, Kinney Court developed a huge translation program, contact the Aleni, Xu Guangqi, Yangting Jun, Li Zao, Wang Zheng, Tian and other Chinese and foreign joint translation by the publication of these books. Mr. Xiang Da, said the move: "Xuan Zang than the demand by Xi Zhu, cover much so." Unfortunately, November 14, 1629 in Hangzhou death (buried outside of generous well Jesuit priests Cemetery, term of the present town of Hangzhou West Lake District, Taoyuan Village left), "West 7000 book" Introduction to the Chinese intellectuals program abortion. Later, Li and Wang Zheng, who algae sporadic translation of some of the works, most of the books covered with dust, quietly lost. In 1938, Beijing Catholic order library building and found a "7000" in the remnants of hundreds, including Copernicus's "Celestial Bodies" and about the Kepler's "Copernican astronomy Summary" and other important science books.
1, movement and Mandarin and Mandarin Chinese Pinyin
Pinyin spelling of Chinese national standard language is a phonetic program.
Chinese national standard language in the late nineteenth century, the rise of the Chinese nation's social, scientific and cultural development of language exerted great influence in the modernization movement gradually built up. Language modernization movement initially refers to Hanyu Pinyin movement (then called "invented a character campaign, Simplified movement"), National Language Movement and the vernacular movement. Late Qing movement of the three languages of a common goal, that is by reforming language, education, social development and to meet the time needs of the development of science and culture, and then Enriching and revitalize the Chinese nation. Mandarin is the establishment and promotion of Chinese national standard spoken language of the sport, promote the use of the vernacular movement is able to replace the classical expression of the vernacular spoken as the official written language of the campaign. Three sports have their own pursuits, but the internal relations are very close. From an historical relationship that invented a word and led the first movement occurred Mandarin. Since then, the establishment of standard pronunciation in Mandarin, phonetic alphabet of the development, until the twentieth century Chinese fifties Standardization, Pinyin generation, are thus the same strain, complement each other. Therefore, our discussion has thus start.
Pinyin movement as a prelude to going back to the late Ming, but led to massive Chinese Pinyin Chinese society movement, the direct reason is that Chinese people are still Mingxinkegu the "Sino-Japanese" national disgrace. Qian Xuan Tong that the "phonetic alphabet and the sounds of modern China" (1929) stated very clearly in the article: "1894 (Sino-Japanese War), China to Japan fought a battle, so junior insight, that non-reform politics, education, not self-existence in the world, but that universal education, that is, a problem occurs, then the difficulty of Chinese characters know, writing is also difficult. To solve this problem, another system of non-phonetic words is not new ... .... " Thus, "The implementation of simple words to search for universal education movement, the increasing prevalence of day ... ...." In fact, the text in the field of innovative thinking before this started thousands of years, sacred and inviolable character of high status has been shaken. Sino-Japanese War, the Qing government signed in Shimonoseki, Japan humiliating "Treaty of Shimonoseki," in addition to huge military compensation in addition to ceding Taiwan and Penghu. The time, government and shocked, inspired the community people, particularly the aggressive 精神 intellectual community, whose patriotic conscience is Dajia standpoint of scientific China causes of failure, agreed that "the revolution of Chinese characters, then Education must not be Puji, Guo Jia Duan Buneng prosperous." At that time , known as the "thinkers of the comet," the Tan on the first lead in calling for abolition of characters, use alphabetic writing. All walks of life rallied together to respond to, one after another up and create easy to learn, "invented a new word." Invented a word campaign late Qing Dynasty, Hanyu Pinyin is carried out campaigns in full swing this way again.
However, Lu Zhang stupid design of the various Latin alphabet spelling program is still based mainly in Fujian dialect widely. He later submitted to the Faculty of the Qing government "China invented a letter" will therefore be considered "can not access the provinces," "unity of the provinces not dialect" and refuted. Soon after, a reflection of national trends invented a common language development program - Wang Chao's "Mandarin chorus letter" immediately stood out was. It was the most influential spelling "Beijing Mandarin tone", the letters form complete with Chinese characters radical. "Mandarin chorus letter" wide passage, over half in China, "by Beijing and Tianjin and Mukden, and Nanjing, Mandarin characters throughout 13 provinces." Wang Zhao himself has fully grasped the trend was the development of national language, he "Mandarin chorus letter" in the Preface clearly stated: "Language will go flat, should take to Beijing, then ... ... Beijing, then promote the most will be, twenty years before and Mandarin. officials are public and also, the public of the case, since the appropriate choice of its total size size more persons. "because of this, his" Mandarin chorus letter "was Peking Imperial University (the predecessor of Beijing University) chief teacher Wu Rulun the support and management science with Minister Zhang and Zhang Baixi petitioned the court with the" charter school "specified" in Chinese within a Division, attached into the Mandarin one, "because" States are owned by the same language ", the Qing Dynasty should be the" official language of the world sound unified. " They quickly petitioned the court's approval. Thus, Pinyin Mandarin unification movement led movement, and merged with the Mandarin, while the Unity Movement, to the government from the private ranks. After the Qing government in the Faculty of the "national language education" (1911), the provisions of Pinyin "simple words" used for two purposes: First, put together in Mandarin, the pronunciation of second Fanzheng Han, and adopted a "unified national language means the case" to require in Xuantong eight (1916) popular Mandarin. Did not expect this year in October, the Wuchang Uprising, 1911 Revolution broke out, the Qing government was overthrown. Thus, by referendum and adopted the "unified national language approach case" will become a dead letter. Determine the country sound, the development of alphabets, unified national language of movement, actually is the next national government in society and up.
From the brief review of the above, we can see from the Chinese phonetic alphabet developed in the late nineteenth century movement, from the beginning and the unity of language, social development, national unity and close together. Proof of historical facts more than once, no matter what kind of alphabet designs, contrary to the language uniform trend is destined to fail. Zhang Lu stupid the first Latin based system of Romanization to spell Fujian dialect widely based "China invented a letter," because the "can not access the provinces," "unity of the provinces not dialect" is refuted. Subsequently, there Tongzhi jinshi Zhaotingmingguan Lao Nai designed almost all provinces the main dialect used in "Simplified Chinese full spectrum" (a Chinese-style phonetic strokes), "full spectrum" includes "Beijing Sound Spectrum" , "I would rather sound spectrum" (Nanjing dialect), "Wu sound spectrum", "Min broad-spectrum", etc., almost covering most of the dialect, and he also proposed a "go north south cited" idea: "Southern Man first on South Sound the spectrum of learning for application after your studies, then science Beijing sound to return and integration. "labor is declared Empress I have been summoned, he was into the" Simplified spectral record, "also received Royal Assent, allowing the" Faculty meeting played. " Even so, the Qing government still Faculty for "split language is not conducive to unity", and always hold the shelf, no discussion is not playing, but the community also his sharp criticism, that according to his means, "will make China more well with the text of the rule, "calling him the" chief culprit in splitting the language. " He invented a character movement control play a leading role Qing Lu stupid chapter, Lao Nai Wang Chiu three of us, especially labor is declared and for participating in the "Hundred Days Reform" being wanted "Qin Fan," the king of the alphabet according to their program of two fate, it is sobering enough.
Second, Chinese Phonetic Alphabet and phonetic symbols, the National Law, relations between North and Latin America history
In 1912, after the founding of the Republic, the Government continued to promote Mandarin. Upsurge in the implementation of Mandarin, Mandarin Accent through the "Beijing (Music) Country (Music) problem" great debate, from the "Beijing-based sound, both north and south" to the pure tone subject to Beijing's new country sound, its also renamed after the phonetic alphabet phonetic symbol and tool for introducing Mandarin to Mandarin into the normal and primary school language teaching, in a radio broadcast, film, drama and other fields to establish a solid position.
From the perspective of academic development, in Pinyin movement emerged in different historical periods Mandarin phonetic symbols, Mandarin Romanization, so north of the new Latin words, until the late fifties the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is clearly the development of relations between the succession line of succession. Chinese Phonetic Alphabet design fully absorbed in the past many phonetic design, especially Romania and North and Latin America countries valuable experience, and have listened to the views of all sides. While the program has its Unique Perspective of the Department. But more is learned and developed many of the history of phonetic design strengths.
Grammar
Most of Chinese monosyllabic morpheme (wash hands │ │ China │ loss). Morpheme and the morpheme can be combined into words (Ma + Road → Open + road │ → switch off). Some morpheme itself is the word (hand washing), some morpheme is not a word, morpheme can only together with the other composed of compound words (people → people → │ lose loss). Two-syllable words in modern Chinese accounted for the most. Most are two-syllable word in accordance with the above-mentioned result of complex ways.
Writing
From the moment we can see the first batch of text information ─ ─ counting the Shang oracle bone inscriptions, Chinese have 3,000 years of history. Because Oracle has a very mature character writing system, we can infer the occurrence of certain characters well years ago in 3000. The development of Chinese characters can be divided into two major phases. From Oracle to Xiaozhuan is a stage; of Han Dynasty official script from the following is another stage. The former is the scope of ancient writing, which belongs to the category of modern language. Generally speaking, from the official script to use today on modern Chinese characters did not change significantly.
Chinese characters with Chinese relations, Chinese character is a morpheme words. From the structure of Chinese characters themselves look Chinese is ideographic, phonetic radical with (shape next to the sound side), and neither intended nor phonetic form of the sign language system consisting of.
Origin of Chinese Characters in the picture. Produced in the early stages of Chinese characters, pictograms of the shape of the morpheme with the meaning it represents a direct contact occurs. Although every word has its own fixed pronunciation, but the shape itself is not phonetic symbols, alphabetic letters with different nature. Pictographic character is that it represents the pronunciation of morpheme onto it. With the evolution of shape, becoming less and less pictographic hieroglyphs. The result is shaped with the morpheme it represents lost in the original sense of the link. This time, shaped itself is neither phonetic nor semantic, into abstract sign. If the Chinese word for all this not by morpheme phonetic meaning of the sign is not representative of the table, then the character can be said to mark a kind of pure text. But is not the case. Chinese characters have unique characters and compound characters of distinction. Only single characters is a sign of pure text. Compound characters are combined by the result of independent characters. From the structure, said compound characters than a single high-level characters. Because of the unique composition of compound characters characters themselves though are marked, but when it is a fit composition of the word, it is a sound a sense of "character" of the capacity of. Compound characters can be divided into the following three categories:
② fit Associative. The ancients said, "just as Wu Ge," "hide the letter." For the "Wu" and "trust" the word, this interpretation is wrong. However, inside the Chinese system has caused in this way the word, such as "straight for the crooked," "bad for the Nao." This class is characterized by the word convergence is identical to the meaning of words to express the meaning of the compound characters. Very few such words, only individual examples.
Chinese characters have been used to record more than 3,000 years of history, has been in use to this day, never stopped. In such a long period of time, the Chinese people's real life, not only for the service, and record the rich cultural information; even across national boundaries, are Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other neighboring countries to records by non-Chinese language.
On the other hand, has long been criticism of Chinese characters are also disadvantages, the main character is that hard to believe, hard to write, difficult to mechanization (print layout, typing, etc.). Therefore, literacy, child literacy, education, culture, communication and so on, are not as phonetic and high efficiency.
Compared with alphabetic writing, Chinese characters has its weaknesses, but also has its strengths. Chinese greatest strengths is the ability to transcend space and time constraints. Ancient and modern Chinese pronunciation is a lot different. However, to shape fairly stable in 2000, did not change much, meaning the change is relatively small, so an old Qin and Han people today can read part. If the ancient books is written with alphabetic writing, modern people would simply not understand. Some dialect differences are large, they can not talk, but written in Chinese characters, will be able to understand each other, the reason is the same.
Simplified Chinese characters began 50 years of work. 1986 re-released "Master List of Simplified Chinese Characters" provides more than 2000 Simplified Chinese (including simplified radical analogy with words). This work has now come to an end, the future will remain stable within a period not to simplify. Been simplified because the text would undermine the stability, and simplify the number of characters after the original complex characters and not be abolished. The result is ever-increasing number of Chinese characters, instead of increasing the learning and use of the burden.
Pinyin on the text of the question, has long been controversial. In theory, any natural language can be used phonetic records. However, due to dialect differences, in the promotion of Putonghua is not broad, practical results before use phonetic dialect area will bring great difficulties. In addition, Chinese long history and a large number of documents are recorded in Chinese characters. Once the change course, bound to the extensive use of in the literature have created some difficulty in social psychology and may cause fluctuations in national sentiment. In fact, prolonged use of Chinese characters that can be ideographic writing system, there can be a large number of homonyms in Chinese words, and this phenomenon does occur, and now corresponds to a syllable up to tens of hundreds of Chinese characters, if you use pinyin to record voice, there will not read them I can not understand the phenomenon, even after a long period of training can not completely solve this problem, so if you really want to work for Romanization, can not be completed overnight, in the Chinese developed to fit extent before, the best Latin-based program on hold.
For instance, Mr. Lu's book "The Story of Ah Q" in the title of "Q" word, according to Lu Xun said to himself, but also by the influence of Latin.
Latin Chinese can not be strong evidence of
"Shi's History of Food Lion," Chao
Shishi Shi Shi Shi Shi, L. Lion, vowed to eat ten lions.
He often as the Lion City.
10 o'clock, ten lions at the market.
Is when the city of Shi happened.
He looked at those 10 lions, the use of arrows, so that is the ten lions to die.
He bundled up the 10 lion carcasses stone chamber.
Shishi wet, so that paternity swab's stone chamber.
Shishi Shi, he then tried to eat those ten lions.
Food when he realized that those ten lions were in fact ten stone lion corpses.
Interpreting is a matter of.
Notes
Sterling is a food lion history written by the Chao restrictions article. The full text is 90 words, each word of Mandarin pronunciation is shi. This classical works and no problems in reading, but when read in Mandarin or Latin-based works, the problem appeared. This is a classical Chinese homophone many. This essay can be read, but if you read to someone else, he is in any case did not understand!
Dialect
China's vast territory, large population and complicated dialects. Below the thick dialect into Mandarin Chinese and non-Mandarin to illustrate the two categories. Mandarin located in the south bank of the Yangtze River and Yangtze River areas north of Jiujiang and Zhenjiang area between the river and Hubei, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou four provinces, including northern Mandarin, JAC Mandarin, Southwestern Mandarin dialect area a few. Mandarin area of the region accounts for 3 / 4 of the population accounts for 2 / 3. Mandarin dialect relatively high degree of internal consistency. From Harbin to Kunming, 3,000 km apart, the two people who talk without major difficulty. Non-Mandarin dialects are mainly distributed in southeastern China, including Wu dialect (southern Jiangsu Province, Zhejiang most), Gan dialect (most of Jiangxi, Hunan, eastern, north-western Fujian, southeastern Hubei, Anhui, south-west), Hunan dialect (in Hunan Department of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region North), Cantonese (Guangdong most, southeast Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), Min dialects (Fujian, Taiwan, Guangdong, Chaozhou, Shantou and Hainan), Hakka dialects (the eastern and northern Guangdong Province, western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, Taiwan). Non-Mandarin Mandarin area than the area of the region is small, but large differences in dialect, generally can not talk to each other, even within the same dialect area (eg southern Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu Wu dialect Wu dialect, between Fuzhou and Xiamen words between words), conversation are difficult. Chinese dialect differences between the voice on the largest, followed by vocabulary, grammar, the differences in the minimum. Voice of the difference in the on_set_ of the simplified, the size of final consonants, and tone class distinction was especially evident on. For example, Wu dialect plosive consonants are voiced stops [b, d, g], unaspirated voiceless stop [p, t, k] and aspirated voiceless stop [p, t, k] 3 _set_s, and Mandarin after only 2 _set_s. Cantonese final consonants are [m, n, ŋ, p, t, k] 6 个, Suzhou dialect only [n, ŋ,?] 3 个, Beijing dialect only [n, ŋ] 2 个. There Cantonese Tones Yangping, IIA, IIB, IIIA and IIIB, the IVA, the IVA and IVB nine tones. Beijing dialect has Tones IB and IIIA from mid falling tone 4 tone. Yantai, then level tone, regardless of yin and yang, only a level tone, rising tone, falling tone three tone classes is a tone system, one of the most simple dialect.
As the modern and the ancient dialect of the Tones Tones very neat correspondence between the relations, so usually use the flat, on the go, enter the name of such ancient tones to mark the modern dialect tone. Note that the name of the Tones of the same dialect, does not mean that the same tone value. Such as Beijing, then the second tone is rising tone (35), Tianjin, then the second tone is a high level tone (55), and Hankou, then the second tone is tortuous tune (214).
Syntactic differences between dialects can give "Ba" and repeated questions as an example. "Ba" is the Mandarin dialects very important area of a sentence, but the Wu dialect Cantonese and no such sentence. For example, Beijing would use "the" word of the sentence (clean clothes), Cantonese is often to use "verb + object" to say (clean piece of clothing). In most of the Mandarin dialect, the repeated questions of the form "V is not V" (V on behalf of the verb, such as: go or not │ recognize not recognize). However, in some of the JAC and the Southwest Mandarin Mandarin (for example, if Kunming), and part of the Wu dialect (such as Suzhou dialect), the repeated questions of the form "can be V" (to go │ can recognize).
Chinese branch
Chinese language contained in the issue, controversial in linguistics. There are two different views: One view is that Chinese and only Chinese language; the other that the Chinese, including Min, and Cantonese, Hakka, Wu, Gan, Xiang and other languages. Most scholars in China to support the former, while the majority of scholars outside of China, particularly in the West to support the latter from a linguistic point of view. Support the latter view argued that not a single Chinese language, but a cluster of interrelated relatives in different languages. Those who support the former view will be Min, Cantonese, Hakka, Wu, Gan, Xiang Chinese dialects such as, for example, Chao considered the standard language (Mandarin) is a dialect, Min, Cantonese and other dialects also. However, in practice, customarily called "dialect" with each other or with the standard can not communicate between the Chinese language more often than from the same language under the European languages but also far between. For example, a person will only be available in Spanish Spanish and Portuguese, another person will reach a communication, but one can only Cantonese and one can only shed light on when people are totally deaf understand what each other said.
China under the Chinese branch of the different linguistic characteristics of the Chinese dialects is divided into the traditional seven. Within seven dialects in this, there are still areas of different sub-dialects. Sometimes these sub-dialects in the region of the user can not understand each other. Different dialect areas in the language of human consciousness is quite different. For example, one may use the Cantonese dialect of Hong Kong people feel and speak the Taishan dialect of Cantonese have a lot in common, although they may not understand each other.
Geographical differences in the dialect is also very obvious. Mandarin in the north, northwest or southwest, then Mandarin area, several hundred kilometers apart from each other and the general oral communication, but certain parts of speech and vocabulary is also a great change; However, in many parts of southern China, especially in mountainous areas, may exist within the geographical scale oral communication difficulties between the dialects. Give an extreme example, such as Fujian province, the gap is only 10 km of local residents may have can not be freely exchanged verbal.
Chinese dialects Mandarin, or Mandarin dialects: that of North China, Northeast and Northwest regions, most of Hubei, Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, northern Jiangxi Province along the Yangtze River, north-central Anhui, Jiangsu and north-central dialect language used. Mandarin can be divided into North Mandarin, Northwest Mandarin, Southwestern Mandarin, JAC Mandarin, North Mandarin located in the north east of Beijing, then to represent the northwest Mandarin located in the north west to Xi'an, then to represent the southwest Mandarin located in the south west, If the representative of Chengdu, located in the south of Jianghuai Mandarin east of Yangzhou, then if the JAC representatives. Ya sound ancient period in the Central Plains of China in the five casually, dressed crossed, the differentiation into Middle Chinese voice. The modern "Mandarin dialect," formed in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. Mandarin in the formation of later, North and South 分别 of development, and differentiated into South Mandarin and northern Mandarin for future Chinese generations of official language, the North Mandarin has a Modern Standard Base (continents, as Mandarin, Taiwan, known as Mandarin) . Use of this dialect accounts for 70% of China's population.
Be pointed out that "Mandarin dialect", in the past referred to as "northern dialect," not confined to northern China. On the contrary, in southwest China and the Huaihe region belong to the Southern dialect Mandarin dialect.
Mandarin obvious features include: loss of all the MC Entering, Middle Chinese in "- p,-t,-k,-m,-n,-ng" coda is left "-n,-ng", but emergence of a large number of children of Rhyme "-r" coda. The original connection "i, ü" and finals "g, k, h" has been palatalized consonant into "j, q, x" initials. Mandarin words in the loss of voicing opposition in the process of differentiation has not been dramatic tone, but there up into the square outside the Middle softly. Therefore, the Mandarin dialects contain a large number of homonyms and the corresponding compounds produced. The phenomenon is relatively rare in other dialects.
Wu, or Wu dialect: in southern Jiangsu, southern Anhui, Shanghai and Zhejiang, the majority of regions. Typically represented by Wu in Suzhou dialect. Southwest of Anhui Province is affected by the Gan language, southern Zhejiang, if retained more features of the ancient Bai Yue, and even can not, and as typical of the Taihu Wu Wu calls. The number of users is about 8.4% of the total population. This dialect of consonants on the voicing distinction is a very distinctive features. But Wu retained fuzzy Middle Chinese entering tone.
Hakka, or Hakka: Hakka in southern China and most widely used among She, including Guangdong, eastern, northern, western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, Guangxi, south-east and other places to Meixian it represented. Although a Southern dialect, but the Hakka immigrants moving south in the north formed. Hakka and thus retained some characteristics of medieval Central Plains words. Using the Hakka population of about 5% of the total population. Hakka dialect is characterized by level tone, rising tone, regardless of yin and yang, but the entering tone, falling tone Yin and Yang.
Min, Min dialect, or: in Fujian, Hainan, Guangdong, eastern Taiwan, the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, a number of other overseas Chinese to use. Min's internal divisions as larger, usually divided into Minnan dialect (in Xiamen, then as the representative) and the Northern words, if Fujian (Fuzhou, then as the representative), and central Fujian Putian and dialects. Min of all dialects, the only incomplete and there is a direct correspondence Rhyming Dictionary of Medieval Chinese dialects, of which the most influential Taiwanese. However, according to research existing voice, sound system very close to the Min Ancient Chinese phonology.
Cantonese: Cantonese as representative of some areas in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Macao and overseas Chinese has been used. Cantonese is the Chinese dialect in the tone one of the most complex, has nine tones (there are 10 pieces Guinan goulou tone). Also to retain the most complete medieval dialect of Chinese. Cantonese contains p, t, k, m, n, ng six final consonants. Differences within the little Cantonese. Using the Cantonese population of about 5% of the total. However, there is no mixing Cantonese Tone can be considered to retain the ancient Chinese Cantonese ingredients to early Wu, but later in the Min.
Xiang, or Hunan dialect: in Hunan use. Classified according to whether to retain voiced initials, can be divided into two types of old Xiang Xiang and the new, which have been voiced initials Xiang Qinghua relatively close to the new Southwest Mandarin. Changsha, respectively, then (the new) and Twin Peaks, then (the old) to represent the user about 5% of the total population. The history of Hunan and Hubei provinces strongly influenced by northern cultures, so Xiang larger internal differences. And multiple periods of overlapping speech features in ancient Chinese.
Gan, Nanchang, then as the representative, also known dialect, called as servant language. Sino-Tibetan languages are Chinese, mainly used for most of Jiangxi, Hunan, eastern, southwestern Anhui and other places. The number of users is about to use a population of about 51.48 million (see chart, previous data on 30 million is inaccurate), is the seven major dialect of Chinese. Gan language
http://baike.baidu.com/view/775972.htm
The following are several dialects constitute separate major dialect areas, are still controversial:
Jin Language: Most of Shanxi and Shaanxi in the north west of Hebei, Henan, northwestern region of Inner Loop and other places used as the representative of Taiyuan, then there into the Finals - [-ʔ] (which looks like a question mark in the International Phonetic Alphabet is tight guttural. In Tone [-p/-t/-k] disappear before occurrence of 'entering tone weakening', [-p/-t/-k] all became [-ʔ]). The Mandarin pronunciation system and different. Previous (and now many linguistic scholars) to its attributed Mandarin.
Ping words: use in some parts of Guangxi. Pinghua traditionally attributed to Cantonese, Guangxi Beijing in recent years been advocated as an isolated dialect words there.
Hui words: southern Anhui, and Jiangxi and Zhejiang in the Soviet part of the adjacent regions. Previous (and now part of the linguistic scholars) to attributed Wu.
History
Chinese is the language of the world's most ancient one, is by far the longest common language for one of the languages. The evolution of Chinese history is a very interesting question. Chinese writing system - characters, non-phonetic, not as phonetic as directly aware of the history of a word with the pronunciation. Fortunately, the characters (especially the form of sound words), poetry, rhythm and the translation of foreign names can be found in effective information.
Ancient Chinese
According to legend, when the Yellow Emperor in the original "nations", Xia country when there are 3000, 800 weekly feudal lords, and the "five-party of the people speak the same language" ("Book of North Song").
Exist in the early Zhou Dynasty Ancient Chinese and medium-term (11 to the first 7 century BC), written records of the Inscriptions on the bronzes, "The Book of Songs," written by and part history book, "Book of Changes."
According to "Book of Mean" twenty-eight chapters it reads: "Today got off with the track, and the writing, line homotopy." Can be seen during the Zhou dynasty began to implement a unified language.
The early spring, found in the vassal state also recorded more than 170. To the Warring States period, the formation of "Minao", "Zhu Hou Lizheng, no unification on the King, ... ... words sound different, special forms of writing" ("Origin of Chinese Characters Syria").
100 in the writings of philosophers used to be called "elegant language" in common language. "Ya Yan," Poetry "," book ", the Executive ceremony, are also elegant language." ("The Analects of Confucius described the")
After the reunification of the Qin Dynasty, to further standardize the text to Xiaozhuan official language as an official.
Middle Chinese
This Chinese language used in Sui, Tang and Song Dynasty (7th century to 10th century), can be divided into "Qieyun" (AD 601) involved early, and "Rhyme" (10th century) reflected late. Karlgren this stage, known as "Ancient Chinese."
Linguists have been able to reconstruct a more self-confident voice of Middle Chinese system. This evidence comes from several sources: a variety of modern dialects, phonology, and foreign language translation.
As the Indo-European languages can be reconstructed from the modern Indo-European languages, as well as by Middle Chinese dialect reconstruction. In addition, the ancient Chinese writers spent a great deal of effort to sum up the Chinese language voice system, the information is still the basis for the work of modern linguists. Finally, the Chinese voice from the translation of foreign languages learned.
Modern Chinese
Modern Chinese is among the ancient Chinese and modern Chinese literature in the vernacular, represented by the early Chinese.
Modern Chinese
Modern Chinese dialects are based on the North, then to a model of modern Chinese writings for the syntax of Chinese.
Written and spoken
The difference between written and spoken language has been considerable. In the "54" period before the Vernacular Movement, the distinction between written and spoken language is in fact the distinction between ancient and modern languages. Case Study of the Tang and Song era, when the population of the vernacular that is they wrote the classical Chinese, that is, philosophers and "Zuo Zhuan", "Historical Records" and a wide range widely read poem in classical style for the template. This situation can probably push up to the Han Dynasty. Down lasted until the early 20th century. Wills 1925, Sun Yat-sen on or use of classical Chinese writing. However, in 2000 as the classical Chinese written language itself is also changing. Antique difficult after all the real thing, not after the people of the world can not imitate the old saying was spoken of. Han Yu's article was that there is significant parts of sub-Qin syntax. Qin Tong Cheng Qing prose writer in imitation of the text and prose writer of the article in the Tang and Song, the result will certainly be more heterogeneous. Liang Qing Dynasty classical Chinese written in a plain political essays. As easy to understand, all the rage, as newspapers and magazines are widely used. At present, Taiwan, Hong Kong and overseas Chinese newspapers still follow most of this style. May 4th Movement carried out against the classical Chinese literary revolution raised to promote the idea of the vernacular. The movement swept the country, far-reaching. Few years, the vernacular literature on hold. But this vernacular literature is not really speaking the language, but do take the North Mandarin base and, with the Ming and Qing vernacular fiction considerable influence, also with varying degrees of Dialect and the number of new vocabulary and syntax Europeanization mixed style. Lu Xun's works can be used as such a style typical example.
Above that the literature. As news reports, a government statement, documents, business contracts, and even private letters, often still use the classical. That was the traditional custom dictates, on the other hand also because of the advantages of classical Chinese has a nutshell. This case, the whole country, has been extended to the 40 end of the decade. 1949 The People's Republic of China is established, the classical Chinese was fully gave way to the vernacular. In addition to cable and other interested in archaism, no one had to write classical Chinese.
As noted above, modern written Chinese is the language that contains many different levels of mixture components. In terms of syntax or vocabulary point of view it was. Take syntax, the written language with spoken language in addition to the same sentence that part, and some come from the classical Chinese, and later gradually melt in the written language, the part of a written sentence. Such as "conduct, to be given" is used quite frequently written a few verbs. The original meaning of these verbs have been empty, and the main function is to be placed in front of two-tone verb to suit the requirements of syntax and rhythm. This syntactic structure derived from the classical Chinese. "Conduct" of the formerly "OK" (further proposed office), "to" the formerly "plus" (strict control), "be" and "give" the formerly "I" (not prosecuted). In the classical syntax, the "line, plus, to the" front of the adverb must be followed with a single tone, resulting in two-syllable structure, the verb must also be behind the two-syllable. In the modern written language, the these verbs disyllabism, and back or a request with the two-syllable verbs, grammatical constraints is the same strain.
Modern written language began to take shape when the novel was from the old vernacular language in inherited some sentences. This phase is now over. We can see only some ruins. Such as "word in + location" in the structure can be placed in front of the verb ("sitting at the table"), also can be placed behind the verb ("sitting on the stage"). In the Beijing dialect, the prefix "in" use "with" use [āi] or [tǎi], post-"in" with [· tə], are not "the." Use "in" argument is from the old vernacular novel inherited.
Some written sentence is subject to foreign language (English, Japanese, Russian, etc.) directly or indirectly (through translations) of elections. In this context can give an important influence all written sentences grammatical phenomena as an example. Mentioned above, Chinese in the loose relationship between subject and predicate. Sentence is often the subject may not say so. Some sentences or no subject. Modern and Ancient Chinese spoken true. But the demands of modern written form should have a subject in a sentence. If no, would feel the structure is not complete, the logic is not careful. This is obviously affected by the Indo-European influence.
The characteristics of written language in the vocabulary is a two-syllable word in the proportion. Two-syllable words written in addition to classical inherited from the outside part, are 19th century the 100 years since the new emerging. Some of them come from the Japanese lend, and the other is a new creation. The new words are mostly used to create the original morpheme (writing Chinese characters is) caused by compound words. Impetuous is Nengchan, and strong vitality.
Chinese is accurate. I remember in my early school days, openly language textbook was written: "Walking the road is the Chinese pinyin inevitable trend." The most important one reason is that English can be typing, but Chinese can not. With the development of computer technology, keyboard input of Chinese characters has been far more than the English rate, and speed also been rapidly increasing. Can enter it in English? Seems not to be moved further delay.
The development of Chinese
Character of word formation wonderful workmanship. Prefix prefix, suffix suffix is commonly used in English word formation.
Saccharose (saccharin) and Saccharomycetes (yeast) have the same Latin prefix, but remember they are not easy, even on the American people, at least I've tested a few speakers of English engineering graduate is the case. One-dimensional string-like structure is not eye-catching lead to a direct cause is unknown. How to graduate school, and even yeast and saccharin are not aware that someone is Jiaoren think?
Group of words with Chinese characters to describe it concise. Even without eating saccharin, never used yeast uneducated Chinese, he also understand that saccharin may be sugar, "refining part of the" sweeter than sugar (although it inaccurate); yeast is "a can cause fermentation of the bacteria. " But the English can not be so simple group of words, even if the group am not unacceptable: saccharin = Sugessece = "Sugar" + "Essence" ("Sugar" and "spirit" together), yeast = Yeabacteria = "Yeast "+" Bacteria "(" fermentation "and" bacteria "together). Would that not be too much for it?
One-dimensional string-like with phonetic word formation before the suffix is different from two-dimensional character through the way of configuration. For example:
"Person" in nowhere in the four walls become "prisoners";
"Wood" in nowhere to be within the four walls of "difficulties";
"Lucy" - under the "Rain" days in Malaysia, "Road" to violence, "Lucy" in the rain under a;
"M" (food-related) "Don" (Table Voice) = "sugar";
CHAI "rice" on the long "grass" = "bacteria";
"Wood" "forest" "forest" - are the tree, woods and forest means, but what kind of comparison Morphology better? Answer at a glance.
In today's English Society, followed by the early English Characters and Latin roots as early as the word, has been gradually pulling away, similar to the above made Sugessece, Yeabacteria not be a little joke, daily life every day. Stores of different brands of chocolate, candy will always have different names, some names not found in the dictionary, they will with a factory production and generate some kind of chocolate, die die. When an Australian read the word, he does not realize that this is an area very popular in North America as a candy, as most Chinese people can only shook his head Bale.
Preference information technology era character. I do not know whether you understand the "fuzzy math", "fuzzy control" or "neural networks" and other new disciplines? If you come into contact with, you will understand the human art, philosophy, sense of seemingly "precise", but actually they are beyond the current level of knowledge of mankind today can accurately describe the scope. With the ability to increase human knowledge, they gradually will be a whole new knowledge of human structure accurately grasp new subject cited above is the new knowledge structure off the episode. Oriental Art Chinese character embodies the philosophy of the Chinese nation's culture lies. Limited to the current technological level, it's wisdom we are still not fully understanding its excavation in the ascendant. This claim is not unfounded, after all, no one realized that 15 years ago, traditional Chinese publishing industry to be eliminated; 10 years ago people did not expect the input Chinese characters faster than the English, but also faster; 5 years before the press did not think the traditional media will be gradually phased out, "Nanfang Dushi Bao" with the century-old newspaper "Ta Kung Pao" stand on the same starting line, the Internet news rush codeword. Character who does not venture to assert, after a number of years program is not possible or not as good as English?
Chinese characters are flexible, but need flexible people to use; character is smart, but depends on the development of smart people; character is full of wisdom, intelligent people need to realize her value. Pride for the Chinese! More convinced that the coming era of Chinese people's enthusiasm and confidence of Chinese cheered!
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