語言是符號係統，是以語音為物質外殼，以語義為意義內容的，音義結合的詞彙建築材料和語法組織規律的體係。語言是一種社會現象，是人類最重要的交際工具，是進行思維和傳遞信息的工具，是人類保存認識成果的載體。語言具有穩固性和民族性。
語言是人類的創造,衹有人類有真正的語言。許多動物也能夠發出聲音來表示自己的感情或者在群體中傳遞信息但是這都衹是一些固定的程式, 不能隨機變化。衹有人類纔會把無意義的語音按照各種方式組合起來，成為有意義的語素，再把為數衆多的語素按照各種方式組合成話語，用無窮變化的形式來表示變化無窮的意義。
人類創造了語言之後又創造了文字。文字是語言的視覺形式。文字突破了口語所受空間和時間的限製，能夠發揮更大的作用。
語言和文字是人類自己創造的，可是在語言文字的神奇作用面前，人們又把它當做神物崇拜起來。他們用語言來祝福，用語言來詛咒。他們選用吉利的字眼做自己的名字，做城市的名字，做器物和店鋪的名字。他們甚至相信一個人的名字跟人身禍福相連，因而名字要避諱。皇帝的名字、長官的名字、祖宗和長輩的名字不能叫,一般人也都在“名”之外取一個“號”,彼此不稱名而稱號。在後世，認為這是禮貌；在遠古，這是人身保護。現代各地口語裏也常常有些詞語起源於避諱；不久以前,很多行業有各自的避諱字眼。從前有些人傢,因為小孩兒不懂得避諱，在堂屋裏貼一張紙條“童言無忌”，意思是小孩兒說的話不算數。
凡有人類的地方就會有語言。世界上到底有多少種語言呢？據德國出版的《語言學及語言交際工具問題手册》說，現在世界上查明的有5651種語言（當然，這個數字還在增加中）。其中4200種左右得到人們的承認，成為具有獨立意義的語言。其餘有500種語言為人們所研究。另外，約有1400多種還沒有被人們承認是獨立的語言，或者是正在衰亡的語言。如澳大利亞有二百五十種語言僅被4萬多人使用，而這些澳大利亞土著民族還不得不使用英語，長期以來，這些語種便漸趨衰亡。在美國同樣也有很多正在衰亡的語言。如北美印第安人有170種語言，其中許多種語言如今衹有一小部分人用它們來交談。他們的子孫已不瞭解自己祖宗的語言，而習慣於用英語了。
文字的發明
對於文字的發明，古人更加認為是一件了不起的大事。《淮南子》裏說：“昔者倉頡作書而天雨粟,鬼夜哭。”最能表示文字的神力的是符□，這是跟口語裏的咒語相當的東西。一般的文字也都沾上迷信的色彩，有字的紙不能亂扔，要放在有“敬惜字紙”標簽的容器裏，積聚起來燒掉。文字裏邊當然也有避諱，嘴裏不能說的名字，紙上也不能寫；必得要寫就得藉用同音字，或者缺一筆。
據估計，世界上大約有5600多種語言，其中使用人數超過100萬的語言有100種左右，超過5000萬的有20種左右。
語言雖然可以作文字的基礎，但語言畢竟不等於文字，儘管各國科學界和宗教界做出很大努力，然而世界上還有四分之二的語言沒有相應的文字。
漢語，英語，法語，俄語，西班牙語，阿拉伯語等，是世界主要語言，也是聯合國的工作語言。
機器語言
程序是機器指令的序列，入鄉隨俗，使用機器指令編寫程序，是人們最初和最自然的選擇。機器指令的集合就是機器語言。機器語言是二進製的，不易被人理解，太難掌握；而且因機器而異，程序不易移植。
匯編語言將每條機器指令配上一個助記符，如Add,Jump等就形成簡單匯編語言。簡單匯編語言中的語句與機器指令一一對應。將簡單匯編中的與機器相關部分分離出去，由係統完成，就形成宏匯編。現在所說匯編語言，一般都指宏匯編。匯編語言比機器語言容易一些，但仍然很難掌握；而且因機器而異，程序不易移植。
Fortran 第一個高級程序設計語言，50年代由IBM發明，主要用於科學計算，現在仍有人使用。
COBOL 主要數據處理，現在仍在大型數據庫等應用中廣泛使用。
BASIC 主要用於初級計算機教育，在微機發明後，得到大發展。微軟公司靠他起步。
ALGOL 建立在堅實理論基礎上的程序設計語言，60年代被認為最有前途的，現在已經很少有人使用了。
PASCAL 專為計算機教育而發明的程序設計語言，對於促進結構化程序設計方法的普及有很大作用，現在仍有多人在學。
C/C++ C與Unix操作係統結伴而生，BELL實驗室發明，目標代碼效率高，可以用來編係統軟件。C也是BELL實驗室發明，是在C上增加了面嚮對象特性，是現在使用最廣泛的程序設計語言。
Java 最新的面嚮對象程序設計語言，面嚮internet，Sun公司發明，可以一次編程，到處運行。
語言分為第一語言和第二語言。
一個人從小通過和同一語言集團其它成員（如父母、親屬、周圍的人們）的接觸，自然學到並熟練運用於交際和思維過程中的語言。本族語言或母語一般說都是個人的第一語言，也是主要語言。
人出生後，首先掌握和使用的語言，叫第一語言。第二語言專指本國內非本族語。在多民族國傢裏，第二語言往往是和第一語言同時被使用的。
語言特點
語言的特性有：創造性、結構性、意義性、指代性和社會性與個體性。
語言的結構：音位、語素、詞、句子。
語言的種類：對話語言、獨白語言、書面語言、內部語言。
語言的表徵和加工過程
【語言表徵】就是語言材料所負載的信息在頭腦中存在的方式。語言的表徵具有層次性。
【語言加工】就是對輸入的語言信息進行編碼、轉換、存儲、提取的過程。語言的加工可分為自動加工和受控製加工、係列加工和平行加工、模塊化加工和交互作用式加工。
語言的生理機製
1、語言的發音機製：呼吸器官，喉頭和聲帶，口腔、鼻腔和咽腔。
2、語言活動的中樞機製：布洛卡區、威爾尼剋區、角回。
（1）布洛卡區病變引起的失語癥通常稱為運動性失語癥或表達性失語癥。
（2）威爾尼剋區病變會引起接受性失語癥，這是一種語言失認癥。切斷或損傷威爾尼剋區與布洛卡區聯繫起來的神經纖維束－弓形束，也將産生同樣的效果。
（3）角回實現口語和書面語言的轉換。角回損傷將會引起語義性失語癥。
3、語言在大腦兩半球的一側優勢與語言活動。（割裂腦的研究），研究證實語言活動主要是大腦左半球的功能，但大腦右半球在語言理解中也有重要作用。
語音知覺
1、語音的物理性質：音調、音強、音長與音色。
2、音位是在一種語言中能夠區別意義的最小的語音單位。音位分元音和輔音。研究音位的區別特徵有助於解釋人對語音的感知。影響語音知覺的各種因素有：語音類似性，語音強度，噪音掩蔽，語境，句法、語義的作用。
3、影響詞彙理解的因素：單詞的部位信息、正字法規則、字母長度或筆畫數量、字形結構、字詞的使用頻率、語音的作用、語境的作用、語義的作用。
4、影響句子理解的因素：句子的類型、詞序、語境、句法分析和語義分析。
5、影響話語理解的因素：推理、語境、圖示作用。
語言的産生
1、語言的産生是指人們通過語言器官或手的活動把所要表達的思想說出或寫出來，他包括說話和書寫兩種形式。語言産生的單位主要有：音素、音節、語素、詞、短語、句子。
2、語言産生可以分為不同的階段。如：構造階段：根據目的確定要表達的思想；轉化階段：運用句法規則將思想轉換成語言的形式；執行階段：將語言形式的信息說出或寫出。
3 語言為什麽采用聲音作為手段？
聲音不受白天黑夜的限製，優於視覺；語言傳播的有效距離大於手勢；語言采用聲音作為手段，可以一邊說話，一邊勞動；手語，手勢的速度趕不上聲音；所以，聲音作為語言的傳播手段是人類進化的必然。
語言的由簡到繁
社會生活的進化一般都是由簡到繁的，語言也就隨着越來越繁，這自然是文化發展帶來的變化。女孩子長到十六歲，就是年方“二八”。男人長到三十歲，說是到“而立”之年，到六十歲就稱“花甲”了。這都是因為念過書，書上是這樣寫的。形容美女寫的是:“ 沉魚落雁之容，閉月羞花之貌”。方便說是:“近水樓臺”(先得月)。考試失敗說是:“名落孫山”。冒充的，說是:“濫竽充數”。見慣了，說是:“司空見慣 ”。自高自大稱“妄自尊大”，“夜郎自大”。婦女生孩子，生出男孩說是“弄璋”，生出女孩說是“弄瓦”(古時原始的紡錘叫瓦)，這樣說法纔顯得有文化、文雅。一般老百姓說話也同樣是越來越復雜。因為舊社會當兵的常欺壓老百姓，老百姓對“兵”字，多無好感。於是，人們就把兵字拆開，叫“丘八”。有時叫“丘八爺”，帶有輕衊、譏諷之意。驕傲自大說是:“翹尾巴”。這些都是常聽到的。
老百姓生活中還有很多概括性的成語，也是從生活中總結出來的十分簡潔的說法，由淺入深、由簡到繁。趕工作會說:“起早貪黑”，“手忙腳亂”。瑣碎小事說:“雞毛蒜皮”。安排工作時說:有人“挑肥揀瘦”。駡什麽人且說:“狗仗人勢”。有些話不便直說，如可能有難料的危險，就說有個“三長兩短”。看過戲，聽過說書，看過小說的，也會藉用其中的詞語，如“後會有期”，“臨陣磨槍”，回傢說:“打道回府 ”，“安步當車”。再說得深，說得俏皮，就是:“有錢能使鬼推磨”，“殺雞給猴看”，“你走你的陽關道，我走我的獨木橋”。“是騾子是馬拉出來遛遛”，“ 當一天和尚撞一天鐘”，“哪傢都有本難念的經”。再進一步地說就帶有幽默了:“打腫臉充胖子”，“尿泡尿也得看皇歷”。耕地說是:“修理地球”，舞臺上的白麵小生稱:“奶油小生”。別人提出自己不願提的事，說:“哪壺不開提哪壺”。說人糊塗是:“被人賣了，還跟着去數錢”。某人的兩個孩子的名字是“三千一郎”和“千五百惠”，聽着很像日本人名。其實，那是因為父母違反了計劃生育規定，多生了這一男一女，被罰款。一個罰了三千元，一個罰了一千五百，纔取這兩個名字的——當然，這想必是開玩笑時說的。
世界上使用最多的語言
漢語 使用人口達12億多，占全球人口20％以上。
英語 使用人口達5億多，但學習英語者至少在10億人以上。
印地語 使用人口5億以上，主要是印度。
西班牙語 使用人口4億以上。
俄語 使用人口3億以上。
阿拉伯語 使用人口3億以上。
孟加拉語 使用人口2億以上。
葡萄牙語 使用人口近2億。
法語 使用人口約1.9億
馬來語及印尼語 使用人口超過1．5億。
日語 使用人口近1．5億。
朝鮮語（韓語） 使用人口超過8000萬
語言技術：說話要尺度，辦事要分寸
中國人自古就講究說話尺度和辦事分寸。古人說：“遇沉沉不語之士，且莫輸心；見悻悻自好之人，應須防口。”“世事洞明皆學問，人情練達即文章。”可見，不管是與人說話、與人交往、與人辦事，都藴含着分寸的玄機。
說話辦事是要講究尺度、分寸的。這種“尺度、分寸”主要表現在哪些方面呢？
一、是說話不到位不行，辦事不賣力不行。說話不到位，說不到點子上，別人可能悟不明白，理解不透，琢磨不出你的真實用意，你提出的想法或要求也不會被人重視和接受，非但事情辦不成，也常常不被人瞧得起。這樣怎麽能換取別人的欣賞與親善呢？怎麽能贏得別人的友誼和器重呢？同樣的道理，為別人辦事不盡力不行。“有來無往非理也。”別人求你辦事，你不盡力，你遇到睏難的時候。怎麽能指望別人的熱情相助呢？
二、是說話說得太過頭不行，辦事太勉強不行。好說大話，言辭太尖刻。讓人聽了不愉快，覺得你不識大體，不懂規矩，不知好歹，這樣的人常常被人敬而遠之，也同樣無法與人正常交往。辦事太勉強，有能力沒能力的差事都敢接，辦得到辦不到的事都想攬，結果交不了差，衹能給自己增添不必要的麻煩，給自己造成你能力低下或不講誠信的印象。
說話有尺度，交往講分寸，辦事講策略，行為有節制，別人就很容易接納你，喜歡你，幫助你，舉止失體，不識深淺，不知厚薄，就會人人討厭，時時難過，事事難為，處處碰壁。
說話的尺度和辦事的分寸類似於一匹寶馬，駕馭好了可以日行千裏，幫你衝鋒陷陣；駕馭不好，就可能讓你摔跟頭，甚至踢傷別人。
《語言學教程》對“語言”的解釋
What is language?
Webster's New World Dictionary offers several most frequently used senses of the word'language',namely,[1](a)human speech;(b)the ability to communicate by this means;(c)a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed,used for the expression or communication of thought and feelings;(d)the written representation of such a system;[2](a)any means of expressing or communicating,as gestures,signs,or animal sounds;
(b)a special set of of symbols,letters,numerals,rules etc.used for the transmission of information,as in a computer;...(p.759)Suffice it to say here that though we use the word in its various senses,we focus here on its primary sense:namely[1]（a）,（b）,（c）,（d）.
To give the barest of definition,language is a means of verbal communication.It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues,motivation,and socio-cultural roles.Language learning and use,are determined by the intervention of biological,cognitive,psychosocial,and environmental factors.In short,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.（reproduction of material without witten permission is strictly prohibited，contact me via email if you want to copy this eassay:exiven@163.com This essay is taken from"Linguistics.A Course Book" Editor in chief:鬍壯麟 Subeditor:薑望琪資料來源：《語言學教程》 主編：鬍壯麟 副主編：薑望琪，北京大學出版社出版）
韋氏的新世界字典（Webster's New World Dictionary)提供了“語言”的幾種最常見的定義,即，[1](a)人類的言語；（b）
通過言語來交流的能力；（c）用來表達或交流思想和感覺的一套聲音及這些聲音互相結合的係統；（d）係統的文字表達；[2](a)表達或交流的任何方式，如手勢，標記，或動物的聲音；（b）符號，字母，數字，規則等的特殊集合，用來傳達信息，比如用在計算機中等；簡單而言，儘管這個詞有各種意義，但這裏我們關註的焦點是語言的基本涵義，即，[1](a)(b)(c)(d).
一個最簡單的定義就是，語言是言語交流的一種方式。因為說和寫的交流方式是一種有目的的行為，所以語言是實用性的；因為語言是社會符號，語言的交流衹能在所有參與者廣泛理解了人類的那些非語言的暗示，動機，社會文化角色等等互相關聯的因素之後才能有效進行，因此語言又是社會的，約定俗成的。語言的學習和使用取决與生物學的，認知的，心理的和環境的因素，語言比其他任何動物的交流係統都要復雜得多，語言使人類區別於動物。（以上是關於語言的相關解釋，未經允許，禁止轉載，惡意篡改本文內容視為侵犯著作權，如有問題，與我聯繫 exiven@163.com參考了《語言學教程》，英語語言學專業網站 http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/articlelist_1503801131_0_1.html 如果需要其他方面的語言學方面內容，可以參考其他語言學網站或語言學書籍，《語言學教程》 主編：鬍壯麟 副主編：薑望琪，北京大學出版社出版）
語係
依譜係分類法分出的最大語言係屬。由具有共同歷史來源的語言組成。如漢藏語係，印歐語係。同一語係內，按各語言之間親屬關係的遠近，可分為若幹語族，同一語族可再按關係遠近分為若幹語支。如印歐語係分印度、日耳曼、羅馬、斯拉夫等語族。斯拉夫語族又分東斯拉夫、西斯拉夫、南斯拉夫等三個語支。由於世界語言十分復雜，語係的劃分在語言學家中不盡一致，名稱也不盡相同。
世界七大語係
19世紀，歐洲的比較學派研究了世界上近一百種語言，發現有些語言的某些語音、詞彙、語法規則之間有對應關係，有些相似之處，他們便把這些語文歸為一類，稱為同族語言；由於有的族與族之間又有些對應關係，又歸在一起，稱為同係語言，這就是所謂語言間的譜係關係。現在，世界上主要的語係有七大類：
印歐語係是最大的語係，下分印度、伊朗、日耳曼、拉丁、斯拉夫、波羅的海等語族。印度語族包括梵語、印地語、巴利語等。伊朗語族包括波斯語、阿富汗語等。日耳曼語族包括英語、德語、荷蘭語、斯堪的納維亞半島各主要語言。拉丁語族包括法語、意大利語、西班牙語、葡萄牙語和羅馬尼亞語。斯拉夫語族有俄語、保加利亞語、波蘭語。波羅的海語族包括拉脫維亞語和立陶宛語。
漢藏語係 下分漢語和藏緬、壯侗、苗瑤等語族，包括漢語、藏語、緬甸語、剋倫語、壯語、苗語、瑤語等。
阿爾泰語係 下分西阿爾泰語族、東阿爾泰語族。前者包括突闕諸語言以及前蘇聯境內的楚瓦什語，後者包括蒙古語以及前蘇聯境內的埃文基語。
閃含語係 又稱亞非語係。下分閃語族和含語族。前者包括希伯來語、阿拉伯語等，後者包括古埃及語、豪薩語等。
德拉維達語係 又稱達羅毗荼語係。印度南部的語言都屬於這一語係，包括比哈爾語、泰盧固語、泰米爾語、馬拉亞蘭語等。
高加索語係 這一語係的語言分佈在高加索一帶，主要的語言有格魯吉亞語、車臣語等。
烏拉爾語係 下分芬蘭語族和烏戈爾語族。前者包括芬蘭語、愛沙尼亞語等，後者包括匈牙利語、曼西語等。
此外還有一些語係，如非洲的尼日爾—剛果語係、沙裏—尼羅語係、科依散語係，美洲的愛斯基摩— 阿留申語係以及一些印第安語係，大洋洲的馬來—波利尼西亞語係和密剋羅尼西亞語係。需要指出的是，世界上有些語言，從譜係上看，不屬於任何語係，如日語、朝鮮語等，就是獨立的語言。
在近兩個世紀裏，各國學者把全世界形形色色的語言分成各種語係如印歐語係、烏拉爾語係、阿非羅一亞細亞語係、阿爾泰語係、漢藏語係、南亞語係，南島語係等等，但還有一些語言至今係屬不明，如分佈於西班牙北部和法國西南部與西班牙接壤地區的巴斯剋語、古代兩河流域使用的蘇美爾語等。那麽，這些不同的語言和語係是怎樣起源的呢？說同一語係語言的居民共同體又是怎樣形成的呢？不同語係及其居民之間是否在遠古彼此就有聯繫呢？全世界數十億人所說的成千上萬種語言是否有一個共同起源呢？這些問題在過去是無法準確回答的，也曾被視為科學的"禁區"。但是近20多年來，隨着分子生物學、人類群體遺傳學和考古學、語言學的進展，我們終於看到瞭解開這些"世紀之謎"的希望的曙光。這是各門科學相互滲透，新的研究方法和研究手段不斷進步的結果。
印度語族（印地語、烏爾都語、孟加拉語、吉卜賽語等等）。
伊朗語族（波斯語、庫爾德語、阿富汗語等等）。
斯拉夫語族（俄語、塞爾維亞語、波蘭語、捷剋語、保加利亞語等等）
亞美尼亞語族（以亞美尼亞語為主）
波羅的語族（立陶宛語、拉脫維亞語等等）
日耳曼語族（德語、丹麥語、瑞典語、荷蘭語、英語等等）
拉丁（羅曼）語族（意大利語、西班牙語、葡萄牙語、法語、羅馬尼亞語等等）
希臘語族（以希臘語為主）
剋爾特語族（以愛爾蘭語為主）
阿爾巴尼亞語族（以阿爾巴尼亞語為主）
擁有最多講話人口的漢藏語係。這個語係以中國為中心，略嚮西南輻射，講話的人口占世界人口的四分之一，但是地理分佈上較為集中。下分四個語族，即漢語族、藏緬語族、壯侗語族、苗瑤語族。
阿爾泰語係。以現在中、俄、哈、蒙交界的阿爾泰山為中心，廣泛分佈於亞洲腹部的荒漠和草原地區。下分三個語族，即突厥語族、蒙古語族、通古斯滿語族。一些語言學家認為，朝鮮語、日本語的主要成份，屬於這個語係。
閃含語係。分佈於西亞北非地區，分為兩個語族，即西亞的閃語族、北非的含語族。
班圖語係。分佈於撒哈拉以南的整個黑非洲地區，擁有數千種語言，大部分是部族語言。代表性語言是斯瓦希利語。
南島（馬來－波利尼西亞）語係。廣泛分佈於東南亞的馬來半島和印度尼西亞群島、大洋洲各國。中國臺灣島的高山族語言，即屬於南島語係。
其他的語係還有達羅毗圖語係（印度半島南部）、南亞語係（中南半島南部）、芬蘭－烏戈爾語係（主要在芬蘭和匈牙利）、伊比利亞－高加索語係（高加索山脈一帶），分佈地區較狹小，對世界交往的影響力有限。
除此之外還有九大語係的說法：
世界九大語係
目前人們一般把世界的語言劃分為九大語係：
1）漢藏語係，
2）印歐語係，
3）阿爾泰語係，
4）閃－含語係，
5）烏拉爾語係，
6）伊比利亞－高加索語係，
7）馬來－玻裏尼西亞語係，
8）南亞語係，
9）達羅毗荼語係。
此外，還有非洲和美洲的一些語言和一些係屬不明的語言。
Language is the symbolic system is voice-shell material to the semantic content for the meaning, pronunciation and meaning of the word combination of building materials and grammar rules of the system of organization. Language is a social phenomenon, is the most important communication tool of mankind, is to think and transmission of information tools, the results of human knowledge preserved the carrier. Language has the stability and nationality.
Language is a human creation, only man has a true language. Many animals can also be a voice to express their feelings, or transmission of information in groups but this is just some Guding the program can not change randomly. Only human voice according to meaningless combinations of various ways to become a meaningful morpheme, then the large number of morphemes in a variety of ways to form words, with the endless changes that change the form of infinite significance.
Human beings created the language to create a text later. Text is the language of visual form. Suffered the spoken word break space and time constraints, can play a greater role.
The invention of writing
For the text of the invention, the ancients regarded as one more big deal. "Huainanzi" he said: "Formerly, the CJ for the book and rainy weather, millet, night crying ghost." Can best represent the text of the divine power is the operator □, which is spoken in the spell with the very thing. General text also stained the color of superstition, have words on paper can not throw to put the "King Cherishing paper" label containers, build up burned. Of course, there are taboo words inside his mouth can not say the name of the paper can not write; must write have to borrow the homophone, or missing a.
It is estimated that about 5,600 languages in the world, including more than 100 million use the language of 100 or so, more than 50 million of the 20 or so.
Although the language can be used for text based, but the language is after all not the same text, although the scientific community and religious countries make great efforts, however, there are two quarters in the world of language is no corresponding text.
Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish, Arabic and so is the world's major languages, is also a United Nations working languages.
Machine language
Program is a sequence of machine instructions, the Romans, using the machine instruction programming, is that people first and most natural choice. Machine is the machine language instruction set. Machine language is binary not easily be understood, difficult to master; and vary by machine, the program difficult to transplant.
Each machine instruction in assembly language will be accompanied by a mnemonic, such as Add, Jump, etc. to form a simple assembly language. Simple assembly language statements one correspondence with machine instructions. A simple compilation of the relevant parts of the machine in separate, completed by the system, the formation of macro assembler. Assembly language is said, generally means the macro assembler. Assembly language easier than machine language, it is still difficult to grasp; it varies by machine, the program difficult to transplant.
The first high-level Fortran programming language, IBM invented by the 50's, mainly used for scientific computing, there are still people to use.
COBOL main data processing, large database applications are still widely used.
BASIC computer mainly for primary education, the computer was invented by big development. He started by Microsoft.
ALGOL built on a solid theoretical foundation of programming languages, 60 years is considered the most promising, is now rarely used.
PASCAL education for computer programming language invented for the promotion of structured programming method is very effective in popularity, there are still people in the school.
C / C + + C and the Unix operating system go hand in hand hygiene, BELL laboratory inventions, the object code efficiency is high, can be used to compile software. C BELL laboratory is the invention of an increase in C, object-oriented features, is now the most widely used programming language.
The latest object-oriented Java programming language, for the internet, Sun invented, can be programmed once, run everywhere.
Language into the first language and second language.
A person from childhood through and the other members of the same language group (such as parents, relatives, people around) contact, natural learning and skilled communication and thought process used in the language. Own language or mother tongue are generally the first language of individuals is the primary language.
Were born, first of all to master and use the language, called the first language. Second language specifically refers to the domestic non-native. In the multi-ethnic country, the second language and first language are often used simultaneously.
Language Features
Language features are: creative, structural, sense of, to refer to sexual and social and individuality.
The structure of language: phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences.
Types of language: dialogue, language, monologue language, written language, the internal language.
Characterization and processing language
Characterization】 【language is the language of information load materials exist in the minds of ways. Characterization of a hierarchy of language.
】 【Language processing on the input of linguistic information is encoded, transformation, storage, extraction process. Language processing can be divided into automatic processing and controlled processing, series processing and parallel processing, modular machining processing and interaction.
Physiological mechanisms of language
1, the pronunciation of the language mechanisms: respiratory, throat and vocal cords, mouth, nose and pharynx.
2, the activities of the central mechanism of the language: Broca area, Wernicke area, angular gyrus.
(1), Broca's aphasia caused by lesions in commonly known as motor aphasia or expressive aphasia.
(2) causes lesions in Wernicke receptive aphasia, a language Agnosia. Cut or damaged Wernicke area and Broca area of nerve fibers linking - arched beam, will also produce the same effect.
(3) angular gyrus spoken and written language to achieve the conversion. Angle back injury will cause semantic aphasia.
3, the language side of the two hemispheres in the brain advantage and language activities. (Split brain research), which confirmed that the main activity of the brain hemisphere language function, but the right hemisphere in language comprehension plays an important role.
Speech Perception
1, the physical nature of voice: pitch, intensity, length and tone sound.
2, phoneme is in a language different meaning to smallest phonetic unit. Phoneme sub-consonants and vowels. The distinctive features of phonemes helps to explain people's perception of speech. Various factors affecting speech perception are: voice similar, voice intensity, noise masking, context, syntax and semantic role.
3, to understand the factors affecting vocabulary: word position information, Orthographic, letter or stroke length, number, shape structure, word frequency, voice role, the role of context, semantic role.
4, to understand the factors that affect the sentence: sentence type, word order, context, syntax analysis and semantic analysis.
5, the factors affecting speech understanding: reasoning, context, the role of icons.
Language production
1, language production is the people through organ or sign language activities to the state or to express thoughts in writing, including speaking and writing his two forms. Language production units are: phonemes, syllables, morphemes, words, phrases, sentences.
2, language production can be divided into different stages. Such as: construction phase: According to the aim to determine the expression of thought; conversion phase: the use of syntactic rules in the form of thought into language; the implementation phase: the linguistic forms of information to say or write.
3 Why is using the voice as a means of language?
Restrictions on day and night without the sound, better than the visual; language communication effective range of more than gestures; language as a means of using the voice, you can talk while while working; sign language, gestures as fast as the sound; Therefore, the language of communication as a means of sound is a natural human evolution.
Language, from simple to complex
The evolution of social life, generally from simple to complex, the language also as more complex, it is the cultural development of natural change. Girls grow up to 16 years old, is on side "28." Long to three-year-old man, said to "standing" in years to six years, and he said "Nail" has. This is because the studied, the book is written like this. Describe the beauty is written: "beauties of the content, Biyuexiuhua the appearance." Facilitate said: "proximity" (come on). Test failure is: "Minglasunshan." Forgery, said: "a good impression." Accustomed to seeing, and said: "common." Conceit that "arrogant", "arrogant." Women, children, birth to boy said, "Nong Zhang," give birth to girls is "Nong Wa" (the ancient original spindle called watts), this statement appears only literate, elegant. The general population is also more complex words. Because the old soldiers often oppressed people of society, the people of the "soldiers", which many no good impression. So, people took the word apart soldiers, called "Qiu Ba." Sometimes called "Hill bye," with contempt, ridicule intended. Arrogant said: "cocky." These are often heard.
There are many people living in the general idiom, but also from life summed up very simple argument, implemented progressively, from simple to complex. Catch up work will say: "from dawn to dusk," "rush." Trivial, said: "trivial." Organization of work, said: It was "cherry-picking." What people say then scolded: "Gouzhangrenshi." Some would say for the inconvenience, such as the risk may be unpredictable, said there was "something happens." Read the play, listening to storytellers, read novels, which will be borrowed words, such as "meet again", "crash course", go home and say: "go home", "walk rather than cars." To put it more deeply, to put it playful, is: "Money talks", "a warning to others", "You take your perfectly normal paths, my way or the highway." "Is a mule is a horse out of a walk," "When the day of the collision one of the three monks," "Which has the cupboard." Further to say on with humor: the "hat and no cattle," "Urine Paoniao also depends almanac." Land that is: "repair the earth", the stage of flour niche, said: "Naiyouxiaosheng." Others do not want to mention make their own things, said: "Which pot is not touching the tender spot." That people are confused: "was sold, also followed to count the money." Two children the name of a person is "3000 Ichiro" and "1000 500 Hui", which sounds like a Japanese name. In fact, it is because their parents violated the family planning regulations, have more of this man and a woman was fined. A fine of 3,000 yuan, a fine of 1500, only to take these two names - of course, presumably when he was joking.
The world's most used languages
Chinese use of a population of over 1.2 billion, accounting for more than 20% of the global population.
English using a population of more than 500 million, but at least those who learn English more than 10 million people.
Hindi using more than 500 million people, mainly in India.
More than 400 million people using Spanish.
Russian use of more than 300 million population.
Arabic to use more than 300 million people.
Bengali population of 200 million or more to use.
Portuguese to use a population of nearly 200 million.
Use of a population of about 190 million French
Malay and Indonesian use of more than 150 million people.
Population of nearly 150 million Japanese use.
Korean (Korean) people using more than 80 million
Language Technology: talk to scale, work to be measured
Since ancient times, Chinese people work so hard to talk scale and measured. The ancients said: "The case of non-English people in dark, defeats lose heart; see bitterly from the good of the people, should be prevented in mouth." "Dreams of all knowledge, human sophistication that article." Visible, no matter who is speaking with people, work with others, involved the propriety of the mystery.
Speak and act is to pay attention to scale, measured. This "scale, measured" was mainly on?
1, the speaker is not in place No, do not act hard not work. Words are not in place, that not the point, others may not understand enlightenment, understanding, not through, wondering not your real intention, you have ideas or requests will not be valued and accepted, not only do not accomplish, and often do not think much of being. How can this appreciation and goodwill for others it? How to win people's friendship and thinks highly of it? By the same token, do not do not do things for others. "There is also reason to not go to non-." People ask you things, you do not try, you encounter a difficult time. How can we expect others to do the warm help solve the problem?
Second, it is impossible to speak too much, too far, things Tai Mianjiang not work. Good to talk big words too harsh. After listening to unhappy people, that you ignore the general interest and do not know the rules, ungrateful, such people often turn away people, normal people also can not contact. Work Taimian Jiang, the ability ability to errand dare not take, do not do something want to embrace, the results can not pay the poor can only add unnecessary trouble for himself, to create your own ability to lower or dishonesty impression.
Speak with scale, contact stresses measured, work stress, behavioral restraint, people can easily accept you, like you, help you lose body behavior, did not know the depth, thickness unknown, they all hate, always sad thing things can not do anything, being blocked.
Speak and act in the sense of proportion scale similar to a BMW, you can control better the day traveling thousands of miles to help you charge forward; control is not good, can make you Shuaigen Tou, and even kicked people.
"Linguistics" on the "language" to explain
What is language?
Webster's New World Dictionary offers several most frequently used senses of the word'language ', namely, [1] (a) human speech; (b) the ability to communicate by this means; (c) a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thought and feelings; (d) the written representation of such a system; [2] (a) any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs, or animal sounds;
(B) a special set of of symbols, letters, numerals, rules etc.used for the transmission of information, as in a computer ;...( p.759) Suffice it to say here that though we use the word in its various senses, we focus here on its primary sense: namely [1] (a), (b), (c), (d).
To give the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Language learning and use, are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial, and environmental factors.In short, language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system. (reproduction of material without witten permission is strictly prohibited, contact me via email if you want to copy this eassay: exiven@163.com This essay is taken from "Linguistics.A Course Book" Editor in chief: HU Zhuang-lin Subeditor: Jiang Wang Qi Source: "Linguistics" Editor: Hu Lin Chuang Associate Editor: Jiang Wang Qi, Beijing University Publishing House)
Webster's New World Dictionary (Webster's New World Dictionary) provides a "language" of some of the most common definition, that is, [1] (a) human speech; (b)
Ability to communicate through speech; (c) used to express or exchange ideas and feelings of a voice and the voice of integrating these systems; (d) the system of expression; [2] (a) express or communicate in any way , such as gesture, mark, or the animal's voice; (b) symbols, letters, numbers and rules of Teshujige, Yong Lai 传达 information, such as used in computing medium; short, Although that term has a variety of significance, but Our focus here is the basic meaning of the language, that is, [1] (a) (b) (c) (d).
One of the most simple definition is that language is a form of verbal communication. As speaking and writing means of communication is a purposeful act, so language is practical; because the language of social symbols, language, communication can only be understood in all human participants in a wide range of those non-verbal cues, motivation, the role of social and cultural factors associated with each other and so can be effectively carried out after, so the language is social, conventional. Language learning and use depends on biological, cognitive, psychological and environmental factors, language than any other animal communication system to be much more complex, the language human beings apart from animals. (The above explanations on the relevant language, without permission is prohibited reproduced, malicious tampering with the contents of this article as a violation of copyright, any questions, contact me exiven@163.com reference to the "Linguistics," English Linguistics website http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/articlelist_1503801131_0_1.html If you need other linguistic content, you can refer to other linguistic sites or books, linguistics, "Linguistics" Editor: Hu Lin Chuang Associate Editor: Jiang Wang Qi , Peking University Press)
Languages
According to separate the genetic classification system is the best language. By a common history with the composition of the source language. Such as the Sino-Tibetan language family, Indo-European. The same language, the language according to the relationship between the distance, can be divided into a number of language family, the same language group can then be divided into a number of languages supported distance relationship. Such as the Indo-European sub-Indian, Germanic, Roman, Slavic and other language group. Slavic languages is divided into East Slavic, West Slavic, Yugoslavia supported the three languages. As the complexity of the world's languages, linguists in the language of division are not the same in the name are not the same.
The world's seven major languages
The 19th century, Europe's comparative study of the school that nearly 100 kinds of languages in the world and found that some languages of Mouxie pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar rules You Duiyingguanji between, some similarities, they Pianbazhexie languages into one group, as related language; because some ethnic and racial Also some correspondence, they go together, as with the Department of Language, which is the evolutionary relationship between the so-called language. Now, the world's major language has seven major categories:
Indo-European is the largest language, is divided India, Iran, German, Latin, Slavic, Baltic language group. Indian language family, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Pali, etc.. Iranian languages, including Persian, Afghan and so on. Germanic languages, including English, German, Dutch, Scandinavian Peninsula, the main language. Latin family, including French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian. Slavic languages are Russian, Bulgarian, Polish. Baltic language family includes Latvian and Lithuanian.
Under the sub-Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman, and Dong, Miao and Yao ethnic languages, including Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese, Karen language, dialect, Hmong, Yao and other languages.
Altaic language family is divided West Harter, Eastern Altai language family. The former includes the Linguistic Que conflict within the former Soviet Union and the Chuvash language, the latter including the Mongolian and the former Soviet Union in the Avon-based language.
With language, also known as Afro-Asiatic Semitic. Under sub-Semitic, and with a family. The former includes Hebrew, Arabic, etc., the latter including the ancient Egyptian language, Hausa and so on.
Dravidian languages Dravidian languages known. The language of southern India belong to the language, including Bihar language, Telugu, Tamil, English, etc. Malayalan.
Caucasian languages the language of the language found in the Caucasus area, the main language in Georgian, Chechen language, etc..
Under the sub-family of Uralic languages Finnish and Ugric language group. The former includes Finnish, Estonian, etc., which includes Hungarian, Mansi, etc..
There are also other languages, such as Africa, Niger - Congo languages, the sand - Nile languages, Khoisan language, American Eskimo - Aleut language and some Indian languages, Oceania, the Malay - Polynesian and Micronesian languages language. Be noted that some of the world's languages, from the pedigree view, does not belong to any language, such as Japanese, Korean, etc., is independent of language.
In the past two centuries, scholars from various countries to various languages around the world into various languages such as Indo-European, Uralic, A non-Roy Asiatic languages, Altaic, Sino-Tibetan, Austro-Asiatic, Austronesian languages, etc. However, some departments are still unknown languages, such as is found in northern Spain and southwestern France near the Spanish border in the Basque region of ancient Mesopotamia, etc. used in Sumerian. So, these different origins of language and how language is it? Residents speak the same language language community is what then? Between different languages and whether the ancient inhabitants had contact with each other then? Billions of people around the world talking about tens of thousands of languages have a common origin it? These issues can not be accurately answered in the past, and has been regarded as scientific "restricted." But in the last 20 years, with molecular biology, human population genetics and archeology, linguistics progress, we finally see about opening the "mystery of the century" and a ray of hope. This is the mutual penetration of all science, new research methods and means of continuous improvement results.
Language family of India (Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Romany, etc.).
Iranian languages (Persian, Kurdish, Afghan, etc.).
Slavic languages (Russian, Serbian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, etc.)
Armenian family (mainly in Armenian)
Baltic language group (Lithuanian, Latvian, etc.)
Germanic languages (German, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, English, etc.)
Latin (Romance) language family (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian, etc.)
Greek Family (in Greek-based)
Celtic language family (in Irish-based)
Albanian family (mainly Albanian)
Has the largest population of the Sino-Tibetan speech. The language of China as the center, slightly southwest of radiation, remarks a quarter of the world's population, but is more concentrated geographical distribution. Under the four language families, namely, ethnic Chinese, Tibeto-Burman family, and Dong language group, Miao-Yao language family.
Altaic. To now, Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia Altai border the center, is widely distributed in Asia, desert and grassland areas abdomen. Under the three language families, namely, Turkic, Mongolian family, Tungus Manchu family. Some linguists believe that Korean and Japanese major component, belong to this language.
Flash with language. Distributed in the West Asia North Africa region, divided into two linguistic groups, namely, the Semitic West Asia, North Africa, with a family.
Bantu languages. Distributed throughout sub-Saharan black Africa, with thousands of languages, mostly tribal language. Representation language is Swahili.
Austronesian (Malayo - Polynesian) language. Widely distributed in Southeast Asia, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia Islands, Oceania. China Taiwan Island Gaoshan language, which is Austronesian.
Other languages also Darrow adjoining map language (the southern peninsula of India), South Asian languages (Indo-South), Finland - Ugric languages (mainly in Finland and Hungary), the Ibero - Caucasian language (Caucasus area), relatively small distribution areas, the impact on the world exchanges is limited.
In addition there are nine languages to say:
World nine languages
At present it is generally the language of the world is divided into nine languages:
1) Sino-Tibetan,
2) Indo-European,
3), Altaic,
4) Flash - with language,
5), Uralic,
6) Iberian - Caucasian languages,
7) Malay - Polynesian languages,
8) South Asian Languages,
9) The Dravidian languages.
In addition, there are a number of languages in Africa and the Americas, and some lines are unknown language.