史前欧洲 Prehistoric Europe   古代德意志 German Early History   中世纪的德意志 Medieval Germany   德意志民族国家的建立 Building of Germany   德意志帝国时期 German Reich   一战中的德国 Germany during World War I   二战后德国 Post-war Germany since 1945   德意志联邦共和国 Federal Republic of Germany   


  1914---1918 20世纪初帝国主义之间的矛盾经过长期积累,为重新瓜分殖民地,最终爆发了德、奥同盟国集团同英、法、俄协约国集团之间的大规模战争,战火从欧洲蔓延至亚非,33个国家先后卷入。成为第一次真正意义上的世界大战。 巴尔干战争后巴尔干民族主义高涨,奥地利准备入侵塞尔维亚,1914年6月28日,奥地利王储在萨拉热窝被刺,7月28日,奥地利对塞宣战。8月欧洲各大国先后卷入战争,一战在东、南、西三条战线上全面爆发。 1914年8月,德国在西线发动进攻,首先占领了比利时、卢森堡,在阿登一线对法国发动进攻,很快突破了法国边境防线,法军迅速动员预备队,通过铁路和汽车投入战场,9月初双方进行马恩河战役,因俄国在东线发动进攻,德军只得抽调部分兵力赶往东线,英法联军阻止了德军速战速决的打算。英法联军转入反攻,德军利用机枪、铁丝网构筑了野战攻势,英法联军正面进攻无法取得进展,便包抄德军侧翼,德军也反过来包抄联军新产生的侧翼,双方不断相互包抄将防线延申到海岸。10月德军发动攻势投入上百万兵力进行正面强攻,联军则不断在纵深构筑防线,德军始终无法取得决定性的突破,双方不断加强工事逐渐形成一条稳定的战线。在东线德奥和俄在广阔的区域激战,双方投入的兵力有限,没有形成西线的胶着态势,1914年8月俄军分两路进攻东普鲁士和波兰的加里西亚,德国陷入两线作战,9月北线俄军被德军击溃,而在南线奥军被击败。11月德军协助奥军阻止了俄军的进攻。1914年战争爆发后日本就急不可待的对占领青岛的德军发动进攻,随后又占领了同盟国属的太平洋岛屿,1914年10月,土耳其参战,袭击了俄黑海舰队和港口,10月底土、俄在高加索展开激战,至1915年土军被击退。同时英军在阿拉伯人配合下在夺取了叙利亚的土耳其领地。 1914年8月,英国与德国舰队开始在北海交战,1915年2月,德国开始进行无限制潜艇战,但迫于美国的压力很快又停止了袭击中立国船只。 1915年同盟国采用西守东功的方针,年初德军在西线转入防御,4月英法联军反攻,德军中使用了毒气弹,随后双方大规模使用化学武器,同时配发防毒面具,化学武器就没有发挥多大作用。9月联军再次发动攻势,仍没有取得进展,双方恢复对峙。在东线,同盟国和俄国都计划新的攻势,2月,德奥抢先发动进攻,3月俄军也发动进攻,形成犬牙交错的战线。夏季德军抽调西线主力发动全面进攻,俄军损失170万人,退至本土防御。在南线,1914年奥军被塞尔维亚击败,1915年10月,保加利亚加入同盟国一方对塞尔维亚宣战,塞军在两线夹击下很快失利,11月塞尔维亚被占领。同年5月,意大利加入协约国一方对奥匈帝国宣战,随后对奥发动多次进攻,全部被奥军击败。 1916年,德军再次把重点转移到西线,2月21 日德军集中优势兵力发起凡尔登,起初法军准备不足,德军取得了一定进展,很快援军赶到,战局又重现了1914年的景象,至9月2日,法军击退了德军的进攻。为配合凡尔登防御,6月24日,英法联军发动索姆河战役,英法联军和德军都使用飞机进行支援,并进行了大规模空战,9月15日英军首次投入坦克参战,至11月战役结束英法联军和以往一样损失惨重而毫无进展。1917年初协约国再次发动全线进攻,在6月的康布雷战役中,英军集中使用坦克在飞机的配合下发动突袭,取得了一些战果,但很快又被德军击退。1916年3月,俄军在东线重新发动了攻势,南路俄军取得了一些进展,1917年3月,俄国工人和士兵爆发起义,推翻沙皇,7月,俄军继续向奥军进攻,9月德奥援军赶到,发动里加战役,击溃俄军。11月7日,俄国布尔什维克领导工人士兵发动十月革命,推翻临时征服,建立苏维埃政权。12月,苏俄退出帝国主义战争。1916年8月罗马尼亚对奥宣战,12月被同盟国占领,1917年6月希腊对同盟国宣战。 1916年德国海军努力突破英舰队的封锁,5月31日,双方海军主力爆发了日德兰海战,双方损失惨重,都没有消灭对方主力,但德国舰队从此退守港口丧失海面的制海权。1917年,德国恢复无限制潜艇战,但很快招致美国参战。 1917年4月,美国参战,很快组织远征军投入欧洲战场,美国参战后原本中立的拉美国家纷纷对同盟国宣战,同年8月中国对德奥宣战,并派遣近20万劳工到欧洲修筑工事。 1918年德国战争力量已近枯竭,为尽快结束战争3月起又进行了大规模进攻。3月21日起对英法联军连续发动进攻,至5月30日进至巴黎仅60公里处,随后美军加入作战,德军有经验的部队再次耗尽,7月协约国转入反攻。7月18日法军在坦克和炮兵弹幕的掩护下发动反击,空军夺取了制空权,8~9月英军和美军在大量坦克和飞机的支援下连续发动亚眠战役和圣米耶尔战役,德军濒于崩溃。9月26日,西线协约国发动总攻,10月20日,德军全线溃退。同年9月协约国在巴尔干开始反攻。9月24日战败的保加利亚军发生起义,29日保加利亚投降。同年6月奥军对意大利发动了最后的攻势,很快被意军击退,10月意军发动反攻,30日奥军防线崩溃,11月3日,奥匈帝国停战,并很快解体。同一天德国基尔水兵爆发起义,11月9日,德皇威廉二世退位,当天成立了社会主义共和国政权。爆发革命,后德国资产阶级和容克地主集团为保住统治地位迅速向协约国求和,11月11日,双方签署了条件苛刻的停战协定,德国交出所用殖民地和重武器。1919年1月28日,巴黎和会召开,经过长时间争吵,6月28日签定「凡尔塞和约」。德国被禁止重新武装,领土被支解,并承担巨额赔款。 战后德国不满「凡尔塞和约」的束缚,为新的世界大战策源地形成积累了条件。这场战争削弱了英法等老牌帝国主义,美国成为一流大国。日本、意大利等新兴帝国主义国家也从德、奥的崩溃中捞足了好处。俄国爆发十月革命成立社会主义国家后,共产主义运动和殖民地解放运动蓬勃兴起。一战前世界完成了第二次工业革命,科学技术空前发展,人类战争从平面发展到包括空中和水下的立体战争,战争样式彻底改观。


  During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that ultimately lost the war. It began participation with the conflict after the declaration of war against Serbia by its ally, Austria-Hungary. German forces fought the Allies on both the eastern and western fronts, although German territory itself remained relatively safe from widespread invasion for most of the war.
  
  Germans responded to the beginning of war during 1914 with the same general enthusiasm as did many people of other countries of Europe; this enthusiasm is known as the Spirit of 1914. The German government, dominated by the economic and political elite, thought of the war as a way to end Germany's disputes with neighbors and rivals like France, the United Kingdom, and Russia. The beginning of war was thus presented in authoritarian Germany as the chance for the nation to secure "our place under the sun" as the Kaiser Wilhelm II put it, which was readily supported by the prevailing nationalism of the public. The Kaiser and the German establishment hoped the war would unite the public behind the monarchy, and lessen the threat posed by the dramatic growth of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which had been the most vocal critic of the Kaiser in the Reichstag before the war. Despite their history, the Social Democratic Party of Germany ended its differences with the government and abandoned its principles of internationalism to support the war effort.
  
  It soon became apparent that Germany was not prepared for a war lasting more than a few months. At first, little was done to regulate the economy for a wartime footing, and the German war economy would remain badly organized throughout the war. Germany depended on imports of food and raw materials, which were stopped by the British blockade of Germany. Food prices were first limited, then rationing was introduced. The winter of 1916/17 was called "turnip winter". During the war, about 750,000 German civilians died from malnutrition . Even more died after the war, as the Allied blockade was not ended until the summer of 1919.
  
  Enthusiasm began to decrease as the enormous numbers of casualties began returning from the first battles. As the human cost increased during battles at the Marne, Verdun, the Somme, and at Ypres in the west, and in Poland and Galicia in the East, a grimmer and grimmer attitude began to prevail amongst the general population. Morale was helped by victories against Serbia, Greece, Italy, and Russia which made great gains for the Central Powers. Morale was at its greatest since 1914 at the end of 1917 and beginning of 1918 with the defeat of Russia following her rise into revolution, and the German people braced for what Ludendorff said would be the "Peace Offensive" in the west. In one of the bloodiest series of battles in history from March to August, Ludendorff's plans were thwarted by the combined Allied efforts and Germany's last chance to win the war was lost.
  
  By September 1918, the pies were exhausted from fighting, and the Allies had won the support of American forces. Even though the eastern front was hundreds of miles away from the borders of the Reich, an invasion of the Rhineland on the western front was possible. The hunger and popular dissatisfaction with the war precipitated uprisings and an attempted revolution throughout Germany, deposing the Kaiser and creating the historical motive for far-right German nationalists to later develop the Dolchstoßlegende. By the end of 1918, Germany had signed the Armistice, the Kaiser had abdicated, and the Empire had been replaced by the Weimar Republic.

后一朝政 >>:德国革命

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