人類學（anthropology ）是從生物和文化的角度對人類進行全面研究的學科群。此詞由anthropos和logos組成，從上理解就是有關人類的知識學問。最早見於古希臘哲學家亞裏士多德對具有高尚道德品質及行為的人的描述中。1501年，德國學者亨德用這個詞作為其研究人體解剖結構和生理著作的書名。因此，在19世紀以前，人類學這個詞的用法相當於我們今天所說的體質人類學，尤其是指對人體解剖學和生理學的研究。進入19世紀後，歐洲許多學者開始對考古學化石遺骨的發現感興趣，這些遺骨常伴有人工製品，而這些製品在現在的原始民族中仍在使用，所以學者們開始註意現在原始種族的體質類型和原始社會的文化的報道。這些情況最初是由探險傢、傳教士、海員等帶到歐洲的，爾後人類學家也親自到異文化中去搜集這方面的材料。因此，人類學中止了僅僅關註人類解剖學和生理學的傳統，而進一步從體質、文化、考古和語言諸方面對人類進行廣泛綜合的研究。當然，由於各國學術傳統的差異，對人類學的名稱及各分支學科有不同的理解，在歐洲大陸，人類學一詞僅作狹義的解釋，即專指對人類體質方面的研究，對人類文化方面的研究則稱為民族學。
人類學是以人作為直接研究對象，並以其為基礎和綜合理解為目的的學科。如果把人作為動物的人和文化人來區分的話，那就不可能全面地去理解人。人類學是以綜合研究人體和文化（生活狀態），闡明人體和文化的關聯為目的的。綜上所述人類學大致可區分為：主要研究形態、遺傳、生理等人體的人體人類學；以風俗、文化史、語言等文化為研究對象的文化人類學，以及專門研究史前時期的人體和文化的史前人類學。自然人類學亦稱為人體人類學。
人類學的各分支學科中，體質人類學是從生物的角度對人類進行研究的學科，它包括人類的起源、發展、種族差異、人體與生態的關係及現存靈長類的身體和行為等內容。其中髭已發展成較專門的領域，如人類進化的研究、人種學的研究、靈長目學的研究等，同時形成一些技術性手段，如人體測量技術、野外靈長動物的觀測技術等。隨着遺傳學的發展，體質人類學也從中汲取了許多理論和分析方法。
文化人類學是從文化的角度研究人類所的種種行為的學科，它研究人類文化的起源、發展變遷的過程、世界上各民族各地區文化的差異，試圖探索人類文化的性質及演變規律。廣義的文化人類學包括考古學、語言學和民族學，狹義的文化人類學即指民族學。民族學是在民族志基礎上進行文化比較研究的學科。文化人類學家所做的最具成就的工作是對人類的婚姻家庭、親屬關係、宗教巫術、原始藝術等方面的研究。在英國學術界傾嚮於將這部分內容稱為社會人類學，有時又統稱為社會文化人類學。
從語源學上講，人類學是研究人的科學。這門學科試圖依據人類的生物特徵和文化特徵，綜合地研究人，並且特別強調人類的差異性以及種族和文化的概念。
人類學起源於地理大發現時代歐美學者對現代西方技術文明之外的社會的研究，這種社會被稱為「野蠻的」、「原始的」、「部落的」、「傳說的」、「有文字前的」社會。但是，目前人類學的研究領域已經擴展到現代社會內部，試圖概括人類行為的普遍性問題，並對社會和文化現象進行整體性的描述。
人類學的兩個主要領域是體質人類學和文化人類學。它們都與其他學科有著密切聯繫，諸如考古學、語言學、社會學、政治學、經濟學、心理學和歷史學。學科間的互相交流，産生很多有價值的成果。例如經濟學家依據人類學的比較圖式，提出了「經濟人」的概念，形成經濟人類學。
實際上在早期社會，人類便開始思考自己的文化與習慣是如何發生的問題，並且産生了科學思想的萌芽。古代希臘、中國和阿拉伯許多哲學家和歷史學家，歐洲16世紀以來的許多哲學家，都是現代人類學的先驅。但是科學的人類學在19世紀進化論出現以後纔開始形成。文化人類學註重把不同社會和文化加以分類，從而確立人類進化的階段和過程，總之是歷史的綫性解釋。馬剋思主義指出社會形態為生産方式所决定，一切政治的、法律的、意識形態的上層建築都建立在生産方式的基礎之上。與此同時西方傳教士、商人和探險傢大量收集不同民族的風俗、宗教、巫術和其他資料，為人類學的發展提供了豐富的信息。
20世紀以來，文化人類學和體質人類學開始分離，同時許多人類學家開始轉嚮所謂「文化多元論」觀點，並出現許多流派。
包亞士(Franz Boas)和文化歷史學派 包亞士首先摒棄了那種選擇事實，附會於抽象的進化理論的研究方法，註重實地研究並傾嚮於所謂功能觀點，堅持對任何一種文化進行整體性的考察。他是文化歷史學派的主要人物，這個學派在美國文化人類學領域占統治地位。
莫斯(Marcel Mauss)和「社會學」學派 一般來說，莫斯和包亞士一樣，主張係統地研究社會現象，但方式略有不同。他指出社會是「自我調節」並趨於均衡的係統，係統各要素的作用是保持係統的整合與適應。他啓發了後來的功能主義思想，影響了整整一代歐洲社會學家和人類學家。
廣涵播化論者
這派理論也反對經典進化論，認為少數文明中心創造了存在至今的全部文化，而且播化或文化特徵的傳播是人類發展的基本動力。他們把文明中心稱為「文化圈」，所以也叫文化圈學派。
功能主義和結構主義
馬林諾夫斯基(Bronislaw Malinowski)是功能派的代表人物。這派認為，解釋人類學事實的唯一途徑是說明它在一定文化中正在發揮的功能，因此人類學研究的目標是把握文化整體與各個部分之間的有機聯繫，歷史的比較方法意義不大。相反，拉德剋利夫-布朗(A.R. Radcliffe-Brown)是結構主義的倡導者。這派認為人類學研究的目的在於揭示超乎經驗事實的係統的本質。
文化心理學
這派的基本思想是文化决定每個個人的心理構成，反對普遍精神或人類本質的概念。例如潘乃德 (Ruth Benedict)在美國西南部研究中發現，印第安人的思維方式或推理方式與其鄰近人種完全不同，因此文化决定心理趨嚮。現在，文化與個性的研究更加廣泛，例如對價值體係和民族性格的研究。
文化人類學還是一門年輕的科學，還沒有構成完全一致的理論體係。但是如果人類學家能夠避免種族中心主義，並創造出普遍客觀化的概念，關於文化的「科學」是可以建立起來的。
人類學的應用研究，即旨在為政府和其他組織提供指導的研究，已經取得了多方面的成就。例如關於社會變化的後果，關於傳統社會和文化方面的知識等等。應用研究中主要的問題是價值判斷問題，也就是絶對客觀的研究與接受既定政策的問題。
體質人類學的目的是確定人類在自然界的位置和解釋種族之間的自然差異。達爾文的進化理論和孟德爾(Gregor Mendel)的遺傳學，不斷深化和改變著人們的認識。現在所研究的主要內容是人類與其他靈長類的關係以及至少50萬年以來人類骨骼演化的實質。1924 年和1959年，在南非和東非發現的猿人化石為研究提供了大量資料。而且我們已經知道，從個別的差異導致種族差異的過程是︰選擇、遺傳播遷、遷移和突變。應用客觀方法，將各種特徵分離出來，再以數學方法計算其出現頻率並找出其功能上的及進化上的意義，這種研究使我們能夠理解人類自身的構造，並預測未來。目前體質人類學的主要研究領域是︰人類生態學、人類進化學說、靈長目學和遺傳學。此外還有人體測量等應用研究。
人類學的目的
簡單而言，人類學研究的目的就是以全面的方式理解人這個個體。但更深層而言，這種研究不僅僅在於人的軀體構造之理解，而是人類所有思維與想法的可能性。換句話說，人類如何行動、如何認知自己的行動、行動的結果又如何影響人的思考以及人與其他群體、象徵的互動即是人類學最根本想解答的問題。
人類學的研究不在於找出一份解答，也不在於試圖給予一標準答案。相反的，人類學研究試圖找出所有的可能解答，然後用各種解答盡可能回答問題的某個部分。如此回答之下，人類學強調的是尊重每個群體的解答，以及用同理心詮釋每個解答的真實認同。也許在其他學科看來，人類學家衹是在玩“換句話說”的遊戲，衹是某種不科學的社會科學。但以另種層面而言，人類學的研究目的並非追求一個真實，而是追求所有面嚮的真實——即使真實衹有一個，但每個人看到的“那個” 真實，往往難劃齊一。
Anthropology (anthropology) from the biological and cultural perspective on human conduct a comprehensive study of the sciences. The words formed by the anthropos and logos, from the understanding that the human knowledge. Was first seen in ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle of high moral character and acts of description. 1501, German scholar Henderson used the word as the study of human anatomy and physiology book's title. Therefore, in the 19th century, anthropologists use the word equivalent to what we said physical anthropology, especially that of the human anatomy and physiology. Into the 19th century, many European scholars began to discover the remains of archaeological interest in fossils, these remains often accompanied by artifacts, which are products of the original peoples now still in use, so scholars began to pay attention to is the original race physical type and coverage of primitive culture. These first by explorers, missionaries, seamen, etc. brought to Europe and then, anthropologists have different cultures in person to collect this material. Therefore, only the concern of anthropology discontinued the tradition of human anatomy and physiology, but further from the physical, cultural, archaeological and linguistic extensive New Age comprehensive study of mankind. Of course, differences in national academic tradition, the names of the various branches of anthropology have a different understanding, in continental Europe, the term anthropology only be interpreted narrowly, that specifically refers to the physical aspects of human research on human culture the research is called ethnology.
Anthropology is a study of people as a direct and comprehensive understanding of its basis and purpose of the subjects. If the people as animals and intellectuals to distinguish, then it can not fully to understand people. Anthropology is a comprehensive study of the human body and the cultural (life), to clarify the relationship of human and cultural purposes. In summary anthropology can be broadly divided into: the main research project, genetic, physiological and other human body anthropology; to customs, cultural history, language and other cultural objects for the study of cultural anthropology, and specializing in human prehistory, and prehistoric cultural anthropology. Anthropology Anthropology is also known as human nature.
In various branches of anthropology, physical anthropology from the biological point of view of human research subjects, which include human origins, development, ethnic differences, human and ecological relations and the existing body and behavior of primates content . Mustache which has developed into more specialized areas, such as human evolution study, ethnographic research, primate research, science, and the formation of some technical means, such as body measurement, field observations of primates technology. With the development of genetics, physical anthropology also learn a lot of theory and analysis.
Cultural anthropology from the cultural perspective of human behavior by the various disciplines, which study the origin of human culture, the development of the process of change, the world's nations regional cultural differences, and attempt to explore the nature of human culture and evolution of the law. Broad cultural anthropology, including archeology, linguistics and ethnology, cultural anthropology i.e. narrow Ethnology. Ethnology is based on ethnographic and cultural comparative study of the subjects. Cultural anthropologists have done most accomplished work is the human marriage and family, kinship, religion, witchcraft, primitive art and so on. In this part of the British academics tend to as social anthropology, sometimes referred to as social and cultural anthropology.
From the etymological sense, anthropology is the study of human science. This discipline attempts based on the biological characteristics of human and cultural features, comprehensive study of people, and with particular emphasis on human diversity and ethnic and cultural concepts.
Anthropology originated in the era of European geographical discovery of modern Western technological civilization scholars outside the research community, this community is known as "barbaric," "primitive", "tribal", "legend" and "there is text before the "social. However, the current research in the field of anthropology has been extended to within a modern society, attempted to outline the general problems of human behavior, and overall social and cultural phenomena described.
The two main areas of anthropology physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. They are closely linked with other subjects, such as archeology, linguistics, sociology, political science, economics, psychology and history. Interdisciplinary exchange, produced many valuable results. For example, comparison of economists based anthropology schema, proposed the "economic man" concept, the formation of economic anthropology.
Since the 20th century, cultural anthropology and physical anthropology began to separate, while many anthropologists turned to the so-called "cultural pluralism" view, and the emergence of many genres.
Package Ashley (Franz Boas), and cultural history of school packet discard first choice Ashley fact, attached to the abstract theory of evolution will be in research methods, focusing on field studies and tend to the so-called functional point of view, insist on any kind of culture as a whole of study. He is the school's main characters culture and history, this school in the United States dominated the field of cultural anthropology.
Moss (Marcel Mauss) and the "sociological" school in general, Moss and packages Ashley, believes in the systematic study of social phenomena, but a slightly different way. He pointed out that society is "self-regulation" and tends to balance the system, the system is to maintain all elements of the role of system integration and adaptation. He inspired the later function of ideology, influenced a whole generation of European sociologists and anthropologists.
Guang Han broadcast of commentators
This faction also opposed to the classic theory of evolution, that the existence of a small number of centers of civilization since the creation of all cultures, and broadcast-based or cultural characteristics of the communication is a fundamental driving force of human development. They center of civilization as "cultural circle", also called circles School.
Functionalism and structuralism
Malinowski (Bronislaw Malinowski) is a function to send a representative. This faction believes that the only way to explain the facts of anthropology is to specify it in a certain culture is playing the feature, so anthropological research goal is to grasp the cultural whole and organic links between different parts of history meaningful comparison . Instead, Radcliffe - Brown (AR Radcliffe-Brown) is the structure's advocates. It holds that the purpose of anthropological research experience beyond the facts reveal the nature of the system.
Cultural Psychology
The basic idea of this camp is to determine each individual's psychological and cultural composition, against the universal spirit or concept of human nature. For example, Benedict (Ruth Benedict) in the southwestern United States study found that Indian way of thinking or reasoning with their neighboring ethnic totally different mental tendencies, therefore culturally determined. Now, the culture and personality study is more extensive, such as value systems and national character studies.
Cultural anthropology is a young science, it does not constitute a fully consistent theoretical system. But if anthropologists can avoid ethnocentrism, and create a common objective of the concept of culture of "science" can be established.
The application of anthropological research, which aims to provide guidance to governments and other organizations research, has made many achievements. For example, the consequences of social change, social and cultural aspects of traditional knowledge and so on. Applied research in main issue is value judgments, that is absolutely objective research and acceptance of policy issues.
The purpose of anthropology
In short, the purpose of anthropology is a holistic approach to understand who this individual. But the more profound, this research lies not only in the understanding of human body structure, but the idea of all human thought and possibility. In other words, human beings how to act, how to recognize their actions, how about the results of action affect human thinking and human and other groups, symbolic interaction is fundamental to answer anthropological questions.
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