社會學是從社會整出，通過社會關係和社會行為來研究社會的結構、功能、生、展規律的綜性學科,偏理。它從過去主要研究人類社會的起源、組織、風俗習慣的人類學，傾變為以研究現代社會的展和社會中的組織性或者團體性行為的學科。在社會學中，人們不是作為個，而是作為一個社會組織、群或機構的成員存在。
概觀
社會學作為對現代性突出矛盾的應出現於19世紀。這個現代性矛盾是：這個世界變得越來越小和越來越成為一個整，個人的世界經驗卻變得越來越分裂和分散。社會學家不但希望瞭解什麽使得社會團體聚集起來，更希望瞭解社會瓦解的展過程，從而作出“糾正”。（這觀點主要是社會學中爾學派所持的觀點，而其他派尤其是法蘭福學派，並不探索對社會的救治，因為他們認為對社會病疾提出的救治方案，往往是以一個小群的觀念強加到絶大多數人的身上，這不但解决不問題，還會使問題加重）
今天，社會學家對社會的研究包括一列的從宏觀結構到微觀行為的研究，包括對族、民族、階級和性，到細如家庭結構個人社會關係模式的研究。社會學分成更多更細的研究方向，包括像犯罪和離婚，在微觀方面例如有人與人之間的關係。社會學家還常用定量研究的方法從數量上來描述一個社會總結構，以此來研究可以預見社會變遷和人們對社會變遷反應的定量模型。這由拉紮斯費爾德（Paul F. Lazarsfeld）倡導的研究方法，現在是社會學研究中的主要方法論之一。社會學研究方法的另外一個流派是定性研究，包括參與觀察、深度訪談、專題小組討論等收集資料的方法，以及基於紮根理論、內容分析等定性資料的分析方法。從事定性分析的部分社會學家相信，這是一種更好的方法，因為這可以加強理解“ 離散”性的社會和獨特性的人文。這方法從不尋求有一致觀點，但卻可以互相欣賞各自所取的獨特方式互相鑒。主流的觀點認為，定量和定性這兩研究方式是互補的，而不是矛盾的。
歷史
孔德明社會學一詞。“社會學”是一門新的學姓范范氏范晔范蠡范雎范镇范祖范姓范公范家范仲淹范纯仁疇。它橫跨經濟、政治、人類學、歷史及心理學。它的意義在於尋找混受不了人類知識及哲學的源頭。
“社會學”一詞是由孔德(Auguste Comte)首創的，他試圖使用一種物理學的方法來統一所有的人文學科——包括歷史、心理和經濟學，從而建立經得起科學規則考驗的學科，原本他用“社會物理學”來稱呼這個新的學科。他的貢獻主要是他使得社會科學終於脫離人文領域。他的社會學理念是典型18世紀的：他相信所有人類活動都會一致地經截然不同的歷史階段，如果一個社會可以抓着這個階段，它就可以為社會病開出有效的藥方。
第一本以社會學為題目的書是19世紀中期的英國哲學家 赫伯特·斯賓塞所著。在美國，1890年 肯薩斯大學的“社會學元素”是社會學第一個課程[1],[2]，1892年 芝加哥大學由艾比安·斯摩爾成立美國第一個獨立大學學院，他也創立“美國社會學學報”[3]。1895年，法國 波爾多大學成立歐洲第一個社會學學院。 1904年 倫敦經濟及政治學院成立英國第一個社會學學部[4]。1919年 馬斯·韋伯在慕尼黑大學成立第一個社會學學部。1920年Florian Znaniecki在波蘭成立第一個社會學學部。
第一次關於社會學的國際作生於1893年。當時 René Worms 成立“社會學國際小學院”，最與創立於1949年的國際社會學家協會并州[5]。1905年成立的美國社會學協會是今天世界最大的社會學家協會。
19世紀至20世紀有一群古典社會學家冒起，例如：卡爾·馬思、Ferdinand Toennies、埃米爾·爾、帕托及馬斯·韋伯。正如孔德，他們都不會自視為社會學家。他們的工作涉及宗教、教育、經濟、心理學、道德操守、哲學、神學及其他學姓范范氏范晔范蠡范雎范镇范祖范姓范公范家范仲淹范纯仁疇。當然他們在社會學上是非常有影響力的，特是卡爾·馬思更是經濟學重要巨頭。
早期由孔德帶出的理論研究方式是模仿研究自然科學的方法，應用相同的方法學來探討社會現象。強調以經驗、實證和科學方法為社會學紮實的基礎。這個方法學稱為實證主義。
19世紀早期以實證主義與自然主義手法來研究社會生活受到德國的狄爾泰、海因希·李爾等新孔德主義派哲學家的質疑。他們認為自然世界跟社會世界是不同的，人類社會有獨特的疇如意義、符號、規則、道德規及價值。這些元素産生人類文化。馬斯·韋伯根這個觀點展出“反實證主義”的詮釋社會學（Interpretive Sociology），強調社會學研究的對象是人類行為的主觀意義。它跟反自然論有密切關係，使社會學研究特關註人類及文化價值。這導致難以為主觀客觀研究分野的爭論影響詮釋研究。因特網時代也催生社會學的新分支－公共社會學。
最，自然科學實際上沒有取代其他的社會科學，而是變成強調對象和方法的另一種形式。今天，社會學家通常通過比較法來研究人類組織和社會制度，特是在雜的工業社會組織結構的研究中。從20至21世紀來看，社會學的研究也應該是突飛猛進的時代。
社會學中的科學與數學
社會學家研究時常常分析群，如社會組織、宗教組織、政治組織及商業組織。他們研究社會群間的互動、跟蹤源頭及展過程、分析群活動對各個成員的影響。社會學家關心社會群的特、群間或成員間的互動影響及社會特（例如：性、年齡、族）對日常生活所帶來的效果。這些社會研究結果能夠協助教育、立法者、行政人員、社工等解决社會問題節制制度定公共政策。大部分的社會學家都有多項專長，例如社會組織、社會分層及社會流動、族關係、教育、家庭、社會心理學、城市、農村、政治及比較社會學、性角色及關係、人口地理學、老年學、犯罪心理學及社會學應用。
今天，社會學研究人類組織、社會群、社會互動等等都使用大量比較方法。社會學的展對其它科學帶來額外的需求，這對研究現代工業社會是十分重要。近年，得到人類學的啓示，加速對多元文化及多元國民的研究。
另一方面，社會學朝着微社會結構展，例如：族、社會階級、性及家庭。因為有很多罪案生、家庭問題産生很大的社會壓力，急需要社會學來尋找解决方法。
社會學家透過量性研究來研究社會關係以預測社會變動。他們希望透過質性研究，如談及小組討論，對社會運作有更深入的理解。有些社會學家正辯論着從中作出平衡填補兩者之間的空隙。例如：量性研究描述大型社會現象而質性研究描述個人如何理解大型社會現象。
主要學說
社會理論當中常常用一些抽象和甚至雜理論框架來解釋和分析社會樣式和宏觀社會結構。社會理論總跟經典的學科有一個令人不安的關係，就是大部分的重要社會學家從未擔任大學職務。現今社會理論被認為社會學分支，涉足多個科學區域譬如人類學、經濟、神學、歷史等等。第一種社會理論幾乎跟社會學同時誕生。社會學之父－孔德創立第一社會理論－社會演化理論。在19世紀，三大社會理論分是社會進化論、社會周期論和馬思主義的歷史唯物主義。雖然它們現在被認為是過時，但是它們卻産生新理論，像新進化論、現代化的社會生物學、工業化的社會理論及多邊理論。
跟客觀的自然科學不同，社會理論很少使用科學方法及其他事證方式來證明論點。反而，他們面對非常大型的社會走勢時候都使用一些假說。可是，這些假說需要很長的時間來證明。這正是反對者所批評的重點。對於解構主義者及現代主義者，他們更質疑所有的研究及方法都是錯誤地承襲下來。很多時候，社會理論被認定為不可證明的。
可是，社會理論是構成社會學的最大部份。客觀的科學研究經常支持社會理論的解釋。建基於科學方法的統計研究現婦女和其他人雖然執行同樣職業，但是收入出現嚴重收入差距。這成為女權主義的雜社會理論的大前提。總之, 特是對於純淨的社會學的追隨者，社會理論曾有這樣的呼籲因為它的焦點從個移到社會本身及一些能控我們生活的社會力量。這社會學的洞察多年來都集中在學生和對現狀不滿意的人是因為它假定社會結構和樣式是任意或受到具有力量社會群組所控。這暗示變動的可能性。這暗示在社會底層的人士受到不該受的壓迫。
社會研究方法
社會研究會用各種方法蒐集經驗實證，包括問、談、參與者觀察及統計研究。
不同的方法所面對的難是它們都根研究員各自納的理論基礎來解釋及瞭解社會。作為功能主義者，艾彌爾·爾喜歡以社會大規模結構來解釋任何東西。如果他是符號互動者，他便專註人們如何理解別人。馬思主義者或新馬思主義者把什麽都化作階級爭。現象學家是思考大衆對現實如何建立自己的意義。當各方都面對現實社會問題時，常常爭論誰對誰錯，而實際上會把不同方法學結。
因特網是社會學家的興趣所在，原因有四：一）它是研究工具。例如網上問調查代替紙張問。二）它成為討論平。三）它本身是研究課題。因特網的社會學研究網上社區、虛擬社區。四）因為因特網而産生社會組織上的改變，例如由工業社會轉型到知識社會的大型社會改變。
社會學與其他社會科學
在二十世紀早期，社會學家及心理學家曾對工業社會作出研究，對人類學作出貢獻。要留意一點的是人類學家都曾對工業社會作出研究。今天社會學及人類學主要分在於研究不同的理論和方法而不是對象。
社會生物學是綜社會學及生物學的一門新科學。雖然它很快獲得接受，但仍然有很多爭論的地方因為它嘗試使用進化及生物過程來解釋社會行為及結構。社會生物學家常被社會學家批評過份倚賴基因對行為的影響。社會生物學家卻說在自然之間和哺育存在一個雜關係。故此社會生物學跟人類學、動物學、進化心理學有密切關係。這仍然是其他科學所不能接受的。一些社會生物學家像Richard Machalek要求使用社會學來研究非人類社會。
社會學跟社會心理學有關係，前者關心社會結構，者關心社會行為。
主要的社會學主題
群組織方面：家庭－社區—鄉村－集鎮－城市－部落－民族－團體—文化..
群與組織
初級社會群
家庭
鄰里
兒童遊戲群
社會組織
科層
社會制度方面：親屬－婚姻－經濟－政治－法律－宗教－教育－文化－育..
社會過程方面：作－競爭－戰爭－改革－革命－社會輿論－社會價值觀－社會一化..
社會化
社會角色
規與越軌
社會變遷
分層與流動
城市化
現代化
社會問題方面：就業－民族分裂－犯罪－環境污染－人口－移民－族歧視－暴力—貧..
社會學主要人物
奧古斯特·孔德（Auguste Comte）
埃米爾·爾
赫伯特·斯賓塞
卡爾·馬思
馬斯·韋伯（Max Weber)
滕尼斯
齊美爾
曼海姆
帕托
馬林諾夫斯基
斯金納
威廉·薩姆納(William Sumner)
威廉·托馬斯(William Thomas)
弗洛安·茲南尼基(Florian Zrannecki)
帕森斯
默頓
斯梅爾瑟
甘斯
米爾斯
米德
劉易斯·科塞
霍曼斯
勞
愛默生
戈夫曼
舒茨
哈羅德·加芬爾
阿多諾
埃希·弗洛姆
赫伯特·馬爾庫塞(Herbert Marcuse)
於爾根·哈貝瑪斯(Jurgen Habermas)
米歇爾·福柯
利奧塔
呂西安·斯費茲
迪厄
安東尼·吉登斯
埃利亞斯
利福德·格爾茨（文化人類學者，Clifford Geertz）
費孝通
社會學理論
社會有機論
社會展論
社會公平論
社會交換論
社會互動論
社會進化論
社會均衡論
社會認知論
社會唯名論
社會唯實論
社會學習論
社會控論
結構功能論
衝突學說
法蘭福學派
法蘭福學派是由德國的法蘭福大學社會研究所構成的學体夫，無論從代人物的數量，還是從其成員理論建樹的深度和度來看，它都是20世紀最大的馬思主義流派，是西方人本主義馬思主義的主要流派之一，也是現代西方哲學的重要流派之一。可以斷言，不研究和理解法蘭福學派的社會批判理論，不可能十分全與深刻地理解20世紀人類文化精神的演進。
法蘭福學派代人物衆多，著述豐富，涉獵的領域十分泛，而其主要代人物的活動年代又幾乎涵蓋整個20世紀。法蘭福學派的創始人霍海默與盧卡奇、洛赫等人是同齡人，而它的第二代主要代人物哈貝馬斯等人至今依舊健在十分活躍。
1923年，正值國際共産主義運動內部以盧卡奇、科爾施等人為代的一批非正統的馬思主義者開始重新反思無産階級革命的經驗教訓，重新認識馬思主義理論時，德國的法蘭福大學內部建立起一個以研究馬思主義為宗旨的社會研究所。研究所創辦《社會主義和工人運動史文庫》雜志，它的第一任所長由屬於奧地利馬思主義傳統的歷史學家格律伯格（Carl Crunberg 1861－1940）擔任。格律伯格在馬思主義內部不同派的爭論中持某中立的態度，他對東方正統馬思主義和盧卡奇等西方非正統的馬思主義持同樣的態度。在某意義上，法蘭福社會研究所成西方和東方馬思主義思潮的聯結點，它所辦的《社會主義和工人運動史文庫》對東西方的馬思主義文獻一視同仁，既外表電表新現的馬思和恩格斯文稿，外表電表伯恩施坦等人的文章，也外表電表盧卡奇和科爾施等人的文章。可以說，格律伯格擔任所長時期，社會研究所的成員尚未形成我們今天所稱謂的法蘭福學派。1930年，霍海默接替患病的格律伯格擔任社會研究所所長，從此開始以社會批判理論而著稱的法蘭福學派的歷史。可以法蘭福學派的歷史可以分為三個主要階段。
1930年至1949年的幻年間為法蘭福學派的創立時期和早期，從法蘭福學派成員的活動地域來講，這一時期主要是該學派的美國時期。
霍海默與格律伯格最大的不同點是他不把社會研究所及《社會主義和工人運動史文庫》僅僅當作不同的馬思主義思潮交或對話的場所，而是為社會研究所的成員確定明確的研究方向，這就是建立社會批判理論或批判的社會理論。霍海默在就任所長時所做的題為《社會哲學的現狀和社會研究所的任務》的演說中，明確提出，社會研究所的任務是建立一種社會哲學，它不滿足於對資本主義社會進行經濟學和歷史學的實證性分析，而是以“整個人類的全部物質文化和精神文化”為對象而揭示和闡釋“作為社會成員的人的命運”，對整個資本主義社會進行總性的哲學批判和社會學批判。由此，霍海默一方面引入弗洛伊德的精神分析學，進行文化和意識形態批判；另一方面，他為這一研究引進和組織許多著名的學者，如阿多爾諾、馬爾庫塞、弗洛姆、本傑明等人，這些人或是成為法蘭福大學社會研究所的成員，或是成為研究所新創辦的《社會研究雜志》的撰稿人，由此而構成法蘭福學派的強大陣營。
然而，事隔不久，法西斯上，法蘭福學派成員大多是持激進馬思主義立場的猶太人，因而無法繼續在德國活動。社會研究所被迫於1933年遷往美國，先隸屬於紐約的哥倫比亞大學和伯利的加利福尼亞大學。在此期間，法蘭福學派成員逐步展和建立起自己的社會批判理論，對發達資本主義社會進行全方位的文化批判。其間，霍海默於1937年外表電表的《傳統理論和批判理論》，明確把法蘭福學派的理論概括為批判理論。這一時期，法蘭福學派受不了許多闡述批判理論的重要著作，如霍海默的《獨裁主義國》、霍海默和阿多爾諾的《啓蒙的辯證法》、弗洛姆的《逃避自由》、馬爾庫塞的《理性與革命》等。
1949年至60年代末為法蘭福學派的中期，是法蘭福學派成員重新到德國，在西德活動的時期，這是法蘭福學派的鼎盛時期或黃金時代。
1949年，應西德政府的邀請，霍海默和阿多爾諾等人國，重建社會研究所，二人分擔任研究所的正、副所長。不久，霍海默擔任法蘭福大學校長，又赴美講學，實際上社會研究所的工作主要由阿多爾諾主持。這一時期，不僅霍海默、阿多爾諾、馬爾庫塞、弗洛姆等人（無論是到德國還是留在美國）繼續建構與展法蘭福學派的社會批判理論，而且一批年輕的理論，如哈貝馬斯、施密特、內格特等人開始崛起，成為法蘭福學派的第二代理論。在這一時期，法蘭福學派進一步展自己的社會批判理論。他們進一步強調辯證的否定性和革命性，對發達工業社會進行全方位的批判，深刻揭示現代人的異化和現代社會的物化結構，特是意識形態、技術理性、大衆文化等異化的力量對人的束縛和統治，節制制度定發達達資本主義條件下的革命戰略。法蘭福學派的激進的文化批判理論在60年代末席歐洲的學生和青年造反運動中獲得極高的聲譽，産生十分巨大的影響。霍海默、阿多爾諾、馬爾庫塞、弗洛姆等主要代人物已成為十分著名、十分有影響的社會思想。代法蘭福學派這一時期思想的主要著作有阿多爾諾的《否定的辯證法》、弗洛姆的《健全的社會》和《愛欲與文明》、哈貝馬斯的《認識與興趣》、施密特的《馬思的自然概念》等等。
從70年代起，法蘭福學派進入自己的展晚期，這是法蘭福學派主要代人物相繼去世，學派開始走解的時期。
60年代末席全歐洲的學生運動使法蘭福學派的聲譽達到頂峰，但此法蘭福學派很快開始衰落和解的進程。造成這一現狀的原因是很多方面的。首先，法蘭福學派的第一代主要代人物相繼謝世，阿多爾諾於1969年去世，霍海默於1973年去世，馬爾庫塞於1979年去世，弗洛姆於1980年去世。其次，法蘭福學派的第二代主要代人物哈貝馬斯和施密特之間存在很大的分歧，由此導致法蘭福學派的解。施密特被視作法蘭福學派的正統繼承人，他認為法蘭福學派的批判理論在70年代的發達工業社會條件下依舊有效，而哈貝馬斯則強調法蘭福學派的傳統批判理論同現代社會條件的不適應性，他開始致力於探討晚期資本主義的法性問題，主張以交往理性來取代工具理性的核心地位，從而以交往行動理論重建 歷史唯物主義。這些分歧反映在施密特的《論批判理論的思想》、《作為歷史哲學的批判理論》和哈貝馬斯的《晚期資本主義的法性問題》、《重建歷史唯物主義》、《交往與社會進化》等著作之中。理論上的分歧破壞法蘭福學派成員間的作。1969年，哈貝馬斯擔任社會研究所的所長，但很快，由於同施密特之間關係的惡化，哈貝馬斯曾於1971年退出社會研究所。1972年施密特開始擔任研究所的所長。1983年哈貝馬斯返到法蘭福大學任教。雖然社會研究所還依然存在，但哈貝馬斯等人更多地是作為單獨的思想而活躍於國際學界，法蘭福學派作為一個強有力的學派的歷史基本上已經終結。
社會學學派及分支
歷史社會學派
社會統計學派
社會學分支
社會學史
教育社會學
社會思想史
社會學方法
社會調查方法、社會統計學
實驗社會學
數理社會學
應用社會學
職業社會學、工業社會學、醫學社會學、城市社會學、鄉村社會學、家庭社會學、環境社會學、青年社會學、老年社會學、犯罪社會學、越軌社會學、婦女問題、族問題、社會問題、社會群衆及分層問題、社區、社會保障、社會工作、微觀社會學、政治社會學、宗教社會學、育社會學、展社會學、人口社會學
比較社會學
社會地理學
文化社會學
藝社會學、知識社會學、道德社會學
歷史社會學
經濟社會學
軍事社會學
社會心理學
社會心理學史、實驗社會心理學
公共關係學
社會人類學
組織社會學
展社會學
福利社會學
人口學
人口經濟學、人口社會學、人口學說史、人口史、人口地理學、人口生態學、區域人口學、人口統工程、人口預測學、人口規學、人口政策學、計生育學
參看：
心理學 -- 情報學 -- 政治學 -- 社會主義 -- 社會展規律 -- 社會結構 -- 人才學
相關文獻
韋伯（德）, 《社會學的基本概念》, 西師大學出版社, 2005, ISBN 7563352058
葉至誠，《社會學是什麽》，揚智文化事業股份有限公司，2005, ISBN 9578187181
喬治．瑞澤爾（美）,《當代社會學理論及其古典根源》,北京大學出版社,2005, ISBN 7301087985
喬納森·特納（美）,《社會學理論的結構》,桂冠圖書股份有限公司,2001, ISBN 957551498X
John J. Macionis, Sociology (10th Edition), Prentice Hall, 2004, ISBN 0131849182
Piotr Sztompka, Socjologia, Znak, 2002, ISBN 8324002189
Stephen H. Aby, Sociology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources. 3rd edn. Littleton, CO, Libraries Unlimited Inc., 2005, ISBN 1563089475
Anthony Giddens, Conversations with Anthony Giddens, Polity, Cambridge, 1998. 對古典社會學作很好的介紹。
Anthony Giddens, Sociology, Polity, Cambridge
Anthony Giddens, Human Societies: Introduction Reading in Sociology
Robert A. Nisbet, The Sociological Tradition, London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1967, ISBN 1560006676
Evan Willis, The Sociological Quest: An introduction to the study of social life, 3rd edn, New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 1996, ISBN 0813523672
Andrey Korotayev, Artemy Malkov, and Daria Khaltourina, Introduction to Social Macrodynamics, Moscow: URSS, 2006. ISBN 5-484-00414-4 [6].
Sociology is starting from the community, through social relations and social behavior of social structure, function, occurrence and development of a comprehensive law subjects, migraine management. It is the last major study from the origin of human society, organizations, customs of Anthropology, tend to look into the development of modern society and social groups in the organization or sex of the subjects. In sociology, people not as individuals but as a social organization, groups or bodies exist.
Overview
Today, sociologists study society, including a series of macro to micro behavior of the structure, including race, ethnicity, class and gender, to fine individuals such as family structure, patterns of social relations. Department of Sociology, with more detailed research into the direction, including crime and divorce as, for example, in micro aspects of human relationships. Sociologists also quantitative research methods commonly used to quantify the overall structure of up to describe a society in order to study social change can be predicted and people respond to social changes in the quantitative model. This from the 拉扎斯费尔德 (Paul F. Lazarsfeld) initiated research methods, sociological research is now one of the main methodology. Sociological Research Methods is another school of qualitative research, including participant observation, depth interviews, focus group discussions and other methods of data collection, and based on grounded theory, content analysis of qualitative data analysis. Engaged in some sociologists believe that the qualitative analysis, which is a better way, because it can enhance the understanding of "discrete" nature of human society and the uniqueness. This method never find a consistent point of view, but they can appreciate each taken their own unique way and learn from each other. Mainstream view is that both quantitative and qualitative research methods are complementary, not contradictory.
History
Comte invented the word sociology. "Sociology" is a new academic areas. It is across the economic, political, anthropology, history and psychology. Its meaning is to find a mixture of the source of human knowledge and philosophy.
"Sociology" is by Comte (Auguste Comte) first, he tried to use a physical approach to unify all of the humanities - including history, psychology and economics, so as to establish the rules stand the test of science subjects, had he used "social physics" to call this new discipline. His main contribution is that he makes the last out of the Humanities and Social Sciences fields. His idea of sociology is a typical 18th century: he believes that all human activities are consistent through different historical stages, if a society can be grabbed at this stage, it can be effective for the community out patient prescription.
The first book of sociology, the subject is the mid-19th century British philosopher Herbert Spencer book. In the U.S., the University of Kansas in 1890 "Elements of Sociology" is the first course of sociology [1], [2], the University of Chicago in 1892, _set_ up by the 艾比安斯摩尔 the first independent American University College, he also created the "American Journal of Sociology" [3]. In 1895, the University of Bordeaux, France established the first European Sociology. 1904, London School of Economics and Political Science was _set_ up Britain's first Faculty of Sociology [4]. Max Weber at the University of Munich in 1919 established the first Faculty of Sociology. 1920 Florian Znaniecki in Poland established the first Faculty of Sociology.
The first occurred on the sociology of international cooperation in 1893. René Worms was _set_ up the "sociology of international small-college", and finally in 1949 with the creation of the International Association for the merger sociologist [5]. 1905 established the American Sociological Association is today the world's largest association of sociologists.
19th century to the 20th century, the rise of a group of classical sociologists, such as: Karl Marx, Ferdinand Toennies, Emile Durkheim, Pareto and Max Weber. As Comte, they will not see themselves as sociologists. Their work involves religion, education, economy, psychology, ethics, philosophy, theology and other academic areas. Of course they are very influential in the sociology of power, especially in economics, Karl Marx is important giant.
Brought out earlier by the Comte way to mimic the theory of natural science research methods, apply the same methodology to study social phenomena. Emphasis on experience, evidence and scientific methods for the solid foundation of sociology. This methodology is called positivism.
Finally, science does not actually replace the other social sciences, but rather to an emphasis on objects and methods of another form. Today, sociologists usually by comparison to the study of human organizations and social systems, especially in a complex social structure of industrial research. From 20 to 21 of view, sociological research should be the era of rapid development.
Sociology of science and mathematics
Today, the sociological study of human organizations, social groups, social interaction, etc. use a lot of comparison. The development of other scientific sociology additional demand, which is very important to the study of modern industrial society. In recent years, has been the revelation of anthropology, accelerated the multi-cultural and multi-national study.
On the other hand, sociology towards the development of micro-social structure, such as: race, social class, gender and family. Because there are a lot of crime, family problems have a lot of social pressure, needed to find a solution to sociology.
Quantitative research by sociologists to study social relations in order to predict social change. They hope that through qualitative research, such as interviews and group discussions on the functioning of society have a deeper understanding. Some sociologists are debating the balance from which to fill the gap between the two. For example: a large volume of research describing social phenomena and qualitative description of how individuals understand the large-scale social phenomena.
Major theory
With the objective of the Natural different social theorists rarely use the scientific method, and other facts and evidence and ways to prove points. Instead, they face a very large social movements at all times to use some hypotheses. However, these hypotheses require a long time to prove. This is the focus of criticism by opponents. For those of deconstruction and postmodernism, who also questioned the research and methods are all wrong inherited. In many cases, social theory has been identified as not proven.
Social Research Methods
Social Research Council experience in various methods of collecting evidence, including questionnaires, interviews, participant observation and statistical research.
Different ways the difficulties that they are based on the theoretical basis for researchers to adopt their own interpretation and understanding of the community. As a function of advocates, Ai Mill Durkheim like large-scale structure of the community to explain anything. If he is symbolic interaction, he will focus on how people understand other people. Marxist or a new Marxist class struggle to turn into anything. Scientists think the phenomenon is only the general public how to create their own meaning of reality. When the parties face the reality of social problems, often argue who is right, but in fact would combine different methodologies.
The Internet is of interest to sociologists, for four reasons: 1) it is research tools. Such as online questionnaires instead of paper questionnaires. B) a platform to discuss it. C) is a research topic itself. Sociology of the Internet, online communities, virtual communities. D) As the Internet and have social organizational changes such as transformation from industrial society to knowledge society, large-scale social change.
Sociology and other social sciences
In the early twentieth century, sociologists and psychologists had to study the industrial society, has contributed to anthropology. Must bear in mind is that anthropologists have to study the industrial society. Sociology and Anthropology major difference today is to study the different theories and methods, not objects.
Sociobiology is a synthesis of sociology and biology of a new science. Although it quickly accepted, but there are still many controversies over evolution and try to use it to explain the social behavior of biological processes and structures. Sociologists often criticize the social biologists rely too much on the impact of genes on behavior. Biologists said that in between the community and nurture the natural existence of a complex relationship. Therefore, the biological with social anthropology, zoology, evolutionary psychology is closely related. This is still unacceptable to the other sciences. Some social biologists such as Richard Machalek require the use of sociology to study the non-human society.
Sociology, social psychology has a relationship with the former concerned with social structure, which is interested in social behavior.
The main theme of Sociology
Groups of organizations: the Family - Community - Village - Towns - Cities - tribal - ethnic - groups - Cultural ..
Groups and organizations
Primary social groups
Family
Neighborhood
Children's play groups
Social organization
Bureaucracy
Social system: the family - marriage - economy - politics - Law - Religious - Education - Culture - Sports ..
Social process: the co-operation - competition - War - reform - the revolution - social media - social values - social integration ..
Socialization
Social role
Norms and Deviance
Social Change
Stratification and mobility
Urbanization
Modernization
Social issues: employment - national division - Crime - Pollution - Population - Immigration - Racial Discrimination - Violence - Poor ..
Sociology of the main characters
Auguste Comte (Auguste Comte)
Emile Durkheim
Herbert Spencer
Karl Marx
Max Weber (Max Weber)
Toennies
Simmel
Mannheim
Pareto
Malinowski
Skinner
威廉萨姆纳 (William Sumner)
William Thomas (William Thomas)
弗洛里安兹南 Nicky (Florian Zrannecki)
Parsons
Merton
Smelser
Gans
Mills
Mead
Lewis Coser
Homans
Blau
Emerson
Goffman
Schutz
哈罗德加芬 Kerr
Adorno
Erich Fromm
Herbert Marcuse (Herbert Marcuse)
Jurgen Habermas (Jurgen Habermas)
Michel Foucault
Lyotard
吕西安斯费兹
Bourdieu
Anthony Giddens
Elias
Clifford Scholz (cultural anthropologist, Clifford Geertz)
Fei Xiaotong
Sociological Theory
On the social organism
Social development of
On Social Justice
Social exchange theory
Social Interaction
Social Darwinism
On the social equilibrium
Social cognitive theory
Social nominalism
Social realism
Social learning theory
Social control theory
Structure and function of
Conflict theory
Frankfurt
Frankfurt is Germany's Frankfurt University Social Research Institute constitute the academic community, in terms of the number of representatives, or from members of the theoretical achievements of the depth and breadth of view, it is the greatest Marxist of the 20th century schools of Westerners The major schools of Marxist doctrine, is one of the important schools of modern Western philosophy one. Can say, do not study and understand the Frankfurt School of social critical theory, not a very comprehensive and profound understanding of the spirit of the 20th century the evolution of human culture.
Representative of a number of Frankfurt School, writing rich, read materials on a wide range of areas, and its main representative of the activities they cover almost the entire decade of the 20th century. Horkheimer and the Frankfurt School founder Georg Lukacs, Ernst Bloch, who is the same age, and its main representative of the second generation of Habermas and others it is still alive and very active.
In 1923, when the international communist movement inside to Lukacs, Korsch and others for a group of representatives of non-orthodox Marxist proletarian revolution began to rethink the lessons learned, and new understanding of Marxist theory, the German Frankfurt University, established an internal study for the purpose of Marxism Institute for Social Research. Founder of the "socialist and labor movement history library" magazine, its first director from the fall tradition of the Austrian Marxist historian metrical Berg (Carl Crunberg 1861-1940) served. Classical Berg Marxist debate between different factions held a neutral attitude, his Eastern Orthodox Marxism and other Western Lukacs unorthodox Marxism share the same attitude. In a sense, the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research became the western and eastern points of Marxist thought of the connection, it organized a "socialist and labor movement History Library" on the East and West equally Marxist literature, both published by the newly discovered Marx and Engels presentation, Bernstein and others published an article, also published Lukacs and Korsch et al article. Can be said that Berg served as director of the Classical period, members of the community has not yet formed the Institute of Appellation of us today the Frankfurt School. In 1930, Horkheimer succeeded as a social ill metrical Berg Director of the Institute of Critical Theory from the beginning to the community, known history of the Frankfurt School. The history of the Frankfurt School can be divided into three main stages.
From 1930 to 1949 between the magic created for the Frankfurt School and the early period, the activities of the members from the Frankfurt School in terms of area, this period is mainly the United States during the school.
Horkheimer and Classical Berg biggest difference is that he is not the Institute for Social Research and the "History of Library of socialism and the labor movement," just as the intersection of different Marxist thought or dialogue of the place, but for the community members of the Institute research identified a clear direction is the establishment of social critical theory or critical social theory. Horkheimer made at the director-time, entitled "Situation of Social Philosophy and Social Research Institute's mission," the speech, clearly, Social Research Institute's mission is to create a social philosophy, it was not enough capital Marxist society, economics and history of the empirical analysis, but to "all mankind as a whole material culture and spiritual culture" as the object reveal and explain, "as members of the human fate," the entire capitalist society in general Philosophical criticism and the sociology of criticism. Thus, Horkheimer on the one hand the introduction of Freud's psychoanalysis, cultural and ideological critique; the other hand, he introduced the study and organized a number of famous scholars such as Adorno, Malta Qusay, Fromm, Benjamin and others, these people or become a member of the University of Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, or become the new founder of the Institute's "Journal of Social Research," the writer, thus constitute the Frankfurt School a strong camp.
1949 to the late 60's mid-term for the Frankfurt School, is a member of the Frankfurt School returned to Germany, a period of activity in West Germany, this is the heyday of the Frankfurt School, or Golden Age.
In 1949, the Government's invitation to be West Germany, Horkheimer and Adorno, who returned to rebuild Society Institute, two serving as the Institute and deputy director. Soon, Horkheimer as Frankfurt University, and later the United States to give lectures, practice of social work of the Institute presided over mainly by Adorno. During this period, not only Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse, Fromm and others (both returned to Germany or stay in the United States) to continue construction and development of the Frankfurt School of social critical theory, and a group of young theorists such as Habermas, Schmitt, Nergert and others have begun to emerge as the second generation of Frankfurt School theorists. During this period, the Frankfurt School to further develop their own critical theory of society. They further stressed the negative dialectical and revolutionary, advanced industrial society on the all-round criticism reveals a profound alienation of modern man and the physical and chemical structure of modern society, especially the ideological, technical rationality, mass culture, the power of alienation human bondage and domination, and developed under the conditions of the developed capitalist revolution strategy. Frankfurt School of Critical Theory radical culture throughout Europe in the late 60 students and young rebel movement gained a high reputation, had a huge impact. Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse, Fromm and other major representative has become a very famous, very influential social thinkers. Thinking on behalf of the Frankfurt School's major works of this period have Adorno's "Negative Dialectics", Fromm's "healthy society" and "Eros and Civilization", Habermas's "knowledge and interest," Schmidt's "Marx's Concept of Nature" and so on.
From the 70's, the Frankfurt School into their advanced stage, which is the main representative of the Frankfurt School have died, school start times to disintegration.
The late 60s student movement across all of Europe to the Frankfurt School's reputation reached its peak, but soon after the Frankfurt School began the process of decline and disintegration. Reasons for this situation is in many aspects. First, the Frankfurt School have the main representative of the first generation of die, Adorno died in 1969, died in 1973, Horkheimer, Marcuse died in 1979, Fromm's death in 1980. Second, the Frankfurt School and Habermas the main representative of the second generation there is a big difference between the Schmidt, which led to the disintegration of the Frankfurt School. Schmidt was regarded as legitimate heir to the Frankfurt School, he thought the Frankfurt School of Critical Theory in the 70's under the conditions of advanced industrial society is still valid, Habermas stresses the Frankfurt School critical theory tradition of modern social conditions are not the same adaptability, he began efforts to explore the legality of late capitalism, advocated replacing communicative rationality instrumental rationality of the heart, thus Theory of Communicative Action Reconstruction of Historical Materialism. These differences are reflected in Schmidt's "On the Critical Theory," "critical theory as a philosophy of history" and Habermas's "the legality of late capitalism", "Reconstruction of Historical Materialism", "Communication and social evolution, "among other works. Differences in theory undermine cooperation among the members of the Frankfurt School. In 1969, Habermas as director of the Institute community, but soon, due to the deterioration of relations between the same Schmidt, Habermas had quit in 1971, Institute for Social Research. Schmidt began in 1972 as director of the Institute. Habermas returned to Frankfurt in 1983, a university professor. Although there are still Institute for Social Research, Habermas and others, but more as a single thinker and active in the international academic community, the Frankfurt School as a strong history of basically the end of school.
School of Sociology and branch
Sociological history
School of social statistics
Branch of sociology
History of Sociology
Sociology of Education
History of Social Thought
Sociological Methods
Social survey methods, social statistics
Experimental sociology
Mathematical Sociology
Applied Sociology
Occupational sociology, industrial sociology, medical sociology, urban sociology, rural sociology, family sociology, environmental sociology, sociology of youth, the elderly sociology, criminal sociology, Sociology of Deviance, women's issues, racial issues, social problems, social masses and stratification, communities, social security, social work, micro-sociology, political sociology, sociology of religion, sociology, development sociology, sociology of population
Comparative Sociology
Social Geography
Cultural Sociology
Sociology of art, sociology of knowledge, moral sociology
Historical Sociology
Economic Sociology
Military Sociology
Social Psychology
History of social psychology, experimental social psychology
Public Relations
Social Anthropology
Organizational sociology
Development Sociology
Welfare Sociology
Demography
Population, economics, sociology, population, population theory of history and historical demography, population geography, population ecology, regional demography, population engineering, population predictions, study population planning, population policy studies, Family Planning
See also:
Psychology - Information Science - Politics - Socialism - the law of social development - social structure - Talent Study
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