哲学是研究一切存在之间抽象的相互关系的学科。
哲学的意义
何谓一切存在?依赖我们感觉的,不依赖我们感觉的;主观的,客观的;实在的,虚构的;以及一切我们想象得到的,和想象不到的。一切存在至少包括以上所有这些存在形式。
抽象是哲学的根本特点。哲学为什么是抽象的?因为一切存在之间都拥有抽象的同一,这种抽象的同一是内在结构的抽象同一和外在关系的抽象同一。正是基于这种抽象的同一,使我们有可能感觉到一切存在的存在。哲学所要做的就是阐述这种抽象同一的内容。
哲学是万学之学。一切具体的存在和发展都必须遵循抽象的规律;一切具体的应用学科都应该遵守抽象的哲学原理,但这必须以哲学原理的正确性为前提。
哲学(Philosophy)传统包括了形而上学、知识论、伦理学的研究。这些学科试图回答对于世界起源,知识如何获得,以及善恶等观念的问题。基本上,哲学的基本方法是运用理性对于这些问题提出论证。但是,哲学的实际范畴与定义到现在还没有一个确定的答案,“哲学是什么?”在哲学传统之中是充满分歧与倍受争议的。
抽象概念的有机体。必须用抽象思维才能把握。如马哲上物质的概念,就是通过意识来定义的,而意识就是通过物质来定义的。
哲学的来源
哲学(philosophy)是从希腊字"Φιλοσοφία" (philo-sophia)转变而来,意思为“爱好智慧”,或是比较少用的“智慧的朋友”。哲学是难以被定义的,因为有众多分歧的观念都被视作为哲学。皮尔金哲学辞典中定义哲学为“有关思想,行为,与实在中最基本与普遍的概念。”皮尔金百科中提到哲学与科学的差别在于,哲学问题的答案不能仅由经验证据来得到。无论如何,这些观点都被牛津哲学辞典所挑战:“二十世纪晚期...偏向于将哲学思考视为对于任何一种智识探索的最好实践”。的确,许多早期哲学家在自然哲学方面的观察最后都形成了现代科学对于众多课题上重要的基础。
另外,哲学较不正式的用法可能是指一种特别的方法或是信念。
哲学的历史
古希腊时期的自然派哲学家被认为是西方最早的哲学家,不管他们认识世界的方式是否正确,但是他们的想法之所以有别于迷信的原因在于,这些哲学家是以理性辅佐证据的方式归纳出自然界的道理。苏格拉底,柏拉图与亚里斯多德奠定了哲学的讨论范畴,他们提出了有关形而上学,知识论与伦理学的问题,至今依然。某些现代哲学家认为,直到今日的哲学理论依旧只是在为他们三人做注脚而已,仍离不开他们所提出的问题。换言之即使数千年后,我们依旧在试著回答他们所提出的问题,这也代表著我们依然为这些问题或是这些问题所延伸的更多问题而感到困惑。
“哲”一词在中国起源很早,历史久远。如“孔门十哲”,“古圣先哲”等词,“哲”或“哲人”,专指那些善于思辨,学问精深者,即西方近世“哲学家”,“思想家”之谓。
一般认为中国哲学起源东周时期,以孔子的儒家、老子的道家、墨子的墨家及晚期的法家为代表。而实际上在之前的《易经》当中,已经开始讨论哲学问题。
19世纪70年代,日本最早的西方哲学传播者西周借用古汉语译作“哲学”,1896年前后康有为等将日本的译称介绍到中国,后渐渐通行。在西方,哲学一词通常用来说明一个人对生活的某种看法(例如某人的“人生哲学”)和基本原则(例如价值观、思想、行为)。而在学术上的哲学,则是对这些基本原则的理性根据的质疑、反思,并试图对这些基本原则进行理性的重建。
最早哲学的范围涵盖所有的知识层面。它一直是人类最抽象的知识研究。对哲学一词的介绍最初来自希腊思想家毕达哥拉斯。
哲学的基础学科
古希腊哲学家透过问问题来进行哲学实践,他们所提的问题大概可以归类为三类,这三类问题分别形成了哲学的基础学科, 形而上学(metaphysics),知识论(Epistemology)以及伦理学(Ethics)。
最初的三类问题分别是:
* 有关世界的本质与真理的问题。
* 有关我们如何知道或认识真理的问题
* 有关生命意义与道德实践的问题
必须要注意的是,这三门主要学科并非壁垒分明,事实上在许多方面他们互相覆盖到彼此的领域,一个具有说服力的形而上学主张不可能忽略知识论的理论基础。同样的的知识理论就是在架构主体与形而上学事实之间的关系。而道德的实践往往与道德真理的存在与否和我们怎么去了解它息息相关。哲学的困难在于,一个完整的理论通常必须在形而上学与知识论都有良好的说服力。多数的哲学家不是只有专精一个领域,或是是他在形而上学领域的主张很具说服力,知识论上却无法说服我们。只有少数具有热情与天赋的哲学家才能精通各个领域并且提出一套自己的理论。只有这样的哲学家才能名留青史,她们的理论通常非常具有说服力并且横扫历史改变了人类对于世界的看法,
哲学与科学的关系
从西方学术史看,科学是哲学的衍生物。后来,科学独立为与哲学并行的学科。科学与哲学有互动关系。科学产生知识,哲学产生思想。马克思主义认为,哲学也是一种社会意识形态。现代西方哲学中有科学哲学,是专门研究有关科学的理论。这种理论研究了科学的历史,为科学总结了许多理论模型,但这也只是解释了科学,并不是可以指导科学。哲学是人类了解世界的一种特殊方式,是使人崇高起来的一门学问。
从某种意义上说,哲学不具有或很少具有“现世”用途。有人认为,离开哲学,各门学科也可以发展得很好,或者会更好。哲学并不关注各门学科中实例、概念或定理的具体内容,它所关注的,是这些具体科学的“基本常识”,或是其中被人们惯常使用因而视作理所当然的概念、准则、定律等。这包括:促使它们出现的原因是什么?它们在哪些范围上有效?它们的威权是由什么来得到保证?它们是否已经是这门具体学科中所要求的足够的基本前提?它们对人有什么意义?等等。以及将这些疑问运用于哲学自身。
因此:
物理学研究物体现象、结构和运作规律,寻求一种解释现象的客观最优方法;而形而上学要求对规律的有效性以及最优方法何以成立作出说明。
知识多被视为经验以及方法的整合;而知识论关注的是知识自身是否可以获得、是否可以划界以及是否具有意义。
数学利用逻辑形式来研究数量、结构以及模型;而逻辑学则关注那保证推理有效的威权是什么、逻辑推理的可靠性和完备性。
社会学试图以某种普适定律来概括并预测人类群体或其中个体的行动;而伦理学则更加关心这些行为的自由度与道德责任的相关性、其内在动机、意义所在以及如何使人们的行为朝向一个最优的趋势发展。
政治学关注权力的转移;而政治哲学对权力何以能够出现并成立更加关心。
艺术向人们展现美的魅力,却不曾说明这魅力的由来;而美学则追问美的本质和意义。
哲学的价值
哲学之应当学习并不在于它能对于所提出的问题提供任何确定的答案,而是在于这些问题本身;原因是,这些问题可以扩充我们对于一切可能事物的概念,丰富我们心灵方面的想象力,并且减低教条式的自信,这些都可能禁锢心灵的思考作用。此外,尤其在于通过哲学冥想中的宇宙之大,心灵会变得伟大起来,因而就能够和那成其为至善的宇宙结合在一起。
哲学也可以说是理性对于信仰的研究,同时还有理性对人与自然规律的总结。
哲学是对世界的关于终极意义的解释,它在解释中使我们了解世界,使世界在我们的意识中合理化,从而为我们提供心灵的慰藉。
哲学还是对人的自我一种定位的工具。
哲学的分支
利他主义 —— 反现实主义 —— 佛教哲学 —— 儒家思想 —— 享乐主义 —— 唯物主义 —— 唯心主义 —— 理想主义 —— 非现实主义 —— 逻辑正确主义 —— 悲观主义 —— 道家思想 —— 自我主义 —— 悲观主义 —— 理性主义 —— 现实主义 —— 唯美主义 —— 形而上学唯物主义 —— 辩证唯物主义 —— 客观唯心主义 —— 主观唯心主义 —— 非理性主义 —— 斯多噶主义 ——存在主义——形而上学——功利主义 —……
哲学分支
由于研究领域的不同,哲学有很多分支。
* 哲学史
o 东方哲学史
+ 印度哲学
+ 中国哲学史
+ 伊斯兰哲学
+ 日本哲学
o 西方哲学史
+ 古希腊哲学
+ 中世纪哲学
+ 文艺复兴时期哲学
+ 德国古典哲学
+ 俄国哲学
* 马克思主义哲学
o 辩证唯物主义
o 历史唯物主义
o 马克思主义哲学史
* 科学哲学
* 现代哲学
o 生存哲学
o 分析哲学
o 人文哲学
o 解释学
o 符号学
o 实用主义哲学
* 伦理学
o 医学伦理学
o 教育伦理学
o 政治伦理学
o 家庭伦理学
o 生命伦理学
o 生态伦理学
* 美学
o 美学史
o 艺术美学
o 技术美学
* 形而上学
* 现象学
* 过程哲学
* 知识论
* 死亡哲学
* 人生哲学
* 法律哲学
* 心灵哲学
* 墨家哲学
* 当代英美哲学
* 比较哲学
* 当代法国哲学
* 哲学哲学
与哲学相关学科
* 相对论
* 量子力学
* 混沌学
* 弦理论
* 思维科学
* 人工智能
* 心理学
* 信息论
* 语义学
* 科学社会学
* 逻辑学
* 科学学
* 控制论
* 机械论
其他与哲学相关的学科
* 宗教哲学
* 政治哲学
* 法律哲学
* 物理哲学
* 天文哲学
* 化学哲学
* 语言分析哲学
* 佛教哲学
* 教父哲学
* 教育哲学
* 语言哲学
o 日常语言哲学
* 自然哲学
* 经济哲学
* 同一哲学
* 思辨哲学
* 生物学哲学
* 中国哲学史史料学
* 历史哲学
* 易学
* 经学
* 玄学
* 灵源泛哲学体系
* 诸子哲学
哲学命题
* 自由意志
* 决定论
* 因果律
* 随机性
* 白马非马
* 百姓日用即道
* 悖论
* 变化日新
* 辩者二十一事
* 仁为万物之源
* 体用一源
* 天不变道亦不变
* 天道自然
* 万物皆备于我
* 物极必反
* 心统性情
* 心无本体
* 新故相除
* 形质神用
* 性即理
* 性日生日成
* 一分为二
* 一物两体
* EPR悖论
* 坚白相盈
哲学书籍
周文王《周易》
老子 《道德经》
尼采《查拉图斯特拉如是说》
叔本华《作为意志和表象的世界》
康德《纯粹理性批判》
罗素《幸福之路》
卢梭《社会契约论》
黑格尔《精神现象学》
柏拉图《理想国》
《哲学研究》、《逻辑哲学论》、《存在与时间》、《正义论》
还有最新出版的《苏菲的世界》(乔斯坦•贾德)
伯特兰•罗素
《论几何学的基础》
《莱布尼茨的哲学》
《数学原则》
《数学原理》 (3卷,与怀特海合著)
《哲学问题》
《我们对外部世界的知识》
《逻辑原子主义哲学》
《数理哲学导论》
《心的分析》
《物的分析》
《对意义和真理的探究》
《西方哲学史》
《人类的知识--其范围和界限》
《我的哲学发展》
主要的哲学家
1、西方
(1)希腊哲学家
赫拉克利特(火本原说创始人)
泰利斯(水本原说创始人)
阿那克西曼德(无定说创始人)
阿那克西美尼(气本原说创始人)
毕达哥拉斯
克塞诺芬尼
巴门尼德
芝诺
恩培多克勒
阿那克萨戈拉
留基波(原子论创始人)
苏格拉底
柏拉图
亚里士多德
伊壁鸠鲁
(2)基督教哲学
查士丁
奥古斯丁
拉克坦修
托马斯•阿奎那
罗色林
安瑟尔谟
罗吉尔•培根
(3)文艺复兴后
佛朗西斯•培根
霍布斯
笛卡尔
斯宾诺莎
莱布尼茨
洛克
贝克莱
休谟
卢梭
康德
费希特
黑格尔
费尔巴哈
马克思
尼采
Philosophy is the study of all existing inter-relationship between the abstract subject. Philosophical sense What is all there is? Rely on our feelings, do not rely on our feelings; subjective, objective; real, imaginary; and all our imaginable, and unimaginable. Above all there is at least the existence of all these forms. Is a fundamental characteristic of abstract philosophy. Why Philosophy is abstract? Because there is between all have the same abstract, this abstract is the same abstract internal structure and external relations of the abstract the same the same. It is the same based on this abstraction, so that we could feel the presence of all existence. Philosophy have to do is _set_ the same contents of this abstract. Philosophy is the science of Wan. The existence and development of all the concrete must follow the abstract rules; all the specific subjects should comply with the application of abstract philosophical principles, but it must be premised on the correctness of Philosophy. Philosophy (Philosophy), including the traditional metaphysics, epistemology, ethics of research. The subjects attempted to answer the origin of the world, knowledge of how to obtain, and the concept of good and evil and other problems. Basically, the philosophy of the basic method is to use rational arguments to these issues. However, the actual scope and definition of philosophy up to now there is no definitive answer, "what is philosophy?" In the tradition of philosophy is full of differences and the much-debated. Abstract organism. Must be able to grasp abstract thinking. If Ma Zhe, on the concept of substance is defined by consciousness, but consciousness is defined through the material. Source Philosophy In addition, the philosophy may use less formal means, or belief in a particular way. History of Philosophy "Philosophy" in early origins in China, has a long history. Such as "Confucian philosophy 10", "Gu Sheng Sages" and other words, "philosophy" or "philosopher", specifically refers to those who are good at speculative, knowledge intensive, that is, Modern West, "philosopher", "thinkers" of that. Generally believed that the origin of Chinese philosophy during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, Confucianism Confucius, Lao Tzu's Taoism, and the late Mo Legalist Mohist represented. In fact, in previous "Book of Changes" which has already started to discuss philosophical questions. 19th century 70s, Japan's first to use the Western Zhou Dynasty in ancient Chinese philosophy Evangelist translated as "philosophy", before and after 1896, such as the Japanese translation of Kang said the introduction to China, with the gradual passage. In the West, the term usually used to describe a philosophy of life of a person views (such as someone's "Philosophy of Life") and the basic principles (such as values, ideas, behavior). In academic philosophy, it is these basic principles of rational basis for doubt, reflection, and trying on these basic principles of rational reconstruction. The first covers the philosophy of all knowledge levels. It has been the most abstract knowledge of mankind. Introduction to the Philosophy of the term originally comes from the Greek thinker Pythagoras. Basic disciplines of philosophy Ancient Greek philosophers through the practice of asking philosophical questions, questions about them can be classified into three categories, respectively, these three issues formed the basis for discipline of philosophy, metaphysics (metaphysics), knowledge of (Epistemology), and ethics (Ethics). The first three issues are: * The essence of the world and the truth. * How do we know or understand about the question of truth * The meaning of life issues and moral practice The relationship between philosophy and science Academic History from the West, science is the philosophy of the derivatives. Later, scientific independence, parallel with the discipline of philosophy. Interaction between science and philosophy. Science produces knowledge, philosophy and generate ideas. Marxism holds that philosophy is a social ideology. Modern Western philosophy in the philosophy of science, is designed to study the scientific theory. This theory of a scientific history, science summarized 许多 theoretical model, but only explained the science, science is not the right guidance. Philosophy is a special way to understand the world, is to make high up in a science. Therefore: Physics objects, phenomena, structure and operation of the laws of the objective to find a best way to explain the phenomenon; the metaphysical law of the validity of the request why the best method of Cheng Li are described. Experience and knowledge are considered methods of integration; and knowledge of concern is the availability of knowledge itself, and whether it can be meaningful demarcation. Logical form of mathematics used to study the quantity, structure, and model; and logic reasoning is concerned with the effective power to ensure what is logical reliability and completeness. Sociology attempts to summarize in some universal law, and predict human action groups or among individuals; and ethics are more concerned about these acts of freedom and moral responsibility for the relevance of its intrinsic motivation, meaning and how to make people behavior trend towards an optimum. Concerned about the transfer of power politics; the political philosophy of power and how to appear more concerned with the establishment. The United States to show people the art of charm, but not once explain the origin of this charm; and aesthetics are questioning the essence of beauty and significance. The value of philosophy Philosophy should learn is that it is not for the issues raised by any definitive answers, but rather the issues themselves; reason is that these problems can expand our concept for all the possible things, a rich spiritual aspects of our imagination, and reduce the dogmatic self-confidence, they may imprison the role of the mind thinking. In addition, in particular, is the philosophy of meditation in the universe through the large, heart would be great together, so that we can and for the perfection of the universe into its combined. Philosophy can also be said for the belief of a rational, as well as a rational conclusion on the people and the laws of nature. Philosophy is the ultimate meaning of the world on the interpretation, which we understand the world in the interpretation of manipulation to make the world in our consciousness of the country to provide us spiritual consolation. Philosophy is a kind of human self-positioning tool. A branch of philosophy Altruism - anti-realism - Buddhist philosophy - Confucianism - Hedonism - Materialism - Idealism - Idealism - non-realism - the logic correct doctrine - pessimism - Taoism - - ego - pessimism - rationalism - realism - Aestheticism - Metaphysical materialism - dialectical materialism - objective idealism - subjective idealism - irrationalism - Stoic doctrine - Existentialism - Metaphysics - utilitarianism - ... ... Branch of philosophy Because of the area, there are many branches of philosophy. * History of Philosophy o Eastern Philosophy + Indian philosophy + History of Chinese Philosophy + Islamic philosophy + Japanese philosophy o History of Western Philosophy + Ancient Greek Philosophy + Medieval Philosophy + Renaissance Philosophy + German classical philosophy + Russian Philosophy * Marxist Philosophy o dialectical materialism o Historical Materialism o History of Marxist Philosophy * Philosophy of Science * Modern Philosophy o Philosophy of Existence o Analytical Philosophy o Humanities and Philosophy o Hermeneutics o Semiotics o philosophy of pragmatism * Ethics o Medical Ethics o Education and Ethics o Political Ethics o Family Ethics o Bioethics o Ecological Ethics * Aesthetics o Aesthetic History o Art Aesthetics o Technological Aesthetics * Metaphysics * Phenomenology * Process Philosophy * Knowledge of * Philosophy of Death * Philosophy of Life * Philosophy of Law * Philosophy of Mind * Mohist Philosophy * Contemporary American Philosophy * Comparative Philosophy * Contemporary French Philosophy * Philosophy Philosophy And the related disciplines of philosophy * Theory of Relativity * Quantum Mechanics * Chaos * String Theory * Thinking science * Artificial Intelligence * Psychology * Information Theory * Semantics * Sociology of Science * Logic * Science * Control Theory * Mechanistic Other related disciplines and philosophy * Philosophy of Religion * Political Philosophy * Philosophy of Law * Philosophy of Physics * Astronomy Philosophy * Chemical Philosophy * Language of Philosophy * Buddhist philosophy * Godfather Philosophy * Philosophy of Education * Philosophy of Language o ordinary language philosophy * Natural Philosophy * Economic Philosophy * The same philosophy * Speculative Philosophy * Philosophy of Biology * Historical Materials of Chinese Philosophy * Philosophy of History * Yi * Classics * Metaphysics * Pan-Ling source philosophy * Qin scholars Philosophical proposition * Free will * Determinism * Causality * Random * White Horse * People that Tao Daily * Paradox * Change Nisshin * Debate the issue were 20 * Jen is the source of all things * Body with a source * The same day will never change * Heaven Nature * All things are to me * Extremes meet * Mind and Temperament * With no body * New so divided * God-shaped mass with * Nature is reason * Birthday percent of Japan * Divided into two * One thing the two bodies * EPR paradox * Preclusion Ying Jian Philosophy books King Wen of Zhou "Book of Changes" I "the moral" Nietzsche's "Thus Spake Zarathustra" Schopenhauer "The World as Will and Representation" Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" Russell "Road to Happiness" Rousseau's "Social Contract" Hegel's "Phenomenology of Mind" Plato's "Utopia" "Philosophy", "Tractatus," "Being and Time," "Justice" Also recently published "Sophie's World" (Jostein • Judd) • Bertrand Russell "On the basis of geometry" "Leibniz's philosophy" "Mathematical principles" "Principia Mathematica" (3 volumes, and Whitehead co) "Philosophical questions" "Our knowledge of the outside world" "Logical Atomism" "Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy" "Heart of the analysis" "Material analysis" "The meaning and truth of the inquiry" "History of Western Philosophy" "Human knowledge - its scope and limits" "My philosophy of development" Major philosophers 1, Western (1) Greek philosopher Heraclitus (primitive fire-founder) Thales (water primitive founder) Anaximander (no fixed that founder) Ana Kersee United States and Nigeria (gas primitive founder) Pythagoras Xenophanes Parmenides Zeno Empedocles Anaxagoras Remain fundamental (atomism founder) Socrates Plato Aristotle Epicurus (2) Christian Philosophy Charles 士丁 Augustine 拉克坦 repair • Thomas Aquinas Lin Luo Color Anselm • Roger Bacon (3) After the Renaissance • Francis Bacon Hobbes Descartes Spinoza Leibniz Locke Berkeley Hume Rousseau Kant Fichte Hegel Feuerbach Marx Nietzsche
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