哲學是研究一切存在之間抽象的相互關係的學科。
哲學的意義
何謂一切存在?依賴我們感覺的,不依賴我們感覺的;主觀的,客觀的;實在的,虛構的;以及一切我們想象得到的,和想象不到的。一切存在至少包括以上所有這些存在形式。
抽象是哲學的根本特點。哲學為什麽是抽象的?因為一切存在之間都擁有抽象的同一,這抽象的同一是內在結構的抽象同一和外在關係的抽象同一。正是基於這抽象的同一,使我們有可能感覺到一切存在的存在。哲學所要做的就是闡述這抽象同一的內容。
哲學是萬學之學。一切具的存在和展都必須遵循抽象的規律;一切具的應用學科都應該遵守抽象的哲學原理,但這必須以哲學原理的正確性為前提。
哲學(Philosophy)傳統包括形而上學、知識論、倫理學的研究。這些學科試圖答對於世界起源,知識如何獲得,以及善惡等觀念的問題。基本上,哲學的基本方法是運用理性對於這些問題提出論證。但是,哲學的實際疇與定義到現在還沒有一個確定的答案,“哲學是什麽?”在哲學傳統之中是充滿分歧與倍受爭議的。
抽象概念的有機。必須用抽象思維才能把握。如馬哲上物質的概念,就是通過意識來定義的,而意識就是通過物質來定義的。
哲學的來源
哲學(philosophy)是從希臘字"Φιλοσοφία" (philo-sophia)轉變而來,意思為“愛好智慧”,或是比較少用的“智慧的朋友”。哲學是難以被定義的,因為有衆多分歧的觀念都被視作為哲學。皮爾金哲學辭典中定義哲學為“有關思想,行為,與實在中最基本與普遍的概念。”皮爾金百科中提到哲學與科學的差別在於,哲學問題的答案不能僅由經驗證來得到。無論如何,這些觀點都被牛津哲學辭典所挑戰:“二十世紀晚期...偏於將哲學思考視為對於任何一種智識探索的最好實踐”。的確,許多早期哲學家在自然哲學方面的觀察最都形成現代科學對於衆多課題上重要的基礎。
另外,哲學較不正式的用法可能是指一種特的方法或是信念。
哲學的歷史
古希臘時期的自然派哲學家被認為是西方最早的哲學家,不管他們認識世界的方式是否正確,但是他們的想法之所以有於迷信的原因在於,這些哲學家是以理性輔佐證的方式歸納出自然界的道理。格拉底,柏拉圖與亞斯多德奠定哲學的討論疇,他們提出有關形而上學,知識論與倫理學的問題,至今依然。某些現代哲學家認為,直到今日的哲學理論依舊是在為他們三人做註腳而已,仍離不開他們所提出的問題。換言之即使數年,我們依舊在試著答他們所提出的問題,這也代著我們依然為這些問題或是這些問題所延伸的更多問題而感到惑。
“哲”一詞在中國起源很早,歷史久遠。如“孔門十哲”,“古聖先哲”等詞,“哲”或“哲人”,專指那些善於思辨,學問精深者,即西方近世“哲學家”,“思想”之謂。
一般認為中國哲學起源東周時期,以孔子的儒、老子的道、墨子的墨及晚期的法為代。而實際上在之前的《易經》當中,已經開始討論哲學問題。
19世紀70年代,日本最早的西方哲學傳播者西周用古漢語譯作“哲學”,1896年前康有為等將日本的譯稱介紹到中國,漸漸通行。在西方,哲學一詞通常用來說明一個人對生活的某看法(例如某人的“人生哲學”)和基本原則(例如價值觀、思想、行為)。而在學上的哲學,則是對這些基本原則的理性根的質疑、反思,試圖對這些基本原則進行理性的重建。
最早哲學的圍涵蓋所有的知識層。它一直是人類最抽象的知識研究。對哲學一詞的介紹最初來自希臘思想畢達哥拉斯。
哲學的基礎學科
古希臘哲學家透過問問題來進行哲學實踐,他們所提的問題大概可以歸類為三類,這三類問題分形成哲學的基礎學科, 形而上學(metaphysics),知識論(Epistemology)以及倫理學(Ethics)。
最初的三類問題分是:
* 有關世界的本質與真理的問題。
* 有關我們如何知道或認識真理的問題
* 有關生命意義與道德實踐的問題
必須要註意的是,這三門主要學科非壁壘分明,事實上在許多方面他們互相覆蓋到彼此的領域,一個具有說服力的形而上學主張不可能忽略知識論的理論基礎。同樣的的知識理論就是在架構主與形而上學事實之間的關係。而道德的實踐往往與道德真理的存在與否和我們怎麽去瞭解它息息相關。哲學的難在於,一個完整的理論通常必須在形而上學與知識論都有良好的說服力。多數的哲學家不是衹有專精一個領域,或是是他在形而上學領域的主張很具說服力,知識論上卻無法說服我們。衹有少數具有熱情與天賦的哲學家才能精通各個領域且提出一套自己的理論。衹有這樣的哲學家才能名留青史,她們的理論通常非常具有說服力且橫掃歷史改變人類對於世界的看法,
哲學與科學的關係
從西方學史看,科學是哲學的衍生物。來,科學獨立為與哲學行的學科。科學與哲學有互動關係。科學産生知識,哲學産生思想。馬思主義認為,哲學也是一種社會意識形態。現代西方哲學中有科學哲學,是專門研究有關科學的理論。這理論研究科學的歷史,為科學總結許多理論模型,但這也是解釋科學,並不是可以指導科學。哲學是人類瞭解世界的一種特殊方式,是使人崇高起來的一門學問。
從某意義上說,哲學不具有或很少具有“現世”用途。有人認為,離開哲學,各門學科也可以展得很好,或者會更好。哲學並不關註各門學科中實例、概念或定理的具內容,它所關註的,是這些具科學的“基本常識”,或是其中被人們慣常使用因而視作理所當然的概念、則、定律等。這包括:促使它們出現的原因是什麽?它們在哪些圍上有效?它們的威權是由什麽來得到保證?它們是否已經是這門具學科中所要求的足夠的基本前提?它們對人有什麽意義?等等。以及將這些疑問運用於哲學自身。
因此:
物理學研究物現象、結構和運作規律,尋求一種解釋現象的客觀最優方法;而形而上學要求對規律的有效性以及最優方法何以成立作出說明。
知識多被視為經驗以及方法的整;而知識論關註的是知識自身是否可以獲得、是否可以界以及是否具有意義。
數學利用邏輯形式來研究數量、結構以及模型;而邏輯學則關註那保證推理有效的威權是什麽、邏輯推理的可靠性和完備性。
社會學試圖以某普適定律來概括預測人類群或其中個的行動;而倫理學則更加關心這些行為的自由度與道德責任的相關性、其內在動機、意義所在以及如何使人們的行為朝一個最優的趨勢展。
政治學關註權力的轉移;而政治哲學對權力何以能夠出現成立更加關心。
藝方向人們展現美的魅力,卻不曾說明這魅力的由來;而美學則追問美的本質和意義。
哲學的價值
哲學之應當學習並不在於它能對於所提出的問題提供任何確定的答案,而是在於這些問題本身;原因是,這些問題可以擴充我們對於一切可能事物的概念,豐富我們心靈方面的想象力,且減低教條式的自信,這些都可能禁錮心靈的思考作用。此外,尤其在於通過哲學冥想中的宇宙之大,心靈會變得偉大起來,因而就能夠和那成其為至善的宇宙結在一起。
哲學也可以說是理性對於信仰的研究,同時還有理性對人與自然規律的總結。
哲學是對世界的關於終極意義的解釋,它在解釋中使我們瞭解世界,使世界在我們的意識中理化,從而為我們提供心靈的慰藉。
哲學還是對人的自我一種定位的工具。
哲學的分支
利他主義 —— 反現實主義 —— 佛教哲學 —— 儒思想 —— 享樂主義 —— 唯物主義 —— 唯心主義 —— 理想主義 —— 非現實主義 —— 邏輯正確主義 —— 悲觀主義 —— 道思想 —— 自我主義 —— 悲觀主義 —— 理性主義 —— 現實主義 —— 唯美主義 —— 形而上學唯物主義 —— 辯證唯物主義 —— 客觀唯心主義 —— 主觀唯心主義 —— 非理性主義 —— 斯多噶主義 ——存在主義——形而上學——功利主義 —……
哲學分支
由於研究領域的不同,哲學有很多分支。
* 哲學史
o 東方哲學史
+ 印度哲學
+ 中國哲學史
+ 伊斯蘭哲學
+ 日本哲學
o 西方哲學史
+ 古希臘哲學
+ 中世紀哲學
+ 文藝興時期哲學
+ 德國古典哲學
+ 俄國哲學
* 馬思主義哲學
o 辯證唯物主義
o 歷史唯物主義
o 馬思主義哲學史
* 科學哲學
* 現代哲學
o 生存哲學
o 分析哲學
o 人文哲學
o 解釋學
o 符號學
o 實用主義哲學
* 倫理學
o 醫學倫理學
o 教育倫理學
o 政治倫理學
o 家庭倫理學
o 生命倫理學
o 生態倫理學
* 美學
o 美學史
o 藝美學
o 技術美學
* 形而上學
* 現象學
* 過程哲學
* 知識論
* 死亡哲學
* 人生哲學
* 法律哲學
* 心靈哲學
* 墨哲學
* 當代英美哲學
* 比較哲學
* 當代法國哲學
* 哲學哲學
與哲學相關學科
* 相對論
* 量子力學
* 混沌學
* 弦理論
* 思維科學
* 人工智能
* 心理學
* 信息論
* 語義學
* 科學社會學
* 邏輯學
* 科學學
* 控論
* 機械論
其他與哲學相關的學科
* 宗教哲學
* 政治哲學
* 法律哲學
* 物理哲學
* 天文哲學
* 化學哲學
* 語言分析哲學
* 佛教哲學
* 教父哲學
* 教育哲學
* 語言哲學
o 日常語言哲學
* 自然哲學
* 經濟哲學
* 同一哲學
* 思辨哲學
* 生物學哲學
* 中國哲學史史料學
* 歷史哲學
* 易學
* 經學
* 玄學
* 靈源泛哲學唔系
* 諸子哲學
哲學命題
* 自由意志
* 决定論
* 因果律
* 隨機性
* 白馬非馬
* 百姓日用即道
* 悖論
* 變化日新
* 辯者二十一事
* 仁為萬物之源
* 用一源
* 天不變道亦不變
* 天道自然
* 萬物皆備於我
* 物極必反
* 心統性情
* 心無本
* 新故相除
* 形質神用
* 性即理
* 性日生日成
* 一分為二
* 一物兩
* EPR悖論
* 堅白相盈
哲學書籍
周文王《周易》
老子 《道德經》
尼《查拉圖斯特拉如是說》
叔本華《作為意志和象的世界》
康德《純粹理性批判》
羅素《幸福之路》
盧梭《社會契約論》
黑格爾《精神現象學》
柏拉圖《理想國》
《哲學研究》、《邏輯哲學論》、《存在與時間》、《正義論》
還有最新出版的《菲的世界》(喬斯坦•賈德)
伯特蘭•羅素
《論何學的基礎》
《萊尼茨的哲學》
《數學原則》
《數學原理》 (3,與懷特海著)
《哲學問題》
《我們對外部世界的知識》
《邏輯原子主義哲學》
《數理哲學導論》
《心的分析》
《物的分析》
《對意義和真理的探究》
《西方哲學史》
《人類的知識--其圍和界限》
《我的哲學展》
主要的哲學家
1、西方
(1)希臘哲學家
赫拉利特(火本原說創始人)
泰利斯(水本原說創始人)
阿那西曼德(無定說創始人)
阿那西美尼(氣本原說創始人)
畢達哥拉斯
塞諾芬尼
巴門尼德
芝諾
恩培多勒
阿那薩戈拉
留基波(原子論創始人)
格拉底
柏拉圖
亞士多德
伊壁鳩魯
(2)基督教哲學
查士丁
奧古斯丁
拉坦修
托馬斯•阿奎那
羅色林
安瑟爾謨
羅吉爾•培根
(3)文藝興
佛朗西斯•培根
霍斯
笛卡爾
斯賓諾莎
萊尼茨
洛
貝萊
休謨
盧梭
康德
費希特
黑格爾
費爾巴哈
馬思
尼
Philosophy is the study of all existing inter-relationship between the abstract subject. Philosophical sense What is all there is? Rely on our feelings, do not rely on our feelings; subjective, objective; real, imaginary; and all our imaginable, and unimaginable. Above all there is at least the existence of all these forms. Is a fundamental characteristic of abstract philosophy. Why Philosophy is abstract? Because there is between all have the same abstract, this abstract is the same abstract internal structure and external relations of the abstract the same the same. It is the same based on this abstraction, so that we could feel the presence of all existence. Philosophy have to do is _set_ the same contents of this abstract. Philosophy is the science of Wan. The existence and development of all the concrete must follow the abstract rules; all the specific subjects should comply with the application of abstract philosophical principles, but it must be premised on the correctness of Philosophy. Philosophy (Philosophy), including the traditional metaphysics, epistemology, ethics of research. The subjects attempted to answer the origin of the world, knowledge of how to obtain, and the concept of good and evil and other problems. Basically, the philosophy of the basic method is to use rational arguments to these issues. However, the actual scope and definition of philosophy up to now there is no definitive answer, "what is philosophy?" In the tradition of philosophy is full of differences and the much-debated. Abstract organism. Must be able to grasp abstract thinking. If Ma Zhe, on the concept of substance is defined by consciousness, but consciousness is defined through the material. Source Philosophy In addition, the philosophy may use less formal means, or belief in a particular way. History of Philosophy "Philosophy" in early origins in China, has a long history. Such as "Confucian philosophy 10", "Gu Sheng Sages" and other words, "philosophy" or "philosopher", specifically refers to those who are good at speculative, knowledge intensive, that is, Modern West, "philosopher", "thinkers" of that. Generally believed that the origin of Chinese philosophy during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, Confucianism Confucius, Lao Tzu's Taoism, and the late Mo Legalist Mohist represented. In fact, in previous "Book of Changes" which has already started to discuss philosophical questions. 19th century 70s, Japan's first to use the Western Zhou Dynasty in ancient Chinese philosophy Evangelist translated as "philosophy", before and after 1896, such as the Japanese translation of Kang said the introduction to China, with the gradual passage. In the West, the term usually used to describe a philosophy of life of a person views (such as someone's "Philosophy of Life") and the basic principles (such as values, ideas, behavior). In academic philosophy, it is these basic principles of rational basis for doubt, reflection, and trying on these basic principles of rational reconstruction. The first covers the philosophy of all knowledge levels. It has been the most abstract knowledge of mankind. Introduction to the Philosophy of the term originally comes from the Greek thinker Pythagoras. Basic disciplines of philosophy Ancient Greek philosophers through the practice of asking philosophical questions, questions about them can be classified into three categories, respectively, these three issues formed the basis for discipline of philosophy, metaphysics (metaphysics), knowledge of (Epistemology), and ethics (Ethics). The first three issues are: * The essence of the world and the truth. * How do we know or understand about the question of truth * The meaning of life issues and moral practice The relationship between philosophy and science Academic History from the West, science is the philosophy of the derivatives. Later, scientific independence, parallel with the discipline of philosophy. Interaction between science and philosophy. Science produces knowledge, philosophy and generate ideas. Marxism holds that philosophy is a social ideology. Modern Western philosophy in the philosophy of science, is designed to study the scientific theory. This theory of a scientific history, science summarized 许多 theoretical model, but only explained the science, science is not the right guidance. Philosophy is a special way to understand the world, is to make high up in a science. Therefore: Physics objects, phenomena, structure and operation of the laws of the objective to find a best way to explain the phenomenon; the metaphysical law of the validity of the request why the best method of Cheng Li are described. Experience and knowledge are considered methods of integration; and knowledge of concern is the availability of knowledge itself, and whether it can be meaningful demarcation. Logical form of mathematics used to study the quantity, structure, and model; and logic reasoning is concerned with the effective power to ensure what is logical reliability and completeness. Sociology attempts to summarize in some universal law, and predict human action groups or among individuals; and ethics are more concerned about these acts of freedom and moral responsibility for the relevance of its intrinsic motivation, meaning and how to make people behavior trend towards an optimum. Concerned about the transfer of power politics; the political philosophy of power and how to appear more concerned with the establishment. The United States to show people the art of charm, but not once explain the origin of this charm; and aesthetics are questioning the essence of beauty and significance. The value of philosophy Philosophy should learn is that it is not for the issues raised by any definitive answers, but rather the issues themselves; reason is that these problems can expand our concept for all the possible things, a rich spiritual aspects of our imagination, and reduce the dogmatic self-confidence, they may imprison the role of the mind thinking. In addition, in particular, is the philosophy of meditation in the universe through the large, heart would be great together, so that we can and for the perfection of the universe into its combined. Philosophy can also be said for the belief of a rational, as well as a rational conclusion on the people and the laws of nature. Philosophy is the ultimate meaning of the world on the interpretation, which we understand the world in the interpretation of manipulation to make the world in our consciousness of the country to provide us spiritual consolation. Philosophy is a kind of human self-positioning tool. A branch of philosophy Altruism - anti-realism - Buddhist philosophy - Confucianism - Hedonism - Materialism - Idealism - Idealism - non-realism - the logic correct doctrine - pessimism - Taoism - - ego - pessimism - rationalism - realism - Aestheticism - Metaphysical materialism - dialectical materialism - objective idealism - subjective idealism - irrationalism - Stoic doctrine - Existentialism - Metaphysics - utilitarianism - ... ... Branch of philosophy Because of the area, there are many branches of philosophy. * History of Philosophy o Eastern Philosophy + Indian philosophy + History of Chinese Philosophy + Islamic philosophy + Japanese philosophy o History of Western Philosophy + Ancient Greek Philosophy + Medieval Philosophy + Renaissance Philosophy + German classical philosophy + Russian Philosophy * Marxist Philosophy o dialectical materialism o Historical Materialism o History of Marxist Philosophy * Philosophy of Science * Modern Philosophy o Philosophy of Existence o Analytical Philosophy o Humanities and Philosophy o Hermeneutics o Semiotics o philosophy of pragmatism * Ethics o Medical Ethics o Education and Ethics o Political Ethics o Family Ethics o Bioethics o Ecological Ethics * Aesthetics o Aesthetic History o Art Aesthetics o Technological Aesthetics * Metaphysics * Phenomenology * Process Philosophy * Knowledge of * Philosophy of Death * Philosophy of Life * Philosophy of Law * Philosophy of Mind * Mohist Philosophy * Contemporary American Philosophy * Comparative Philosophy * Contemporary French Philosophy * Philosophy Philosophy And the related disciplines of philosophy * Theory of Relativity * Quantum Mechanics * Chaos * String Theory * Thinking science * Artificial Intelligence * Psychology * Information Theory * Semantics * Sociology of Science * Logic * Science * Control Theory * Mechanistic Other related disciplines and philosophy * Philosophy of Religion * Political Philosophy * Philosophy of Law * Philosophy of Physics * Astronomy Philosophy * Chemical Philosophy * Language of Philosophy * Buddhist philosophy * Godfather Philosophy * Philosophy of Education * Philosophy of Language o ordinary language philosophy * Natural Philosophy * Economic Philosophy * The same philosophy * Speculative Philosophy * Philosophy of Biology * Historical Materials of Chinese Philosophy * Philosophy of History * Yi * Classics * Metaphysics * Pan-Ling source philosophy * Qin scholars Philosophical proposition * Free will * Determinism * Causality * Random * White Horse * People that Tao Daily * Paradox * Change Nisshin * Debate the issue were 20 * Jen is the source of all things * Body with a source * The same day will never change * Heaven Nature * All things are to me * Extremes meet * Mind and Temperament * With no body * New so divided * God-shaped mass with * Nature is reason * Birthday percent of Japan * Divided into two * One thing the two bodies * EPR paradox * Preclusion Ying Jian Philosophy books King Wen of Zhou "Book of Changes" I "the moral" Nietzsche's "Thus Spake Zarathustra" Schopenhauer "The World as Will and Representation" Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" Russell "Road to Happiness" Rousseau's "Social Contract" Hegel's "Phenomenology of Mind" Plato's "Utopia" "Philosophy", "Tractatus," "Being and Time," "Justice" Also recently published "Sophie's World" (Jostein • Judd) • Bertrand Russell "On the basis of geometry" "Leibniz's philosophy" "Mathematical principles" "Principia Mathematica" (3 volumes, and Whitehead co) "Philosophical questions" "Our knowledge of the outside world" "Logical Atomism" "Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy" "Heart of the analysis" "Material analysis" "The meaning and truth of the inquiry" "History of Western Philosophy" "Human knowledge - its scope and limits" "My philosophy of development" Major philosophers 1, Western (1) Greek philosopher Heraclitus (primitive fire-founder) Thales (water primitive founder) Anaximander (no fixed that founder) Ana Kersee United States and Nigeria (gas primitive founder) Pythagoras Xenophanes Parmenides Zeno Empedocles Anaxagoras Remain fundamental (atomism founder) Socrates Plato Aristotle Epicurus (2) Christian Philosophy Charles 士丁 Augustine 拉克坦 repair • Thomas Aquinas Lin Luo Color Anselm • Roger Bacon (3) After the Renaissance • Francis Bacon Hobbes Descartes Spinoza Leibniz Locke Berkeley Hume Rousseau Kant Fichte Hegel Feuerbach Marx Nietzsche
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