yìn dù India
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 印度 印度 印度 印度 印度 印度 印度 印度 印度 印度 印度 印度【 guó qí】 chéng cháng fāng xíng， cháng yǔ kuān zhī bǐ wéi 3 ∶ 2。 zì shàng 'ér xià yóu chéng、 bái、 lǜ sān gè xiāng děng de héng cháng fāng xíng zǔ chéng， bái sè cháng fāng xíng zhōng xīn huì yòu ２ ４ gēn zhóu tiáo de lán sè fǎ lún。 chéng sè xiàng zhēng yǒng gǎn hé zì wǒ xī shēng jīng shén， yě shì jiào shì fǎ yī de yán sè， shè shēn wèiguó de yīng xióng men de yán sè； bái sè xiàng zhēng chún jié de zhēn lǐ； lǜ sè biǎo shì xìn xīn， dài biǎo rén lèi shēng mìng suǒ yǐ cún de shēng chǎn lì。 fǎ lún shì yìn dù kǒng què wáng cháo 'ā yù wáng shí dài fó jiào shèng dì shí zhù zhù tóu de shī shǒu tú 'àn zhī yī， duì yú yìn dù rén 'ér yán， tā shì shén shèng zhī lún、 zhēn lǐ zhī lún、 xiàng zhe jìn bù zhuàndòng zhī lún， yǒng yuǎn lún huí cāng qióng zhī lún。 【 guó huī】 tú 'àn lái yuán yú kǒng què wáng cháo 'ā yù wáng shí zhù dǐng duān de shí kè。 yuán xíng tái jī shàng zhàn lì zhe sì zhǐ jīn sè de shī zǐ， xiàng zhēng xìn xīn、 yǒng qì hé lì liàng。 tái jī sì zhōu yòu sì gè shǒu wèi sì fāng de shǒu shòu： dōng fāng shì xiàng、 nán fāng shì mǎ、 xī fāng shì niú， běi fāng shì shī。 shǒu shòu zhī jiān diāo yòu fǎ lún。 tú 'àn xià miàn yòu jù yòng fàn wén shū xiě de、 chū zì gǔ dài yìn dù shèng shū de gé yán “ wéi yòu zhēn lǐ dé shèng ”。 【 guó gē】 《 rén mín de yì zhì》 【 guó huā】 lián huā 【 guó niǎo】 lán kǒng què 【 guó shù】 pú tí shù、 róng shù 【 miàn jī】 yuē 298 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ（ bù bāo kuò zhōng yìn biān jìng yìn zhàn qū hé kè shí mǐ 'ěr yìn dù shí jì kòng zhì qū děng）。 yìn dù zhèng fǔ chēng qí lǐng tǔ wéi 328.78 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ。 yìn dù miàn jī jū shì jiè dì qī wèi。 【 rén kǒu】 11.3 yì (2007 nián )。 yòu 10 gè dà mín zú hé xǔ duō xiǎo mín zú， yìn dù sī tǎn zú zhàn 46.3%， tài lú gù zú 8.6 ％， mèng jiā lā zú 7.7％， mǎ lā dì zú 7.6%， tài mǐ 'ěr zú 7.4%， gǔ jí lā tè zú 4.6%， kǎn ná dá zú 3.9%， mǎ lā yǎ lā mǔ zú 3.9%， ào lǐ yǎ zú 3.8%， bàng zhē pǔ zú 2.3%。 yīng yǔ hé yìn dì yǔ tóng wéi guān fāng yǔ yán。 yuē yòu 82% de jū mín xìn fèng yìn dù jiào， qí cì wéi yī sī lán jiào（ 12%）、 jī dū jiào（ 2.3%）、 xī kè jiào（ 1.9%）、 fó jiào（ 0.8%） hé qí nà jiào（ 0.4%） děng。 【 shǒu dū】 xīn dé lǐ（ NewDelhi）， lián tóng lǎo dé lǐ rén kǒu gòng 1280 wàn（ 2001 nián）。 【 guó jiā yuán shǒu】 zǒng tǒng xiàn rèn zǒng tǒng shì pǔ lā dì bā - pà dì 'ěr（ nǚ）， 2007 nián 7 yuè 25 rì jiù rèn。 dì lǐ huán jìng yìn dù wèi yú yìn dù cì dà lù， zhù yào yóu sān bù fēn zǔ chéng： zài běi bù de xǐ mǎ lā yǎ shān qū（ qí zhōng jiù yòu hǎi bá 8,598 mǐ de yìn dù zuì gāo fēng kāng chéng zhāng jiā fēng）、 zhōng yāng píng yuán (Indo-GangeticPlain) yǐ jí nán bù de dé gān gāo yuán。 duō tiáo hé liú fā yuán yú huò liú jīng yìn dù， lì rú yòu héng hé、 bù lā mǎ pǔ tè lā hé、 yà mù nà hé、 gē dá wǎ lǐ hé yǐ jí kuí shī nà hé (KrishnaRiver)。 yìn dù hé shàng liú de yī xiǎo duàn yě wèi yú yìn dù jìng nèi。 yìn dù shǔ rè dài jì fēng qì hòu， qì wēn biàn huà jiào dà。 xiàng tā de rén mín yī yàng， yìn dù de dì zhì、 dì lǐ hé fēng tǔ dài biǎo liǎo dì qiú lì shǐ de zhēn zhèng quán mào。 shì jiè shàng zuì gāo 'ér yòu zuì nián qīng de xǐ mǎ lā yǎ shān xíng chéng liǎo yìn dù běi bù de yī dào ràng rén wàng 'ér shēng wèi de tiān rán píng zhàng， tā dōng xī mián yán 2500 gōng lǐ， gòu chéng 50 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ de miàn jī。 tā zuì zhù míng de xī yá chén bīng chuān shì chōng jī chéng fù ráo de běi bù， xī bù shān gǔ de wàn nián liú tǎng de hé liú de yǒng bù kū jié de yuán quán。 yìn dù de shèng hé héng hé， hái yòu yǎ mù nà hé、 xìn dù hé、 bù lā mǎ pǔ tè lā hé cóng yuǎn gǔ shí qī jiù yùn yù liǎo yán 'àn de fù ráo dà dì de wén míng。 dào liǎo xī běi bù， yòu shì jiè shàng zuì gǔ lǎo de、 shù bǎi wàn nián yǐ lái bù zài róng yào、 bù zài féi wò de 'ā lā wǎ lǐ shān xì。 wén dí yà shān hé sà tè pǔ lā shān mài cóng dōng dào xī píng xíng héng guàn jīhū zhěng gè yìn dù bàn dǎo。 sǎ hēi yà dé lǐ shān píng xíng héng guàn yìn dù xī hǎi 'àn， dōng hǎi 'àn de bù guī zé shān xì wéi dōng gāo zhǐ shān。 měi gè shān xì de piào liàng jǐng diǎn xīng luó qí bù， xiàn dài huà de jiāo tōng gōng jù sì tōng bā dá。 xǐ mǎ lā yǎ shān yòu xǔ duō huá xuě chǎng， hái yòu 'ān quán de pá shān hé hé shàng piào liú shè bèi。 měi gè shān mài yòu qí dú tè de xióng wěi zhuàng lì hé dì lǐ tè diǎn。 máng máng lín hǎi， tè bié shì yà rè dài sēn lín lǐ shēng huó zhe gè zhǒng yě shēng dòng wù， sēn lín lǐ jiàn yòu yě shēng dòng wù bǎo hù qū， yóu kè kě yǐ dà bǎo yǎn fú， guān shǎng bǎi shòu qiān niǎo。 kào jìn sǎ hēi yà dé lǐ shān hǎi 'àn tè bié shì kè lā lā bāng， guǒ 'ā hé mǎ hā shī tè lā bāng de gòng gān dì qū bì lǜ de 'ā lā bó hǎi 'àn yòu shù bù qīng de měi lì de shān xiá、 xiá wān、 xiǎo xī hé xì hú， lìng wú shù de yóu kè kě wàng zài nán dé měi lì de níng jìng huán jìng zhōng táo yě xìng qíng。 yìn dù yòu 7516 gōng lǐ de hǎi 'àn xiàn， ā lā bó hǎi hé mèng jiā lā wān wéi tài yáng yù hé shuǐ shàng yùn dòng 'àihào zhě tí gōng shū shì yōu měi de chǎng dì hé huán jìng。 wēn dí yà shān hé sà tè pǔ lā shān shì nà mǎ dá hé、 dá pú tí hé、 gē dá wǎ lǐ hé、 kè lǐ xī nà hé、 mǎ hā nà dǐ hé yǐ jí cáo wò ruì hé de fā yuán dì。 zhè xiē hé liú yǐ jí dōng bù de bù lā mǎ pǔ tè lā hé jīng lì liǎo xǔ duō gǔ dài wáng cháo hé wén huà de xīng shuāi， bàn dǎo shàng dào chù kě yǐ kàn dào gǔ dài yí zhǐ hé cán cún de jì niàn bēi。 yìn dù nán bù de tài mǐ 'ěr wén huà shèn zhì zǎo yú běi bù de fèi tuó wén míng， tài mǐ 'ěr rén yǐ tā men de yǔ yán bǐ fàn yǔ gǔ lǎo 'ér yǐn yǐ zì háo。 yìn dù wèi yú běi wěi 8.4 zhì 37.6 dù zhī jiān， qì hòu chā yì hěn dà。 dāng xǐ mǎ lā yǎ shān lù kè shí mǐ 'ěr shān gǔ de lā dá kè hé bàng zhē pǔ qì wēn zài 0 dù shàng xià pái huái， lěngde jié bīng de shí hòu， bàn dǎo nán bù qì wēn què zài 30 dù， rè dé hàn liú jiā bèi。 měi nián 6 dào 9 yuè wéi yìn dù de xià jì xī nán jì fēng qī， shì yìn dù bàn dǎo dà bù fēn dì qū nóng yè gēngzhòng jì jié， dàn pāng tuó dà yǔ gěi gēngzhòng dài lái kùn nán。 bù guò cóng nán dào běi de guàn gài xì tǒng kě yǐ tiáojié zhè zhǒng bù lì yīn sù。 jù yòu chuàng xīn jīng shén de yìn dù píng zhe qín láo hé zhì huì yǐ jīng zhàn shèng liǎo jì fēng de sì nüè。 guò qù cháng cháng yù dào jī 'è zāi nián de yìn dù， zài yǎng huó shì 1947 nián dú lì shí sān bèi de rén kǒu de tóng shí， hái xiàng wài chū kǒu liáng shí hé shuǐ guǒ。 guó jiā lì shǐ shì jiè sì dà wén míng gǔ guó zhī yī。 gōng yuán qián 2000 nián qián hòu chuàng zào liǎo yìn dù hé wén míng。 yuē zài gōng yuán qián 14 shì jì， yuán jū zhù zài zhōng yà de yǎ lì 'ān rén zhōng de yī zhī jìn rù nán yà cì dà lù， bìng zhēng fú liǎo dāng dì tǔ zhù。 yuē gōng yuán qián 1000 nián， kāi shǐ xíng chéng yǐ rén zhǒng hé shè huì fēn gōng bù tóng wéi jī chǔ de zhǒng xìng zhì dù。 gōng yuán qián 4 shì jì jué qǐ de kǒng què wáng cháo kāi shǐ tǒng yī yìn dù cì dà lù， qián 3 shì jì 'ā yù wáng tǒng zhì shí qī jiāng yù guǎng kuò， zhèng quán qiáng dà， fó jiào xīng shèng bìng kāi shǐ xiàng wài chuán bō。 zhōng shì jì xiǎo guó lín lì， yìn dù jiào xīng qǐ。 zì 11 shì jì qǐ， lái zì xī běi fāng xiàng de mù sī lín mín zú bù duàn rù qīn bìng cháng qī tǒng zhì yìn dù。 1526 nián jiàn lì mò wò 'ér dì guó， chéng wéi dāng shí shì jiè qiáng guó zhī yī。 1600 nián yīng guó qīn rù， jiàn lì dōng yìn dù gōng sī。 1757 nián kāi shǐ lún wéi yīng zhí mín dì， 1849 nián quán jìng bèi yīng zhàn lǐng。 1857 nián bào fā fǎn yīng dà qǐ yì， cì nián yīng guó zhèng fǔ zhí jiē tǒng zhì yìn dù。 1947 nián 6 yuè， yīng jiāng yìn dù fēn wéi yìn dù hé bā jī sī tǎn liǎng gè zì zhì lǐng。 tóng nián 8 yuè 15 rì， yìn bā fēn zhì， yìn dù dú lì。 1950 nián 1 yuè 26 rì， yìn dù gòng hé guó chéng lì， wéi yīng lián bāng chéng yuán guó。 guó jiā zhèng zhì yìn dù dú lì hòu cháng qī yóu guó dà dǎng tǒng zhì， fǎn duì dǎng céng zài 1977 nián ～ 1979 nián hé 1989 nián～ 1991 nián liǎng cì duǎn zàn zhí zhèng。 1996 nián yǐ lái yìn dù zhèng jú bù wěn， dào 1999 nián xiān hòu jǔ xíng 3 cì dà xuǎn， chǎn shēng liǎo 5 jiè zhèng fǔ。 běn jiè zhèng fǔ yú 1999 nián 10 yuè dì shí sān jiè rén mín yuàn xuǎn jǔ chǎn shēng， yǐ yìn dù rén mín dǎng wéi shǒu de 24 dǎng“ quán guó mín zhù lián méng” huò shèng， wǎ jié pà yī wéi zǒng lǐ。 quán guó mín zhù lián méng zhèng fǔ jiào qián jǐ jiè zhèng fǔ wěn dìng。 zhèng zhì shàng móu qiú guó nèi zhèng jú hé shè huì wěn dìng， jīng jì shàng shí xíng“ dì 'èr jiē duàn jīng jì gǎi gé”， wài jiāo shàng jiā sù tuī jìn quán fāng wèi dà guó wài jiāo zhàn lüè。 【 xiàn fǎ】 xiàn fǎ yú 1950 nián 1 yuè 26 rì shēng xiào。 guī dìng yìn dù wéi lián bāng zhì guó jiā， shì zhù quán de、 shè huì zhù yì de、 shì sú de mín zhù gòng hé guó。 cǎi qǔ yīng guó shì de yì huì mín zhù zhì。 gōng mín bù fēn zhǒng zú、 xìng bié、 chū shēn、 zōng jiào xìn yǎng hé chū shēng dì diǎn， zài fǎ lǜ miàn qián yī lǜ píng děng。 zǒng tǒng wèiguó jiā yuán shǒu hé wǔ zhuāng bù duì de tǒng shuài， yóu lián bāng yì huì jí bāng yì huì zǔ chéng xuǎn jǔ tuán xuǎn chū， měi jiè rèn qī wǔ nián。 zǒng tǒng yǐ zhào yǐ zǒng lǐ wéi shǒu de bù cháng huì yì de jiàn yì xíng shǐ zhí quán。 【 yì huì】 yóu lián bāng yuàn（ shàng yuàn） hé rén mín yuàn（ xià yuàn） zǔ chéng。 lián bāng yuàn gòng 244 xí， yì yuán yóu gè bāng jí zhōng yāng zhí xiá qū lì fǎ yuàn yì yuán xuǎn jǔ chǎn shēng， rèn qī liù nián， měi liǎng nián gǎi xuǎn 1/3。 lián bāng yuàn měi nián zhào kāi sì cì huì yì。 xiàn fǎ guī dìng fù zǒng tǒng wéi fǎ dìng de lián bāng yuàn yì cháng。 xiàn rèn lián bāng yuàn yì cháng pà yī lóng · xīn gé · xiè kǎ wǎ tè（ BhaironSinghShekhawat）， 2002 nián 8 yuè 19 rì jiù rèn。 rén mín yuàn wèiguó jiā zhù yào lì fǎ jī gòu， qí zhù yào zhí néng wéi： zhì dìng fǎ lǜ hé xiū gǎi xiàn fǎ； kòng zhì hé diào zhěng lián bāng zhèng fǔ de shōu rù hé zhī chū； duì lián bāng zhèng fǔ tí chū bù xìn rèn 'àn， bìng yòu quán tánhé zǒng tǒng。 rén mín yuàn gòng 543 xí， yóu xuǎn mín zhí jiē xuǎn jǔ chǎn shēng， měi wǔ nián jǔ xíng yī cì dà xuǎn。 dì 13 jiè rén mín yuàn yú 1999 nián 10 yuè chǎn shēng， yìn dù rén mín dǎng jí qí méng dǎng huò 301 xí， zǔ jiàn zhèng fǔ。 2002 nián， rén mín yuàn zǔ chéng wéi： yìn dù rén mín dǎng jí qí méng dǎng 306 xí， yìn dù rén mín dǎng 181 xí， wéi dì yī dà dǎng； guó dà dǎng（ yīng） jí qí méng dǎng 123 xí， guó dà dǎng 112 xí； zuǒ yì zhèng dǎng jí méng dǎng 63 xí， qí yú zhèng dǎng 50 xí。 rén mín yuàn yì cháng mǎ nuò hā 'ěr · qiáo xī (ManoharJoshi)， 2002 nián 5 yuè 10 rì jiù rèn。 【 zhèng fǔ】 běn jiè zhèng fǔ yú 1999 nián 10 yuè 13 rì zǔ chéng， shì yǐ yìn dù rén mín dǎng wéi shǒu de 24 dǎng quán guó mín zhù lián méng zhèng fǔ。 xiàn zhù yào nèi gé chéng yuán yòu： zǒng lǐ 'ā · bǐ · wǎ jié pà yī（ AtalBihariVajpayee）、 fù zǒng lǐ jiān nèi zhèng bù cháng 'ā dé wǎ ní（ L..K.Advani）、 wài jiāo bù cháng yà shī wàng tè · xīn hā（ YashwantSinha）、 cái zhèng bù cháng jiǎ sī wàng tè · xīn gé (JaswantSingh)、 guó fáng bù cháng qiáo zhì · fèi 'ěr nán dé sī（ GeorgeFernandes）。 【 sī fǎ jī gòu】 zuì gāo fǎ yuàn shì zuì gāo sī fǎ quán lì jī guān， yòu quán jiě shì xiàn fǎ、 shěn lǐ zhōng yāng zhèng fǔ yǔ gè bāng zhī jiān de zhēng yì wèn tí děng。 gè bāng shè yòu gāo děng fǎ yuàn， xiàn shè yòu xiàn fǎ yuàn。 zuì gāo fǎ yuàn fǎ guān yóu zǒng tǒng wěi rèn。 xiàn rèn dì 34 jiè shǒu xí fǎ guān V·N· kǎ 'ěr（ VNKhare）， yú 2002 nián 12 yuè jiù rèn。 zǒng jiǎn chá cháng yóu zǒng tǒng rèn mìng， qí zhù yào zhí zé shì jiù zhí fǎ shì xiàng xiàng zhèng fǔ tí gōng zī xún hé jiàn yì， wán chéng xiàn fǎ hé fǎ lǜ guī dìng de jiǎn chá quán， duì xiàn fǎ hé fǎ lǜ de zhí xíng qíng kuàng jìn xíng jiān dū děng。 xiàn rèn zǒng jiǎn chá cháng S·J· suǒ lā bó jí（ SoliJ.Sorabjee）。 【 zhèng dǎng】 （ 1） yìn dù rén mín dǎng（ BharatiyaJanataParty）： 1980 nián 4 yuè chéng lì， qí qián shēn shì 1951 nián chéng lì de yìn dù rén mín tóng méng。 zì chēng yòu 350 wàn dǎng yuán。 dài biǎo běi bù yìn dù jiào jiào tú shì lì hé chéng zhèn zhōng xiǎo shāng rén lì yì， jù yòu qiáng liè mín zú zhù yì hé jiào pài zhù yì sè cǎi。 1996 nián 5 yuè dà xuǎn zhì jīn yī zhí bǎo chí yì huì dì yī dà dǎng dì wèi。 xiàn rèn dǎng zhù xí wéi nài dù (Naidu)。 （ 2） yìn dù guó mín dà huì dǎng（ yīng dí lā · gān dì pài）（ TheIndianNationalCongress 〔 IndiraGandhi 〕）： jiǎn chēng guó dà dǎng（ yīng）。 jù chēng yòu chū jí dǎng yuán 3000 wàn， jī jí dǎng yuán 150 wàn。 1885 nián 12 yuè chéng lì， lǐng dǎo liǎo fǎn duì yīng guó zhí mín tǒng zhì hé zhēng qǔ yìn dù dú lì de dǒu zhēng。 yìn dú lì hòu cháng qī zhí zhèng， 1969 nián hé 1978 nián liǎng cì fēn liè。 1978 nián yīng · gān dì zǔ jiàn xīn dǎng， gǎi yòng xiàn míng。 gāi dǎng xiàn wéi zuì dà zài yě dǎng， xiàn rèn zhù xí suǒ ní yà · gān dì（ SoniaGandhi）。 （ 3） yìn dù gòng chǎn dǎng（ mǎ kè sī zhù yì）（ CommunistPartyofIndia〔 Marxist〕）： jiǎn chēng yìn gòng（ mǎ）。 1964 nián yǐ sūn dá lā yǎ hé nán bù dí lǐ bā dé wéi dài biǎo de yī pài cóng yìn dù gòng chǎn dǎng fēn chū hòu zǔ chéng。 jìn nián lái fā zhǎn jiào kuài， dǎng yuán zēng zhì 70 wàn， shì yìn dù zuì dà de zuǒ yì zhèng dǎng。 zài xī mèng jiā lā bāng cháng qī zhí zhèng。 xiàn rèn zǒng shū jì hā · xīn · sū jí tè（ H.S.Surjeet）。 （ 4） yìn dù gòng chǎn dǎng（ CommunistPartyofIndia）： chéng lì yú 1920 nián。 yòu dǎng yuán 54 wàn。 1964 nián fēn liè， yǐ dǎng zhù xí shí · ā · dān jí wéi shǒu de yī pài réng yán yòng yìn gòng míng chēng。 1981 nián 4 yuè， dān jí yīn zhī chí yīng · gān dì yǔ dǎng nèi fā shēng fēn qí 'ér bèi kāi chú chū dǎng， gāi dǎng zài cì fēn liè。 xiàn rèn zǒng shū jì Ａ · Ｂ · bā 'ěr dān (A·B·Bardan)。 （ 5） tài lú gù zhī xiāng dǎng（ TeluguDesamParty）， ān dé lā bāng dì fāng zhèng dǎng。 jìn nián lái shì yìn dù zhèng tán de yī zhī zhòng yào lì liàng， 1999 nián dà xuǎn chéng wéi quán guó zuì dà de dì fāng zhèng dǎng。 zài 'ān dé lā bāng zhí zhèng， dǎng zhù xí、 bāng shǒu xí bù cháng qián · nài dù（ NarraChandrababuNaidu） yǐ zhòng shì xìn xī jì shù zhù chēng。 【 zhòng yào rén wù】 ā bǔ dù 'ěr · kǎ lā mǔ： zǒng tǒng。 1931 nián 10 yuè 15 rì shēng yú tài mǐ 'ěr nà dù bāng， mù sī lín， wú dǎng pài。 zǎo nián jiù dú yú dì lǔ qí shèng yuē sè fū xué yuàn hé mǎ dé lā sī jì shù xué yuàn， fēn bié huò dé lǐ xué shì hé háng kōng jì shù bó shì xué wèi。 zì 1958 nián qǐ， xiān hòu zài yìn guó fáng bù xià shǔ de kōng jūn jì shù kāi fā hé shēng chǎn lǐ shì huì、 háng kōng fā zhǎn jú、 yìn tài kōng yán jiū wěi yuán huì cóng shì kē xué yán jiū。 shì yìn kōng jiān yán jiū zǔ zhì de dì zào zhě zhī yī。 1982 nián qǐ dān rèn guó fáng yán jiū hé fā zhǎn yán jiū suǒ suǒ cháng， fù zé shí shī yìn dù dǎo dàn zōng hé fā zhǎn jìhuà， yán fā liǎo dà dì、 liè huǒ、 sān chā jǐ、 yǎn jìng shé děng zì chǎn dǎo dàn， bèi yù wéi yìn dù de dǎo dàn zhī fù。 1981 nián、 1990 nián hé 1997 nián fēn bié huò yìn dù sān jí、 èr jí hé zuì gāo róng yù yī jí xūn zhāng， chū rèn yìn zhèng fǔ shǒu xí kē xué mì shū。 zhù yòu zìzhuàn《 huǒ zhī yì》 hé《 yìn dù 2020-- xīn qiān nián lán tú》 děng shū， xī wàng tōng guò kē jì zhì guó， yìn dù zài 2020 nián jī shēn fā dá guó jiā hángliè。 ā tǎ 'ěr · bǐ hā lǐ · wǎ jié pà yī： zǒng lǐ。 1926 nián 12 yuè shēng yú yìn dù zhōng yāng bāng guā liào 'ěr yī gè jiào shī jiā tíng。 huò wén xué shuò shì xué wèi。 1951 nián cān jiā rén mín tóng méng chuàng jiàn gōng zuò（ gāi tóng méng wéi yìn dù rén mín dǎng de qián shēn）。 zì 1957 nián qǐ， duō cì dāng xuǎn yìn dù rén mín yuàn hé lián bāng yuàn yì yuán。 1977 nián， yīng · gān dì shí xíng jǐn jí zhuàng tài qī jiān bèi bǔ rù yù。 chū yù hòu， tā lǐng dǎo de rén mín tóng méng yǔ qí tā dǎng pài gòng tóng zǔ jiàn rén mín dǎng， bìng zài dāng nián de dà xuǎn zhōng huò shèng， jiàn lì liǎo yìn dù dú lì hòu de dì yī gè fēi guó dà dǎng zhèng fǔ， wǎ rèn wài jiāo bù cháng。 1979 nián fǎng huá。 1980 nián， rén mín dǎng fēn liè， yǐ wǎ wéi shǒu de yuán rén mín tóng méng tuō lí rén mín dǎng， lìng wài zǔ jiàn yìn dù rén mín dǎng。 wǎ xiān hòu chū rèn gāi dǎng zhù xí、 yì huì dǎng tuán lǐng xiù。 1996 nián dà xuǎn hòu， yìn dù rén mín dǎng chéng wéi yì huì dì yī dà dǎng， wǎ céng chū rèn nèi gé zǒng lǐ 13 tiān。 1998 nián 3 yuè zài dù dān rèn zǒng lǐ。 1999 nián 10 yuè， yǐ yìn dù rén mín dǎng wéi shǒu de 24 dǎng quán guó mín zhù lián méng zài tí qián jìn xíng de dì 13 jiè rén mín yuàn dà xuǎn zhōng huò shèng， wǎ dì sān cì chū rèn zǒng lǐ。 guó jiā jīng jì dú lì hòu jīng jì yòu jiào dà fā zhǎn。 nóng yè yóu yán zhòng quē liáng dá dào jī běn zìjǐ。 gōng yè yǐ xíng chéng jiào wéi wán zhěng de tǐ xì， zìjǐ néng lì jiào qiáng。 yìn dù zhèng fǔ yú 1991 nián 7 yuè kāi shǐ jìn xíng quán miàn jīng jì gǎi gé， fàng sōng duì gōng yè、 wài mào hé jīn róng bù mén de guǎn zhì， 1992 zhì 1996 nián jīng jì nián jūn zēngchánglǜ wéi 6.2％。 jiǔ · wǔ jìhuà（ 1997 zhì 2002 nián） qī jiān jīng jì nián jūn zēngchánglǜ yòu suǒ xià jiàng， wéi 5.4％。 2001 nián， yìn chū tái shí · wǔ jìhuà， jiāng 2002 nián -2007 nián de jīng jì zēngchánglǜ dìng wéi nián jūn 8％。 2001/2002 nián dù， zhèng fǔ jì xù shēn huà dì 'èr jiē duàn jīng jì gǎi gé， jiā sù guó yòu qǐ yè sī yòu huà， shí xíng bāo kuò nóng chǎn pǐn zài nèi de bù fēn shēng huó bì xū pǐn xiāo shòu zì yóu huà， gǎi shàn tóu zī huán jìng， jīng jiǎn zhèng fǔ jī gòu， xuē jiǎn cái zhèng chì zì。 yóu yú nóng yè hé fú wù yè de kuài sù fā zhǎn， yìn jīng jì zēngchánglǜ dá dào 5.6%， jiào shàng nián tí gāo liǎo 1.6%。 guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí（ 2001/2002 nián dù）： 209400 yì lú bǐ guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí zēngchánglǜ（ 2001/2002 nián dù）： 5.6％ huò bì míng chēng： yìn dù lú bǐ（ Rupee） huì shuài（ 2002 nián 7 yuè）： 1 měi yuán =48.83 lú bǐ nián jūn tōng huò péng zhàng shuài（ 2001/2002 nián dù）： 4.3% （ zī liào lái yuán： yìn dù zhōng yāng tǒng jì shǔ 2003 nián 1 yuè gōng bù shù jù） 【 gōng yè】 2001/2002 nián dù， gōng kuàng yè bǐ shàng nián dù zēngzhǎng 2.7%， chǎn zhí 33680 yì lú bǐ， zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 26.4%， shì guò qù 10 nián yǐ lái zēngzhǎng zuì màn de yī nián。 qí zhōng zhì zào yè 2.4%, diàn lì gōng yè 2.7%， kuàng yè 1.1%， chū jí、 zhōng jiān chǎn pǐn hé xiāo fèi pǐn de zēng cháng dū jiào shàng nián yòu dà fú jiǎn shǎo。 jìn nián lái， yìn dù fǎng zhì、 shí pǐn、 jīng mì yí qì、 qì chē、 ruǎn jiàn zhì zào、 háng kōng hé kōng jiān děng xīn xīng gōng yè fā zhǎn xùn sù。 zhù yào gōng yè chǎn pǐn chǎn liàng rú xià（ dān wèi： wàn dūn）： 1999/2000 2000/2001 2001/2002 méi 30000 30963 32779 tiě kuàng shā 7270 7770 n.a. yuán yóu 3195 3243 3203 tiān rán qì（ yì lì fāng mǐ） 284.5 294.8 297.1 shuǐ ní 9821 9761 10690 gāng cái 2440 2927 3064 huà féi（ dàn、 lín féi） 1430 1470 n.a. bù（ yì píng fāng mǐ） 236 402 n.a. fā diàn liàng（ yì dù） 4807 4996 5153 qì chē（ wàn liàng） 87.5 79.7 83.4 （ zī liào lái yuán： yìn dù zhèng fǔ 2002/2003 nián dù jīng jì gài lǎn， n.a. zàn wú tǒng jì） 【 nóng yè】 2001/2002 nián dù nóng yè jí xiāng guān chǎn yè zēngchánglǜ 5.7%， chǎn zhí 30205 yì lú bǐ， zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 24.7%。 yóu yú quán nián jiàng shuǐ de shí jiān hé dì qū fēn pèi jūn yún， liáng shí chǎn liàng zēngzhǎng 6.3%， wéi 2.12 yì dūn。 liáng shí chǔ bèi mù qián yǐ dá 5000 wàn dūn。 nóng cūn rén kǒu yuē zhàn quán guó de 72％。 quán guó gēng dì miàn jī yuē １ .6 yì gōng qǐng， rén jūn 0.17 gōng qǐng。 yìn dù shì shì jiè dì yī dà chǎn nǎi guó， 2001/2002 nián dù niú nǎi chǎn liàng yuē wéi 8460 wàn dūn， rén jūn měi tiān 226 kè。 yìn yě shì shì jiè zhòng yào de chǎn mián guó hé chǎn chá guó。 jìn xiē nián zhù yào nóng fù chǎn pǐn chǎn liàng rú xià（ dān wèi： wàn dūn）： 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 liáng shí zǒng chǎn liàng 20890 19590 21200 dào mǐ 8950 8490 8310 xiǎo mài 7560 6870 7180 niú nǎi 7810 8100 8460 yóu liào 2070 1840 2050 gān zhè 29920 29920 30010 chá 83.5 84.8 84.7 pí mián（ wàn bāo） * 1160 970 1010 huáng má（ wàn bāo） ** 1050 1050 1160 zhù * měi bāo pí mián wéi 170 gōng jīn。 ** měi bāo huáng má wéi 180 gōng jīn。 （ zī liào lái yuán： yìn dù zhèng fǔ 2002/2003 jīng jì gài lǎn） 【 fú wù yè】 80 nián dài yǐ lái yǐ gāo yú qí tā chǎn yè de sù dù fā zhǎn。 1993-2000 nián， yìn fú wù yè shí xiàn liǎo 7.1%-10.5% de gāo sù zēngzhǎng。 2001/02 nián dù， fú wù yè bǐ shàng nián zēngzhǎng 6.5%， zǒng chǎn zhí wéi 61630 yì lú bǐ， zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 48.8%。 cóng yè rén shù 1994 nián wéi 1261.8 wàn rén， qí zhōng 85.2% wéi zhèng fǔ jī guān hé guó yíng bù mén zhí gōng。 yìn dù ruǎn jiàn zhì zào yǔ fú wù yè jìn jǐ nián lái yǐ nián jūn chāo guò 50％ de zēngchánglǜ xùn sù fā zhǎn ,2001/02 nián dù ruǎn jiàn zǒng chǎn zhí 98.6 yì měi yuán , qí zhōng chū kǒu 78 yì měi yuán。 zhèng fǔ jì huá dào 2008/2009 nián dù， yìn ruǎn jiàn chǎn zhí jiāng dá dào 870 yì měi yuán， chū kǒu 500 yì měi yuán。 【 lǚ yóu yè】 zhèng fǔ yǐ jiāng lǚ yóu yè zuò wéi shè huì xiào yì liáng hǎo de chuàng huì chǎn yè liè rù fā zhǎn zhòng diǎn， gāi chǎn yè yǐ chéng wéi quán guó dì liù dà chū kǒu chuàng huì bù mén。 1999 nián gè lèi lǚ guǎn 1229 jiā。 jìn nián lái， wài guó lǚ yóu zhě rén shù zhú nián dì zēng， lǚ yóu shōu rù bù duàn zēng jiā。 shòu 9·11 shì jiàn yǐng xiǎng， yìn dù 2001/02 nián dù de wài guó yóu kè liàng xià jiàng liǎo 10.2%， rén shù 242.3 wàn， shōu rù xià jiàng 8.1%， wéi 29.1 yì měi yuán。 zhù yào lǚ yóu diǎn yòu 'ā gé lā、 dé lǐ、 zhāi pǔ 'ěr、 chāng dí jiā 'ěr、 nà lán dá、 mài suǒ 'ěr、 guǒ 'ā、 hǎi dé lā bā、 tè lǐ fán tè láng děng。 【 jiāo tōng yùn shū】 tiě lù shì zuì dà de guó yíng bù mén， yì wéi zhù yào yùn shū shǒu duàn， zǒng cháng dù jū yà zhōu dì yī wèi， shì jiè dì sì wèi。 tiě lù bù mén shí xíng dān dú yù suàn， měi nián yǔ zhōng yāng cái zhèng yù suàn yī qǐ tí jiāo yì huì tǎo lùn tōng guò。 jìn nián lái， gōng lù yùn shū fā zhǎn jiào kuài， yǐ chéng dān liǎo quán guó huò yùn liàng de 60%， wéi shì jiè zuì dà de gōng lù wǎng zhī yī。 hǎi yùn néng lì jū shì jiè dì 18 wèi。 tiě lù： 2001/2002 nián dù tiě lù xiàn zǒng cháng 6.31 wàn gōng lǐ， qí zhōng diàn qì huà tiě lù 1.57 wàn gōng lǐ， yuē zhàn tiě lù zǒng cháng de 25％； 2001/2002 nián dù kè yùn liàng 4930 yì rén gōng lǐ， huò yùn liàng wéi 3332 yì dūn gōng lǐ， tiě lù yùn shū zǒng shōu rù 3783.7 yì lú bǐ， bǐ shàng nián zēngzhǎng 8..5%。 gōng lù： 2001/02 nián dù zǒng cháng yuē 330 wàn gōng lǐ， qí zhōng guó jiā jí lù 5.8 wàn gōng lǐ。 1999/2000 nián dù dēng jì de gè zhǒng jī dòng chē liàng yuē 4839 wàn liàng， qí zhōng kè chē 55.9 wàn liàng， huò chē 268.1 wàn liàng， gōng lù yùn shū zǒng shōu rù wéi 3393.3 yì lú bǐ。 mù qián， gōng lù chéng dān zhe quán guó 80% de kè yùn liàng hé 60% de huò yùn liàng， quán guó rì píng jūn kè yùn liàng yú 6000 wàn rén cì。 shuǐ yùn： yìn yòu gǎng kǒu gòng yuē 200 gè， qí zhōng 12 gè dà gǎng kǒu hé 184 gè zhōng xiǎo gǎng kǒu。 nèi lù kě háng xíng hé dào zǒng cháng yuē 1.4 wàn gōng lǐ， shí jì shǐ yòng de bù zú 30%。 yìn yòu 83 jiā hǎi yùn gōng sī， qí zhōng 19 jiā chéng dān yuǎn yáng yùn shū yè wù， 49 jiā chéng dān jìn hǎi yùn shū yè wù， qí yú liǎng jiān。 dào 2002 nián 3 yuè， yìn quán guó shuǐ yùn zǒng néng lì wéi 3.44 yì dūn， 2001/2002 nián dù yìn shuǐ yùn huò yùn zǒng liàng wéi 2.88 yì dūn。 yìn hái zài shí · wǔ jìhuà zhōngjiàng zhù yào gǎng kǒu de zǒng huò yùn liàng tí gāo dào 4.7 yì dūn。 mèng mǎi wéi quán guó zuì dà gǎng kǒu， hǎi yùn de 1/5 hé jí zhuāng xiāng yùn shū de 1/2 jīng guò zhè lǐ； qí tā zhòng yào hǎi gǎng yòu jiā 'ěr gè dá、 mǎ dé lā sī、 kē qīn、 guǒ 'ā děng。 kōng yùn： yìn háng kōng gōng sī yòu： yìn dù guó jì háng kōng gōng sī、 yìn dù háng kōng gōng sī hé qí tā 42 jiā sī yíng háng kōng gōng sī。 2001/2002 nián dù， lǚ kè shù liàng wéi 3998.3 wàn， huò yùn liàng wéi 85.4 wàn dūn。 háng xiàn tōng dá gè dà zhōu zhù yào chéng shì。 quán guó yòu dé lǐ、 mèng mǎi、 jiā 'ěr gè dá、 mǎ dé lā sī hé tè lǐ fán tè láng wǔ gè guó jì jī chǎng； guó nèi jī chǎng 92 gè。 【 cái zhèng jīn róng】 zhōng yāng hé dì fāng cái zhèng fēn lì， yù suàn yòu lián bāng hé bāng liǎng jí。 měi nián 4 yuè 1 rì zhì cì nián 3 yuè 31 rì wéi yī gè cái zhèng nián dù。 duō nián lái tuī xíng chì zì yù suàn yǐ cì jī jīng jì fā zhǎn， zhōng yāng hé bāng jí dì fāng zhài wù lěi jī zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 80%， páng dà de chì zì yǐ chéng wéi jīng jì zhōng zhù yào de bù wěn dìng yīn sù。 2001/2002 nián dù zhèng fǔ cái zhèng chì zì xiāng dāng yú guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 10%。 wéi jiě jué chì zì wèn tí， yìn zhèng fǔ tí jiāo liǎo cái zhèng zé rèn yǔ yù suàn guǎn lǐ fǎ 'àn， mù biāo shì dào 2006 nián jiāng zhōng yāng zhèng fǔ chì zì xuē jiǎn dào zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 2%， bìng zài 2011 nián qián dà fú jiàng dī zhèng fǔ zhài wù guī mó。 jìn nián zhōng yāng hé dì fāng cái zhèng zhuàng kuàng rú xià（ dān wèi： yì lú bǐ）： 99/2000 2000/01 2001/02 zǒng shōu rù 54261.6 59796.3 67099.1 zǒng zhī chū 54581.3 59561.7 67812.9 cái zhèng chì zì -18482.6 -19985.3 -22871.6 （ zī liào lái yuán： yìn dù zhèng fǔ 2002/2003 jīng jì gài lǎn） jié zhì 2002 nián 12 yuè， yìn wài huì chǔ bèi（ bāo kuò huáng jīn chǔ bèi hé tè bié tí kuǎn quán） wéi 704 yì měi yuán。 dào 2001 nián 9 yuè， wài zhài wéi 996.1 yì měi yuán， zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 21%， qí zhōng duǎn qī zhài wù zhàn zǒng zhài wù de bǐ zhòng cóng 1991 nián 3 yuè de 10.2% jiàng dào 2001 nián 9 yuè de 2.8%。 【 duì wài mào yì】 jìn nián lái， yóu yú jìn kǒu zēng jiā、 chū kǒu bù zhèn， mào yì chì zì rì yì yán zhòng， chéng wéi guó jì shōu zhī shī héng de zhù yào yuán yīn。 jìn jǐ nián wài mào qíng kuàng rú xià（ dān wèi： bǎi wàn měi yuán）： 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 jìn kǒu 'é 55383 59264 57618 chū kǒu 'é 37542 44894 44915 chā é -17841 -14370 -12703 （ zī liào lái yuán： yìn dù zhèng fǔ 2002/2003 yìn dù jīng jì gài lǎn） 2001/02 nián dù， yìn chū kǒu zēngzhǎng 0.8%， jìn kǒu xià jiàng 0.2%, mào yì nì chā yǔ fēi mào yì yíng yú jī běn xiāng dǐ， jīng cháng zhàng hù dà tǐ píng héng。 2002 nián 1 yuè， yìn zhèng fǔ gōng bù 2002-2007 nián zhōng qī chū kǒu zhàn lüè， jìhuà yǐ xià liè bù mén wéi zhòng diǎn jiāng nián chū kǒu zǒng 'é zēng jiā dào 800 yì měi yuán： gōng chéng、 jī diàn、 diàn zǐ、 fǎng zhì、 bǎo shí hé shǒu shì、 huà gōng、 nóng yè、 pí gé hé xié lèi。 gāi nián dù yìn zhù yào jìn kǒu shāng pǐn wéi： zhēn zhū、 bǎo shí、 diàn zǐ chǎn pǐn、 jīn yín、 huà gōng chǎn pǐn、 shí yóu jí qí zhì pǐn、 rán liào、 zī běn huò wù、 huà féi、 gāng tiě、 zào zhǐ yuán liào、 zhǐ zhāng děng。 zhù yào chū kǒu shāng pǐn wéi： zhū bǎo zhì pǐn、 mián shā jí mián zhì pǐn、 huà gōng zhì pǐn、 jī xiè jí wǔ jīn zhì pǐn、 shí yóu zhì pǐn、 pí gé jí qí zhì pǐn、 nóng yè jí xiāng guān bàn chéng pǐn、 hǎi chǎn pǐn、 tiě kuàng shā jí kuàng chǎn pǐn děng。 zhù yào jìn chū kǒu fāng xiàng shì 'ōu méng（ bǐ lì shí、 fǎ guó、 dé guó、 hé lán、 yīng guó）、 běi měi dì qū（ jiā ná dà、 měi guó） jí 'ào dà lì yà hé rì běn。 【 wài guó zī běn】 yìn dù cóng 1991 nián qǐ shí xíng jī jí xī yǐn wài zī de xīn zhèng cè。 1991 nián zhì 2000 nián , wài guó zhí jiē tóu zī xié yì jīn 'é dá 639 yì měi yuán。 2001/2002 nián dù， yìn xī shōu wài guó tóu zī 52.8 yì měi yuán， qí zhōng zhí jiē tóu zī 39 yì měi yuán。 dào 2002 nián 10 yuè， duì yìn tóu zī zuì duō de guó jiā fēn bié shì： máo lǐ qiú sī、 měi、 rì、 yīng、 dé、 hé lán、 hán、 fǎ、 yì hé xīn jiā pō。 xī yǐn wài zī duō de hángyè shì néng yuán、 tōng xùn、 diàn zǐ shè bèi、 yùn shū yè、 fú wù yè、 huà gōng、 lǚ guǎn hé lǚ yóu、 fǎng zhì yè děng。 【 wài guó yuán zhù】 yìn shì shì jiè shàng zhù yào de shòu yuán guó zhī yī。 2001/2002 nián dù huò dài kuǎn jí juān zèng zǒng 'é wéi 2509.5 yì lú bǐ， yuē wéi 51.5 yì měi yuán， shí jì lì yòng wài yuán 1755.9 yì lú bǐ， yuē wéi 36 yì měi yuán。 jìn nián qǔ dé wài yuán qíng kuàng rú xià（ dān wèi： yì lú bǐ）： 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 guó jì fù xīng kāi fā yínháng 36.78 720.85 803.70 guó jì kāi fā xié huì 352.69 413.53 444.00 rì běn 374.23 272.98 205.80 yà zhōu kāi fā yínháng 216.30 526.50 672.50 dé guó 41.00 38.60 41.20 yīng guó 204.10 47.40 194.40 měi guó 7.45 8.11 12.20 hé lán 13.37 7.03 33.2 （ zī liào lái yuán： yìn dù zhèng fǔ 2002/2003 nián dù jīng jì gài lǎn） 【 rén mín shēng huó】 2001/2002 nián dù yìn dù rén jūn shōu rù wéi 378 měi yuán。 jù yìn dù guān fāng gōng bù zī liào， 1999/2000 nián dù yìn shēng huó zài pín kùn xiàn yǐ xià de rén kǒu wéi 2.6 yì， zhàn yìn zǒng rén kǒu de 26.1％， qí zhōng 75% de pín kùn rén kǒu shēng huó zài nóng cūn， rén shù 1.93 yì。 yìn dù lì jiè zhèng fǔ jiāng xiāo chú pín kùn zuò wéi jīng jì fā zhǎn de shǒu yào rèn wù zhī yī， shí · wǔ jìhuà zhōng zhì dìng liǎo jiǎn shǎo pín kùn rén kǒu de mù biāo， 2007 nián yào jiāng pín kùn rén kǒu shù liàng jiǎn shǎo dào 2.2 yì， zhàn zǒng rén kǒu de 19.3%。 1999/2000 nián dù yìn dù shī yè shuài wéi 7.32%。 2000/01 nián dù， yìn xiāo fèi jià gé zhǐ shù shàng shēng 5.2％。 dào 2000 nián， quán guó yòu gè lèi zhěn liáo suǒ hé yī yuàn 4.3 wàn jiā， dēng jì xíng yī rén yuán 50.39 wàn rén， dēng jì hù shì 73.7 wàn rén。 2000 nián， rén kǒu yù qī shòu mìng wéi 65 suì， rén kǒu chū shēng shuài 25.8 ‰， sǐ wáng shuài 8.5‰。 guó jiā jūn shì yìn jūn qián shēn wéi yīng guó zhí mín zhù yì zhě de gù yōng jūn。 1947 nián yìn bā fēn zhì hòu shǐ jiàn fēn lì de sān jūn。 1978 nián chuàng jiàn dú lì de hǎi 'àn jǐng wèi duì。 zǒng tǒng shì míng yì shàng de wǔ zhuāng lì liàng tǒng shuài， nèi gé wéi zuì gāo jūn shì jué cè jī gòu。 guó fáng bù fù zé bù duì de zhǐ huī、 guǎn lǐ hé xié diào。 gè jūn zhǒng sī lìng bù fù zé nǐ dìng、 shí shī zuò zhàn jìhuà， zhǐ huī zuò zhàn xíng dòng。 xiàn lù jūn cān móu zhǎngshàng jiāng S. pān dé mǎ nà bā hàn（ S.Padmanabhan）， kōng jūn cān móu zhǎngshàng jiāng S. kè lǐ xī nà sī wǎ mǐ (S.Krishnaswamy)， hǎi jūn cān móu zhǎngshàng jiāng M. xīn gé（ M.Singh）。 shí xíng mù bīng zhì。 lù、 hǎi、 kōng sān jūn zǒng bīng lì wéi 127 wàn， jū shì jiè dì sì wèi。 qí zhōng lù jūn 103.5 wàn， fēn dōng、 nán、 xī、 běi hé zhōng yāng wǔ dà jūn qū， yōng yòu zhōng chéng dǎo dàn， yǐ jù bèi hé néng lì。 hǎi jūn 7 wàn， fēn wéi xī、 dōng 'èr zhī jiàn duì hé nán bù kē qīn xùn liàn jī dì； mèng mǎi hé wéi shā kǎ pà tè nán wéi zuì dà de hǎi jūn jī dì， fēn bié shì xī、 dōng jiàn duì sī lìng bù suǒ zài dì。 1999 nián xīn chéng lì yuǎn dōng jūn qū， sī lìng bù shè zài bù lāi 'ěr gǎng。 kōng jūn 17 wàn， fēn chéng xī、 xī nán、 dōng、 nán hé zhōng yāng wǔ gè jūn qū， yōng yòu mǐ gé 29、 huàn yǐng 2000 děng xiān jìn zuò zhàn fēi jī。 hǎi 'àn jǐng wèi duì fēn xī 'àn、 dōng 'àn、 ān dá màn hé ní kē bā sān gè dà duì， zhǐ huī bù fēn shè yú mèng mǎi、 mǎ dé lā sī hé bù lāi 'ěr gǎng。 lìng yòu 50 duō wàn yù bèi yì jūn rén hé 100 duō wàn zhǔn jūn shì bù duì。 1998 nián 5 yuè， yǐ yìn dù rén mín dǎng wéi shǒu de lián hé zhèng fǔ jìn xíng hé shì yàn , jiān chí jiàn lì zuì dī yòu xiào hé wēi shè。 1999 nián 8 yuè 17 rì， yìn guó jiā 'ān quán gù wèn wěi yuán huì tí chū hé gòu xiǎng cǎo 'àn， tí chū yìn yào jiàn lì lù jī、 kōng jī、 hǎi jī sān wèi yī tǐ de zhàn lüè hé lì liàng， qiáng diào yìn jiāng fèng xíng yōng yòu kě xìn de zuì dī xiàn dù de hé wēi shè lì de lǐ lùn， chēng yìn yōng yòu hé wǔ qì de gēn běn mùdì shì wèile zǔ zhǐ rèn hé guó jiā huò shí tǐ duì yìn jí qí bù duì shǐ yòng hé wēi xié shǐ yòng hé wǔ qì， chéng nuò bù shǒu xiān shǐ yòng hé wǔ qì yǐ jí bù duì wú hé guó jiā dòng yòng hé wǔ qì。 2003 nián 1 yuè， yìn zhèng shì quán miàn chū tái hé zhèng cè kuàng jià， chéng lì hé zhǐ huī jī gòu jí qí zhí shǔ zhàn lüè bù duì sī lìng bù， hé zhǐ huī jī gòu yóu zǒng lǐ、 guó fáng、 nèi zhèng、 wài jiāo hé cái zhèng bù cháng、 gè jūn zhǒng cān móu cháng děng zǔ chéng de zhèng zhì wěi yuán huì kòng zhì。 2001/2002 nián dù guó fáng yù suàn kāi zhī wéi 6200 yì lú bǐ（ yuē hé 132 yì měi yuán）， bǐ shàng nián zēngzhǎng 13.8％。 wén huà jiào yù 【 wén huà】 yìn dù yǐ zhī de lì shǐ kě yǐ zhuī sù dào gōng yuán qián 2000 nián， yǐ yǎ lì 'ān rén dì yī cì zài yìn dù běi bù dìng jū de yí mín làng cháo wéi kāi shǐ。 hěn kě néng zài yí mín hé dāng dì jū mín zhī jiān fā shēng liǎo jī liè chōng tū。 dàn xiǎn rán shì wěi dà de yìn dù de tóng huà jīng shén hé rěn nài jīng shén qǔ shèng， zhè zhǒng jīng shén yī zhí chí xù dào xiàn zài。 zài yǐ hòu de yī qiān nián jiān yǎ lì 'ān rén biàn bù zhěng gè yìn dù， chuàng zào liǎo dà bù fēn zǎo qī de gǔ diǎn fàn yǔ wén xiàn， rú《 fàn jīng》、《 fèi tuó jīng》、《 ào yì shū》 hé liǎng dà shǐ shī《 luó mó yǎn nà》 hé《 mó hē pó luó duō》。 yìn dù dào chù shì wú shù lì shǐ jì niàn bēi。 yī xiē bǎo cún fó zǔ gǔ huī de gǔ lǎo fó tǎ、 kè yòu fǎ lìng de 'ā yù wáng zhù、 tóng biǎn hé shí bēi sàn bù zài zhěng gè cì dà lù。 mǎ hā lā shī tè lā bāng děng dì yòu diāo kè jīng měi de 'ā zhān tǎ shí kū、 ài luó lā shí kū、 ài lè fán tǎ shí kū， dōng nán xī běi yòu bǎo cún wán hǎo de bù tóng jiàn zhù fēng gé de xióng wěi de miào yǔ， lā jiā sī tǎn de chéng bǎo hé zhuāng yuán、 dé lǐ de zhuàng lì de hóng bǎo、 lì shǐ jì niàn bēi、 zhuàng guān de fǎ tè pǔ 'ěr xī kè lǐ wáng gōng、 hóng wěi měi lì de tài jī líng …… shǔshuō bù wán de míng shèng gǔ jì。 yóu kè yī dàn bèi xī yǐn dào shén huà bān de yìn dù lái， huì ràng tā qiān yǎn wàn yǎn kàn bù gòu。 xiàn dài yìn dù shì yī gè chōng mǎn huó lì de guó jiā， jiù tòu míng de mín zhù xìng 'ér yán， tā yòu shì shì jiè shàng zuì dà de guó jiā， yīnggāi wèicǐ gǎn dào zì háo。 èr zhàn yǐ hòu dú lì de dì sān shì jiè guó jiā zhōng， yòu hěn shǎo de guó jiā néng xiàng yìn dù nà yàng zhè me zhōng shí dì bǎo hù qí mín zhù zhì dù。 bù kě huì yán， yìn dù chéng zhèn hái yòu qióng rén， hái yòu pín mín kū。 dàn suí zhe yìn dù de kē xué hé gōng yè jì shù de fā zhǎn， rén mín de shēng huó shuǐ píng huì suí zhī tí gāo， dào liǎo 21 shì jì， yī dìng huì dá dào zhōng děng shēng huó shuǐ píng。 yìn dù de xīn xīng de xìn xī jì shù gōng chéng rén yuán hé xìn xī qǐ yè yíng dé liǎo shì jiè de zūn jìng。 qí guó mín shēng chǎn zǒng zhí zēngchánglǜ jǐn cì yú zhōng guó。 yìn dù rén mín jué xīn zài xiàn dài shì jiè jué qǐ， yìn dù mài bó suí zhe rén mín de qīng chūn bān de huó lì yuè dòng。 yìn dù de yǔ yán tóng yàng duō yàng huà。 yìn dù yòu dà yuē 2000 zhǒng， qí zhōng 55 zhǒng yòu zì jǐ de wén zì hé wén xué。 yòu gè zì jù dà de wén xué bǎo kù de fā zhǎn wán shàn de 19 zhǒng yǔ yán bèi chéng rèn wéi yìn dù de guān fāng yǔ yán。 yìn dù de měi gè zōng jiào zài cì dà lù dōuyòu tā de xìn tú。 yìn dù de xìn yǎng yìn dù de rén zhàn jué dà duō shù， wéi 85%， qí cì wéi mù sī lín、 jī dū jiào、 fó jiào、 yóu tài jiào、 bài huǒ jiào、 qí nà jiào děng， suǒ yòu bù tóng zōng jiào hé xié xiāng chù。 zhěng gè yìn dù cì dà lù biàn bù wú shù de piào liàng de miào yǔ、 xióng wěi de jiào táng、 hóng dà de qīng zhēn sì、 xiāng huǒ wàng shèng de fó jiào miào、 yóu tài jiào táng hé bài huǒ jiào sì yuàn。 yìn dù xī bù shāng yè tè dà dū shì mèng mǎi kě yǐ shuō shì yìn dù zōng jiào、 zhǒng zú、 yǔ yán duō yàng xìng de yī gè suō yǐng。 shì nèi chú liǎo yǐ shàng gè jiào de miào、 táng wài， hái yòu yòu zhù míng de yà měi ní yà jiào táng、 shén dào jiào miào hé dà tóng jiào miào děng。 【 jiào yù】 shí xíng 12 nián yī guàn zhì zhōng xiǎo xué jiào yù。 gāo děng jiào yù gòng 8 nián， bāo kuò 3 nián xué shì kè chéng、 2 nián shuò shì kè chéng hé 3 nián bó shì kè chéng。 cǐ wài hái yòu gè lèi zhí yè jì shù jiào yù、 chéng rén jiào yù děng fēi zhèng guī jiào yù。 2001/2002 nián dù， yìn zhèng fǔ jiào yù jīng fèi zhàn guó mín shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de 3.99%， chéng rén shí zì shuài wéi 65.38%。 2000/01 nián dù zhōng xiǎo xué rù xué shuài 81.6%， dàn xiǎo xué zhuì xué shuài wéi 40.7%， chū zhōng zhuì xué shuài wéi 53.7%。 quán guó xiàn yòu 254 suǒ zōng hé xìng dà xué， zhù míng de yòu dé lǐ dà xué、 ní hè lǔ dà xué、 jiā 'ěr gè dá dà xué děng。 zhì 2000/01 nián dù， gè jí xué xiào、 xué shēng hé jiào shī qíng kuàng rú xià： xué xiào（ wàn suǒ） zài xiào rén shù（ wàn rén） gāo děng yuàn xiào 1.04 606* gāo jí zhōng xué 12.6 2880 chū jí zhōng xué 20.6 4280 xiǎo xué 63.87 11380 * wéi 1996 nián shù zì。 （ zī liào lái yuán： yìn dù zhèng fǔ 2002/2003 nián dù jīng jì gài lǎn） 【 xīn wén chū bǎn】 yìn bào kān dà duō shǔ sī rén hé cái tuán suǒ yòu。 dào 1993 nián dǐ， quán guó gòng yòu 96 zhǒng wén zì de bào kān 33612 zhǒng， zǒng fā xíng liàng wéi 6761.1 wàn fèn。 yìn dì wén hé yīng wén bào kān fēn bié zhàn zǒng shù de 37% hé 16%。 bào kān zhōng， zuì dà de sān jiā rì bào yǐ cì wéi《 yìn dù shí bào》、《 mǎ lā yǎ lā yú lè bào》 hé《 gǔ jí lā tè xīn wén》。 zhù yào yìn dì wén bào zhǐ yòu《 bàng zhē pǔ zhī shī bào》、《 jīn tiān rì bào》、《 yìn dù sī tǎn bào》 děng； zhù yào yīng wén bào zhǐ yòu《 yìn dù sī tǎn shí bào》、《 zhèng zhì jiā bào》、《 yìn dù jiào tú bào》、《 yìn dù kuài bào》 děng。 zhù yào xīn wén jī gòu hé tōng xùn shè yòu：（１） xīn wén fā bù shǔ： xiāng dāng yú zhèng fǔ zhōng yāng tōng xùn shè， yōng yòu 1100 duō míng guó nèi hé 180 duō míng guó wài tè pài jì zhě， diàn chuán wǎng fù gài quán guó gè dì， xiàng 8000 yú jiā xīn wén dān wèi gōng gǎo。 shè yòu 8 gè dì qū zǒng fēn shè hé 27 gè fēn shè。（２） yìn dù bào yè tuō lā sī： yìn zuì dà tōng xùn shè， bàn guān fāng xìng zhì。 chéng lì yú 1947 nián 8 yuè， hòu jiān bìng yìn lián hé tōng xùn shè hé lù tòu shè yìn dù zhī shè， yú 1949 nián yuán dàn kāi yè。 xiàn shè 136 gè guó nèi fēn shè hé 11 gè hǎi wài fēn shè， yuán gōng 1000 duō míng， hǎi wài jì zhě 30 duō míng。 yīng wén rì fā gǎo liàng chāo guò 10 wàn zì。 zài běi jīng pài zhù jì zhě。（ ３） yìn dù lián hé xīn wén shè： yìn dì 'èr dà tōng xùn shè， xì bào yè tóng rén de hé gǔ qǐ yè。 1959 nián dēng jì chéng lì。 xiàn yòu fēn shè 100 duō gè。 mù qián xiàng sì gè hǎi wān guó jiā jí xīn jiā pō、 máo lǐ qiú sī tí gōng xīn wén fú wù， zài dí bài、 huá shèng dùn hé xīn jiā pō shè yòu fēn shè， xiàng 22 gè guó jiā pài zhù liǎo jì zhě。（４） yìn dù sī tǎn xīn wén shè： sī yíng， zhù yào biān fā yìn dì wén、 mǎ lā dì wén、 gǔ jí lā tè wén hé ní bó 'ěr wén de xīn wén。 quán yìn guǎng bō diàn tái lì shǔ zhèng fǔ xīn wén guǎng bō bù， guǎng bō wǎng fù gài quán guó rén kǒu 95%。 duì nèi shǐ yòng 23 zhǒng yǔ yán bō yīn， rì bō yīn 75 xiǎo shí 15 fēn zhōng。 yōng yòu 100 duō míng guó nèi jì zhě， xiàng 7 gè guó jiā pài yòu cháng zhù jì zhě。 quán yìn diàn shì tái yú 1959 nián 9 yuè shì bō， 1976 nián tuō lí quán yìn guǎng bō diàn tái chéng wéi dú lì jī gòu， lì shǔ xīn wén guǎng bō bù。 quán guó xiàn yòu 18 jiā diàn shì tái， 6 gè bāng kāi tōng liǎo wèi xīng diàn shì jiē shōu。 diàn shì wǎng fù gài quán guó rén kǒu de 86%。 duì wài guān xì yìn wéi bù jié méng yùn dòng chuàng shǐ guó zhī yī， lì jiè zhèng fǔ jūn qiáng diào bù jié méng shì qí wài jiāo zhèng cè de jī chǔ， nǔ lì yǔ suǒ yòu guó jiā fā zhǎn guān xì， lì zhēng zài dì qū hé guó jì shì wù zhōng fā huī zhòng yào zuò yòng。 lěng zhàn jié shù hòu， yìn zhèng fǔ tiáozhěng liǎo guò qù cháng qī fèng xíng de qīng xiàng sū lián de dà guó píng héng zhèng cè， tuī xíng quán fāng wèi wù shí wài jiāo， chuàng zào yòu lì yú zì shēn fā zhǎn de chí jiǔ hé píng wěn dìng de dì qū huán jìng。 jìn nián lái， suí zhe zōng hé guó lì bù duàn zēng qiáng， yìn jiā kuài tuī jìn dà guó wài jiāo zhàn lüè。 qiáng diào wài jiāo wéi jīng mào fú wù， zài bǎo chí yǔ 'é luó sī jí qí tā dú lián tǐ guó jiā guān xì de tóng shí， dà lì fā zhǎn yǔ měi、 rì、 ōu děng fā dá guó jiā de guān xì， yóu qí shì jīng mào kē jì hé zuò， xī shōu zī jīn hé jì shù。 yǔ dōng méng jí yà tài dì qū guó jiā de guān xì fā zhǎn xùn sù， 1996 nián zhèng shì chéng wéi dōng méng quán miàn duì huà guó bìng cān jiā dōng méng dì qū lùn tán； jī jí yào qiú jiā rù yà tài jīng hé zǔ zhì gōng zuò zǔ hé yà 'ōu huì yì； 1997 nián cān jiā“ mèng yìn miǎn sī tài jīng jì hé zuò zǔ zhì”； 2000 nián 11 yuè yǔ tài、 miǎn、 yuè、 lǎo、 jiǎn gòng tóng chéng lì“ méi gōng hé － héng hé hé zuò jìhuà”。 1997 nián chàng dǎo jiàn lì liǎo huán yìn dù yáng qū yù hé zuò lián méng。 zhòng shì néng yuán 'ān quán， zhú bù tuò zhǎn tóng hǎi wān、 zhōng yà děng néng yuán gōng yìng guó de jiāo wǎng yǔ hé zuò。 dào 1999 nián 7 yuè， tóng 163 gè guó jiā yòu wài jiāo guān xì。 yìn zhù zhāng zài hé píng gòng chù wǔ xiàng yuán zé jí lián hé guó zōng zhǐ hé yuán zé de jī chǔ shàng jiàn lì gōng zhèng hé lǐ、 kǎo lǜ dào suǒ yòu guó jiā lì yì bìng néng wéi suǒ yòu rén jiē shòu de guó jì zhèng zhì xīn zhì xù， yào qiú jìn yī bù jiā qiáng nán nán hé zuò hé nán běi duì huà， hūyù gè guó gòng tóng chuàng zào yī gè yòu lì yú dì sān shì jiè fā zhǎn de gōng zhèng hé lǐ de xīn jīng jì zhì xù。 jiàn yì lì jí kuò dà 'ān lǐ huì， yǐ zēng jiā qí dài biǎo xìng， shí xiàn jué cè mín zhù huà， tí gāo gōng zuò xiàolǜ。 1992 nián lián dà qī jiān zhèng shì xiàng dà huì tí chū chéng wéi 'ān lǐ huì cháng rèn lǐ shì guó de yào qiú， qiáng liè fǎn duì měi děng xī fāng guó jiā tí yì ràng dé guó hé rì běn zì dòng chéng wéi 'ān lǐ huì cháng rèn lǐ shì guó， yào qiú jīng guò dì qū xié shāng yī zhì chéng xù tǎo lùn fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā chéng wéi cháng rèn lǐ shì guó de wèn tí， yào qiú lián hé guó xiān jiù jìn rù 'ān lǐ huì de zī gé dá chéng yī zhì， rán hòu jué dìng kuò dà 'ān lǐ huì de fāng 'àn， jī jí cān jiā lián hé guó wéi hé xíng dòng。 1998 nián 5 yuè， yǐ yìn dù rén mín dǎng wéi shǒu de lián hé zhèng fǔ jìn xíng hé shì yàn , jiān chí jiàn lì“ zuì dī yòu xiào hé wēi shè”。 1999 nián 8 yuè 17 rì， yìn guó jiā 'ān quán gù wèn wěi yuán huì tí chū“ hé gòu xiǎng cǎo 'àn”， qiáng diào yìn jiāng fèng xíng yōng yòu kě xìn de zuì dī xiàn dù de hé wēi shè lì de lǐ lùn， chēng yìn yōng yòu hé wǔ qì de gēn běn mùdì shì wèile zǔ zhǐ rèn hé guó jiā huò shí tǐ duì yìn jí qí bù duì shǐ yòng hé wēi xié shǐ yòng hé wǔ qì， chéng nuò bù shǒu xiān shǐ yòng hé wǔ qì yǐ jí bù duì wú hé guó jiā dòng yòng hé wǔ qì。 zài rén quán wèn tí shàng， zhù zhāng tuī jìn rén quán yìng kǎo lǜ gè guó de jù tǐ qíng kuàng， rèn wéi zuì gēn běn de rén quán shì shēng cún de quán lì； duì fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā lái shuō， fā zhǎn wèn tí yōu yú mín zhù hé rén quán， fǎn duì jiāng rén quán wèn tí zhèng zhì huà， fǎn duì lì yòng rén quán gān shè tā guó nèi zhèng， cóng 'ér sǔn hài bié guó de zhù quán hé tǒng yī。 zhòng shì quán qiú huán jìng bǎo hù wèn tí， rèn wéi huán jìng wèn tí zhèng chéng wéi guó jì shàng zuì lìng rén guān zhù de wèn tí， jiě jué zhè yī wèn tí yìng yǔ fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā de fā zhǎn yào qiú xiāng lián xì， huán bǎo de zhù yào zé rèn yìng yóu fā dá guó jiā chéng dān， jiàn yì fā dá guó jiā hé fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā lián hé cóng shì yán jiū hé kāi fā lái jiě jué huán jìng wèn tí。 guān zhù 'ā fù hàn jú shì， zhī chí wéi hù 'ā de dú lì、 zhù quán yǔ lǐng tǔ wán zhěng， fǎn duì wài guó gān shè 'ā nèi zhèng。 zhī chí 'ā lā bó rén mín de zhèng yì dǒu zhēng， rèn wéi zhōng dōng wèn tí de guān jiàn shì bā lè sī tǎn wèn tí， jìn nián lái， yǔ yǐ sè liè hé bā lè sī tǎn děng 'ā lā bó guó jiā de guān xì dōuyòu fā zhǎn。 dào 1999 nián 7 yuè， tóng 163 gè guó jiā yòu wài jiāo guān xì。 2001 nián yìn wài jiāo huó yuè， jiā sù tuī jìn quán fāng wèi dà guó wài jiāo zhàn lüè。 dà guó guān jìshàng， yìn yǔ 'é、 měi、 yīng děng guó xiān hòu shí xiàn gāo céng hù fǎng。 cǐ wài， jīn nián dào yìn fǎng wèn de hái yòu lián hé guó mì shū cháng 'ān nán、 dé guó zǒng lǐ shī luó dé、 rì běn qián shǒuxiàng sēn xǐ lǎng、 fǎ guó wài cháng wéi dé lǐ nà、 měnggǔ zǒng tǒng bā gā bān dí、 xī là zǒng lǐ xī mǐ dí sī děng fǎng yìn。 zài dōng méng fāng xiàng， yìn dà lì tuī xíng“ dōng xiàng zhèng cè”， nián nèi， wǎ jié pà yī zǒng lǐ xiān hòu fǎng wèn liǎo yuè nán、 yìn ní、 mǎ lái xī yà。 2002 nián yìn jì xù tuī jìn quán fāng wèi dà guó wài jiāo zhàn lüè。 yìn jī jí tuī dòng yǔ měi guó de xīn xíng huǒ bàn guān xì， qiáng huà tóng 'é luó sī de zhàn lüè huǒ bàn guān xì， jì xù gǎi shàn yǔ zhōng guó de guān xì， jī jí fā zhǎn tóng dōng méng guān xì， bìng gǎi shàn nán yà zhōu biān guó jiā de guān xì。 9·11 shì jiàn hòu， yìn bā guān xì wéi rào yìn yào qiú bā tíng zhǐ kuà jiè kǒng bù huó dòng chí xù jǐn zhāng。 2002 nián， yìn bā zài biān jiè jí jié zhòng bīng duì zhì。 zài guó jì shè huì de jī jí wò xuán xià， 10 yuè yìn bā kāi shǐ fēn jiē duàn chè jūn， liǎng guó guān xì chū xiàn huǎn hé jì xiàng， dàn shuāng fāng réng wèi huī fù hé tán。 yìn guān zhù 'ā fù hàn jú shì， zhī chí wéi hù 'ā de dú lì、 zhù quán yǔ lǐng tǔ wán zhěng， fǎn duì wài guó gān shè 'ā nèi zhèng， jī jí cānyù 'ā zhàn hòu chóngjiàn gōng zuò。 zhī chí 'ā lā bó rén mín de zhèng yì dǒu zhēng， rèn wéi zhōng dōng wèn tí de guān jiàn shì bā lè sī tǎn wèn tí， jìn nián lái， yǔ yǐ sè liè hé bā lè sī tǎn děng 'ā lā bó guó jiā de guān xì dōuyòu fā zhǎn。 【 tóng wǒ guó de guān xì】 1950 nián 4 yuè 1 rì zhōng yìn jiàn jiāo。 1959 nián xīzàng pàn luàn hòu， zhōng yìn guān xì 'è huà。 1962 nián 10 yuè， zhōng yìn biān jìng fā shēng dà guī mó wǔ zhuāng chōng tū。 1976 nián shuāng fāng huī fù hù pài dà shǐ hòu， liǎng guó guān xì zhú bù gǎi shàn。 1988 nián、 1992 nián、 1993 nián、 1994 nián yìn dù zǒng lǐ lā jí fū · gān dì、 zǒng tǒng wén kǎ tǎ lā màn、 zǒng lǐ lā 'ào、 fù zǒng tǒng nà lā yà nán xiān hòu fǎng huá。 1991 nián、 1993 nián、 1994 nián、 1995 nián、 1996 nián lǐ péng zǒng lǐ、 quán guó zhèng xié zhù xí lǐ ruì huán、 qián qí chēn fù zǒng lǐ jiān wài cháng、 qiáo shí wěi yuán cháng、 jiāng zé mín zhù xí fēn bié fǎng wèn liǎo yìn dù。 1998 nián， yìn dù yǐ“ zhōng guó wēi xié” wéi jiè kǒu jìn xíng hé shì yàn， shǐ zhōng yìn guān xì yán zhòng shòu cuò。 jīng wǒ fǎn fù zuò gōng zuò hòu， yìn zhèng fǔ lǐng dǎo rén duō cì biǎo shì yuàn yì xún qiú fā zhǎn duì huá guān xì。 1999 nián， yìn dù wài cháng jiǎ sī wàng tè · xīn gé fǎng huá , shuāng fāng què rèn， zhōng yìn guān xì fā zhǎn de qián tí shì hù bù shì duì fāng wéi wēi xié， jī chǔ shì liǎng guó gòng tóng chàng dǎo de hé píng gòng chù wǔ xiàng yuán zé。 zhōng yìn guān xì yóu cǐ bù rù gǎi shàn hé fā zhǎn de jìn chéng。 liǎng guó zài zhèng zhì、 jīng mào、 kē jì、 yì huì、 jūn shì hé wén huà děng lǐng yù de jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò dé dào jiā qiáng。 2000 nián， shí féng zhōng yìn jiàn jiāo wǔ shí zhōu nián， liǎng guó guān xì dé dào jìn yī bù gǎi shàn hé fā zhǎn。 5 yuè 28 rì -6 yuè 3 rì， yìng guó jiā zhù xí jiāng zé mín yāo qǐng， yìn dù zǒng tǒng nà lā yà nán duì zhōng guó jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn。 qí tā zhòng yào jiāo wǎng yòu： 3 yuè 6-7 rì， zhōng yìn shǒu lún sī jí 'ān quán duì huà zài jīng jǔ xíng。 3 yuè 29 rì， yìng yìn dù rén mín dǎng（ BJP） yāo qǐng， zhōng gòng zhōng yāng duì wài lián luò bù bù cháng dài bǐng guó fǎng yìn。 4 yuè 28-29 rì， yáng wén chāng fù wài cháng fù yìn dù cān jiā zhōng yìn biān jiè wèn tí lián hé gōng zuò xiǎo zǔ dì 12 lún huì tán。 7 yuè 7-12 rì， yìn lián bāng yuàn fù yì cháng、 gè guó yì huì lián méng lǐ shì huì zhù xí hè bǔ dù lā nǚ shì yìng yāo duì zhōng guó jìn xíng yǒu hǎo fǎng wèn。 8 yuè 29、 31 rì， lǐ péng wěi yuán cháng zài niǔ yuē chū xí qiān nián yì cháng dà huì qī jiān， fēn bié huì jiàn liǎo yì lián lǐ shì huì zhù xí、 yìn lián bāng yuàn fù yì cháng hè bǔ dù lā nǚ shì hé yìn rén mín yuàn yì cháng bā lā yuē jí。 11 yuè 13 rì， zhōng yìn biān jiè wèn tí wài jiāo hé jūn shì zhuān jiā xiǎo zǔ dì 8 cì huì yì zài běi jīng jǔ xíng， shuāng fāng jiāo huàn liǎo miáo shù biān jìng zhōng duàn shí kòng xiàn zǒu xiàng de yàng tú， bìng jiù shuāng biān guān xì děng wèn tí jiāo huàn liǎo yì jiàn。 2002 nián， zhōng guó tóng yìn dù de guān xì jìn yī bù gǎi shàn hé fā zhǎn。 1 yuè 13-18 rì yìng yìn zǒng lǐ wǎ jié pà yī yāo qǐng， guó wù yuàn zǒng lǐ zhū róng jī duì yìn dù jìn xíng zhèng shì fǎng wèn， xiān hòu fǎng wèn liǎo 'ā gé lā、 dé lǐ、 mèng mǎi hé bān jiā luó 'ěr。 fǎng wèn qī jiān， zhū zǒng lǐ yǔ wǎ jié pà yī zǒng lǐ jǔ xíng liǎo huì tán， bìng fēn bié huì jiàn liǎo yìn zǒng tǒng nà lā yà nán、 fù zǒng tǒng jiān lián bāng yuàn yì cháng kǎn tè、 rén mín yuàn yì cháng bā lā yuē jí、 rén mín yuàn fù yì cháng hè bǔ dù lā、 fǎn duì dǎng lǐng xiù、 guó dà dǎng zhù xí suǒ ní yà · gān dì děng。 liǎng guó lǐng dǎo rén jiù shuāng biān guān xì jí gòng tóng guān xīn de dì qū、 guó jì wèn tí děng guǎng fàn jiāo huàn liǎo yì jiàn。 shuāng fāng zài cì què rèn zhōng yìn hù bù gòu chéng wēi xié， bìng jiù gòng tóng jiā qiáng jīng mào děng gè lǐng yù de hé zuò dá chéng guǎng fàn gòng shí。 shuāng fāng qiān shǔ liǎo bāo kuò lǚ yóu、 kōng jiān、 shuǐ wén、 kē jì、 zhí wù jiǎn yì děng lǐng yù de 6 gè hé zuò wén jiàn。 6 yuè 4 rì， jiāng zé mín zhù xí zài 'ā lā mù tú chū xí yà zhōu xiāng hù xié zuò yǔ xìn rèn cuò shī huì yì fēng huì qī jiān， huì jiàn liǎo yùhuì de yìn zǒng lǐ wǎ jié pà yī。 jiāng zhù xí duì jìn nián lái zhōng yìn guān xì qǔ dé de jìn zhǎn biǎo shì kěn dìng， bìng huān yíng wǎ jié pà yī zǒng lǐ fǎng huá。 jiāng zhù xí hái jiù dāng qián yìn bā jú shì chǎn shù liǎo zhōng fāng de lì chǎng， xī wàng yìn bā shuāng fāng tōng guò duì huà huǎn jiě jǐn zhāng jú shì。 zhōng yìn zhī jiān cún zài lì shǐ yí liú xià lái de biān jiè wèn tí。 zhōng yìn biān jiè quán cháng yuē 2000 gōng lǐ， fēn dōng、 zhōng、 xī sān duàn。 shuāng fāng zhēng yì qū gòng yuē 12.5 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， qí zhōng dōng duàn yuē 9 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， zhōng duàn yuē 2000 píng fāng gōng lǐ， xī duàn yuē 3.3 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ。 zuì dà de zhēng yì zài dōng duàn， yìn dù zhàn lǐng zhe dà yuē 9 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ de zhōng guó tǔ dì。 1989 nián 6 yuè zhì 2000 nián 4 yuè， zhōng yìn biān jiè wèn tí lián hé gōng zuò xiǎo zǔ gòng jǔ xíng shí 'èr lún huì tán。 1993 nián 9 yuè， shuāng fāng qiān shǔ liǎo“ guān yú zài zhōng yìn biān jìng shí jì kòng zhì xiàn dì qū bǎo chí hé píng yǔ 'ān níng de xié dìng”。 1995 nián， shuāng fāng hù chè liǎo zhù zhā zài zhōng yìn biān jiè dōng duàn wàng dōng dì qū de liǎng duì shào suǒ， jī běn jiě jué liǎo liǎng guó jūn duì guò yú jiē jìn wèn tí。 1996 nián jiāng zé mín zhù xí fǎng yìn qī jiān， liǎng guó qiān shǔ liǎo“ guān yú zài zhōng yìn biān jìng shí kòng xiàn dì qū jūn shì lǐng yù jiàn lì xìn rèn cuò shī de xié dìng”。 wéi luò shí liǎng guó dá chéng de xié dìng， shuāng fāng yú 1994 nián chéng lì liǎo zhōng yìn wài jiāo hé jūn shì zhuān jiā xiǎo zǔ。 2000 nián 11 yuè， gāi xiǎo zǔ jǔ xíng liǎo dì bā cì huì yì， shuāng fāng jiāo huàn liǎo biān jìng zhōng duàn shí kòng xiàn zǒu xiàng de yàng tú。 2001 nián 6 yuè hé 12 yuè， gāi xiǎo zǔ jǔ xíng liǎo dì jiǔ hé dì shí cì huì yì。 2002 nián 3 yuè、 6 yuè hé 10 yuè， gāi xiǎo zǔ jǔ xíng liǎo dì shí yī、 shí 'èr hé shí sān cì huì yì。 【 tóng 'é luó sī děng guó jiā de guān xì】 yìn yǔ qián sū lián yú 1947 nián jiàn jiāo。 1955 nián hòu， sū lián kāi shǐ xiàng yìn tí gōng jù 'é jīng jì、 jūn shì yuán zhù。 1971 nián， liǎng guó qiān dìng“ hé píng yǒu hǎo hé zuò tiáo yuē”， jiàn lì jí wéi mìqiè de shuāng biān guān xì。 1991 nián dǐ sū lián jiě tǐ hòu， yìn dà lì kāi zhǎn yǔ 'é luó sī hé qí tā gè dú lì guó jiā de jiē chù jiāo wǎng。 1993 nián， é luó sī zǒng tǒng yè lì qīn fǎng yìn， liǎng guó qiān dìng liǎo“ yìn 'é yǒu hǎo hé zuò tiáo yuē”、“ yìn 'é fáng wù hé zuò xié dìng” hé“ yìn 'é mào yì hé zuò yì dìng shū” děng jiǔ xiàng xié dìng。 1994 nián， é luó sī fù zǒng lǐ yóu lǐ · yà luó fū、 guó jiā dù mǎ zhù xí lǐ pǔ jīn、 zǒng lǐ qiē 'ěr nuò méi 'ěr jīn xiān hòu fǎng yìn， yìn dù zǒng lǐ lā 'ào shí xiàn fǎng 'é， cù shǐ liǎng guó zài zhèng zhì、 jīng jì、 jūn shì、 wén huà、 kē jì děng gè gè lǐng yù de guān xì xùn sù huī fù hé fā zhǎn。 1995－ 1997 nián， yìn 'é guān xì jì xù huí shēng。 1997 nián 3 yuè， yìn dù zǒng lǐ gāo dá fǎng wèn 'é luó sī。 é míng què tí chū liǎng guó jiàn lì“ zhàn lüè huǒ bàn” guān xì， chóngshēn zhī chí yìn zài kè shí mǐ 'ěr wèn tí shàng de lì chǎng hé chéng wéi lián hé guó 'ān lǐ huì cháng rèn lǐ shì guó de yào qiú。 10 yuè， yìn guó fáng bù cháng yà dá fū fǎng wèn 'é luó sī。 é chóngshēn bù xiàng bā jī sī tǎn chū shòu wǔ qì， shuāng fāng tóng yì jiāng liǎng guó cháng qī jūn shì jì shù hé zuò xié yì yòu xiào qī yán cháng zhì 2010 nián。 1998－ 1999 nián， yìn 'é guān xì quán miàn tí shēng。 1998 nián 5 yuè， yìn hé shì hòu， é fǎn duì duì yìn jìn xíng jīng jì zhì cái； 12 yuè， é zǒng lǐ pǔ lǐ mǎ kē fū duì yìn jìn xíng zhèng shì fǎng wèn。 1999 nián 5 yuè， é zǒng tǒng tè shǐ pǔ lǐ kē dé kè hé yìn wài cháng xīn gé hù fǎng， shuāng fāng zhù yào tǎo lùn liǎo kē suǒ wò wèn tí hé shuāng biān guān xì， hūyù běi yuē tíng zhǐ duì nán lián méng de jūn shì xíng dòng， chóngshēn jiāng jiàn lì zhàn lüè huǒ bàn guān xì， é fāng chéng nuò jiāng liǎng guó jūn shì hé zuò tí gāo dào zuì gāo shuǐ píng， jiāng xiàng yìn tí gōng yìn yào qiú de suǒ yòu wǔ qì。 2000 nián， yìn 'é guān xì dé dào jìn yī bù jiā qiáng。 2001 nián， yìn 'é guān xì jì xù wěn bù fā zhǎn。 2002 nián， yìn 'é guān xì jì xù dé dào gǒng gù， shuāng fāng jìn yī bù shēn huà jūn mào hé jūn jì hé zuò。 【 tóng měi guó de guān xì】 50 nián dài～ 60 nián dài， liǎng guó guān xì mìqiè。 1971 nián yìn yǔ qián sū lián qiān dìng“ hé píng yǒu hǎo hé zuò tiáo yuē” bìng fā dòng zhī jiě bā jī sī tǎn de dì sān cì yìn bā zhàn zhēng hòu， yìn měi guān xì yán zhòng shòu cuò。 80 nián dài hòu qī guān xì yòu suǒ huī fù， jìn nián lái dé dào jìn yī bù fā zhǎn。 mù qián， měi shì yìn zuì dà de mào yì huǒ bàn hé tóu zī guó。 1998 nián， yìn měi guān xì yīn yìn jìn xíng hé shì 'ér shòu dào yán zhòng yǐng xiǎng。 ěr hòu yìn wài cháng xīn gé yǔ měi fù guó wù qīng tǎ 'ěr bó tè jǔ xíng liǎo duō lún huì tán， liǎng guó guān xì yòu liǎo hěn dà de huǎn hé hé fā zhǎn。 2000 nián， yìn dù jī jí tuò zhǎn tóng měi guó guān xì。 2001 nián， yìn dù jì xù gǒng gù yìn měi guān xì fā zhǎn de shì tóu。 2002 nián， yìn jī jí tuī dòng tóng měi guó guān xì， shuāng fāng zài jūn shì lǐng yù de jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò fā zhǎn xùn sù。 【 tóng 'ōu méng guó jiā de guān xì】 2000 nián， yìn yǔ 'ōu méng jiàn lì shǒu nǎo huì wù jī zhì， chéng wéi jì zhōng guó zhī hòu dì 'èr gè yǔ 'ōu méng jiàn lì lèi sì jī zhì de fā zhǎn zhōng guó jiā。 ōu méng shì yìn zuì dà de mào yì huǒ bàn， shuāng fāng mào yì 'é zhàn yìn wài mào de jìn 30%。 2002 nián， yìn yǔ 'ōu méng guó jiā guān xì jìn yī bù fā zhǎn。 【 tóng dōng méng guó jiā de guān xì】 yìn dù tóng dōng nán yà guó jiā dì lǐ wèi zhì xiāng jìn， yòu yōu jiǔ de lì shǐ guān xì， dàn yīn yìn 1970-1990 nián jiān wài jiāo shàng tuī xíng qīn sū zhèng cè jí shuāng fāng zài jiǎn bù zhài wèn tí shàng cún zài fēn qí， yìn yǔ dōng nán yà guó jiā zhèng zhì guān xì yī bān。 jiǔ shí nián dài， yìn jī jí tuī xíng dōng xiàng zhèng cè， zhòng shì jiā qiáng tóng dōng méng gè chéng yuán guó de jiāo liú yǔ hé zuò。 1996 nián yìn chéng wéi dōng méng quán miàn duì huà huǒ bàn guó， jiā rù dōng méng dì qū lùn tán。 1997 nián cān jiā mèng yìn miǎn sī tài jīng jì hé zuò zǔ zhì； 2000 nián 11 yuè yǔ tài、 miǎn、 yuè、 lǎo、 jiǎn gòng tóng chéng lì méi gōng hé－ héng hé hé zuò jìhuà。 2002 nián， yìn dù hé dōng méng jǔ xíng shǒu cì lǐng dǎo rén huì yì， jiàn lì yìn dù -- dōng méng 10+1 duì huà jī zhì， biāo zhì shuāng fāng guān xì jìn rù yī gè xīn jiē duàn。 【 tóng bā jī sī tǎn de guān xì】 1947 nián 8 yuè yìn bā fēn zhì hòu shǐ zhōng bù mù， bìng yú 1948 nián、 1965 nián hé 1971 nián sān cì bào fā quán miàn zhàn zhēng。 1971 nián 12 yuè duàn jiāo， 1976 nián 7 yuè fù jiāo。 80 nián dài guān xì yòu suǒ huǎn hé， jìn nián lái yīn kè shí mǐ 'ěr zhēng duān yòu bù shí chū xiàn jǐn zhāng jú miàn， biān jìng jiāo huǒ shì jiàn bù duàn。 shuāng fāng lǐng dǎo rén hé guān yuán wéi gǎi shàn guān xì jìn xíng guò duō cì duì huà hé tán pàn。 1992 nián dǐ， yìn dù fā shēng 'ā yuē dí yà huǐ sì shì jiàn hòu， zài bā yǐn qǐ qiáng liè fǎn xiǎng， dǎo zhì yìn bā guān xì xià jiàng。 1993 nián， liǎng guó guān xì yīn mèng mǎi bào zhà 'àn hé hā cí lā tè bā 'ěr qīng zhēn sì děng shì jiàn jì xù 'è huà。 1994 nián， yìn bā guān xì yīn xiāng hù zhǐ zé bìng qū zhú duì fāng wài jiāo rén yuán 'ér chí xù jǐn zhāng。 1995 nián， yìn bā jiù yìn kòng kè shí mǐ 'ěr dì qū shā lā 'ěr xiè lì fū chéng de shèng líng hé qīng zhēn sì bèi huǐ shì jiàn xiāng hù zhǐ zé， shuāng biān guān xì gèng qū jǐn zhāng。 1996 nián， yìn bā guān xì shāo yòu huǎn hé， dàn wèi qǔ dé shí zhì xìng jìn zhǎn。 1997 nián， yìn bā huī fù zhèng zhì duì huà hé zǒng lǐ huì wù， liǎng guó guān xì chū xiàn huǎn hé shì tóu。 1998 nián， yìn bā xiāng jì jìn xíng hé shì yàn， zhǎn kāi hé jūn bèi jìng sài， liǎng guó guān xì jí jù jǐn zhāng。 1999 nián 2 yuè， yìn zǒng lǐ wǎ jié pà yī yǔ bā zǒng lǐ xiè lǐ fū qiān shǔ liǎo《 lā hé 'ěr xuān yán》， shuāng biān yī dù huǎn hé。 dàn 4 yuè yìn bā shì shè dǎo dàn， 5 yuè liǎng guó zài yìn kòng kè shí mǐ 'ěr dì qū kǎ jí 'ěr fā shēng jī liè chōng tū， yìn bā guān xì zài cì yóu huǎn hé qū xiàng 'è huà。 12 yuè， yī jià yìn mín háng bān bèi jié chí， yìn wài cháng zhǐ zé bā yǔ cǐ shì yòu qiān lián。 2000 nián， yìn bā guān xì chǔyú jiāng chí zhuàng tài， nián dǐ qì fēn yòu suǒ huǎn hé。 2001 nián， yìn bā guān xì yǐ“ 9·11” shì jiàn wéi jiè xiàn chéng qián huǎn hòu jǐn zhī shì。 2002 nián， yìn bā guān xì réng chǔyú jǐn zhāng duì zhì zhuàng tài。 【 tóng qí tā lín guó de guān xì】 yǔ nán yà lín guó gè fāng miàn lián xì jiào duō， dàn yě cún zài xǔ duō máo dùn。 1997 nián， yìn duì lín guó zhèng cè zuò chū zhòng dà tiáozhěng， tuī xíng“ duō yú shǎo qǔ” de“ gǔ jié lā 'ěr zhù yì” zhèng cè， yǔ gè guó guān xì pǔ biàn dé dào míng xiǎn gǎi shàn。 1998 nián， yìn dù hé shì yǐn fā nán yà dì qū hé jūn bèi jìng sài， dǎo zhì nán yà jú shì jí jù jǐn zhāng， nán yà qí tā guó jiā duì cǐ jǐn zuò jǐn shèn biǎo tài。 1999 nián， yìn bā zài kè shí mǐ 'ěr dì qū bào fāqiǎ jí 'ěr chōng tū， nán yà jú shì 'è huà， nán yà qí tā guó jiā jūn duì cǐ biǎo shì guān zhù， hūyù yìn bā liǎng guó bǎo chí kè zhì hé lěng jìng。 2002 nián， yìn yǔ nán yà qí tā lín guó guān xì jì xù yòu suǒ fā zhǎn。 fēng tǔ rén qíng 4 dà chuán tǒng yí shì zǒu biàn quán shì jiè， rù jìng suí sú shì bù biàn de zhēn lǐ。 yìn dù rén yòu 4 dà chuán tǒng yí shì， fēn bié shì chū shēng、 zàng lǐ、 hūn yīn hé pǔ jiā yí shì。 chú cǐ zhī wài， zài yìn dù lǚ xíng， nǐ yī dìng yào zhī dào yìn dù de 10 xiàng tè shū xí guàn hé 6 dà jìn jì， bǎo nǐ wán dé kāi xīn、 yī lù píng 'ān。 chū shēng zài yìn dù de chuán tǒng shàng shí fēn zhòng nán qīng nǚ， yīn wéi nǚ 'ér jié hūn shí， fù mǔ bì xū zhǔn bèi yī bǐ fēng fù de jià zhuāng， rú guǒ méi yòu jià zhuāng， nǚ 'ér shì jià bù chū qù de。 ér zhè duì yú pín qióng rén jiā 'ér yán， què shí shì yī xiàng páng dà de fù dān。 yìn dù rén rú guǒ shēng xià de shì nǚ 'ér shí， huì yòng pāi shǒu shì yì， dài biǎo liǎng shǒu kōng kōng lái yě。 dàn rú guǒ shēng de shì 'ér zǐ shí， nà jiù dà dà bù tóng liǎo， jiā rén huì lì kè qiāo luó qìng zhù， biǎo shì 'ér zǐ jiāng lái qǔ lǎo pó shí， kě yǐ dài lái xiǎng dāng dāng de jià zhuāng。 yìn dù rén qìng zhù xiǎo hái chū shēng yǔ píng 'ān chéngzhǎng de fāng shì， jiù shì dào sì miào jìn xíng“ pǔ jiā yí shì”、 chàng sòng qí dǎo wén， rán hòu hé qīn péng hǎo yǒu jǔ xíng cān yàn。 yìn dù xiǎo hái chū shēng hòu， fù mǔ dū huì zhǎo rén wèitā men zhàn bǔ， xiǎo hái de míng zì duō bàn qǔ zì yīng xióng huò shén zhǐ。 xiǎo hái de shēng chén bā zì yóu qí shòu dào zhòng shì， yīn wéi zhè kě yǐ jué dìng xiǎo hái wèi lái de hūn yīn duì xiàng。 zàng lǐ yìn dù jiào tú sǐ wáng shí， dū huì zài hé tán jǔ xíng huǒ zàng yí shì。 yìn dù jiào tú qù shì hòu， jiā rén huì yǐ huáng sè huò bái sè juàn bù bāo guǒ shī tǐ， rán hòu fàng zài liǎng gēn zhú zhì dān jià shàng， yǐ yóu xíng fāng shì tái dào hé tán huǒ zàng dì diǎn。 chuán tǒng shàng， jiāng sǐ zhě tái sòng dào huǒ zàng chǎng de rèn wù， yīnggāi yóu jiā shǔ dān rèn， dàn shì xiàn zài dà bù fèn de réndōu jiāo gěi zhuān rén chǔlǐ。 zài yìn dù， zhuān mén chǔlǐ sāngzàng shì yí de rén， dōushì bèi shì wéi zhǒng xìng dì wèi zuì dī de jiàn mín。 yī bān sòng zàng de yí shì dū fēi cháng jiǎn dān， dàn shì bǐ jiào fù yòu de rén jiā， kě néng huì qǐng yuèshī zài qián miàn yǎn zòu， hào hào dàng dàng dì yóu xíng。 huǒ zàng qián， sǐ zhě de zhǎngzǐ bì xū shǒu chí yóu dēng rào xíng yí tǐ 3 cì， dāng huǒ zàng chái duī bèi diǎn rán shí， sǐ zhě zhǎngzǐ bì xū jiāng tóu fā tì guāng， zhǐ zài hòu nǎo sháo liú yī xiǎo cuō， rán hòu dào hé lǐ mù yù jìng shēn。 huǒ zàng jié shù hòu， sǐ zhě gǔ huī huì bèi sǎo dào hé lǐ， dài biǎo líng hún yǐ jīng tuō lí qūqiào、 dé dào jiě tuō。 hūn lǐ yìn dù rén de hūn lǐ shì shè huì dì wèi de dài biǎo， yě shì yī shēng zhōng zuì zhòng dà de yí shì。 yìn dù qīng nián dào liǎo shì hūn nián líng， dū huì yóu fù mǔ dài wéi xún zhǎo shè huì jiē jí、 yǔ yán、 qū yù、 bèi jǐng xiāng tóng， yǐ jí xīngxiàng kě yǐ pèi hé de duì xiàng。 yìn dù hūn lǐ yí shì xiāng dāng fán suǒ， jié hūn zhī qián， shuāng fāng jiāzhǎng huì tòu guò chōng dāng méi rén de jì sī tǎo lùn jià zhuāng shì yí， nǚ fāng bì xū dāyìng nán nǚ tí chū de jià zhuāng shù liàng hòu， shuāng fāng cái xuǎn dìng huáng dào jí rì、 kāi shǐ chóu bèi hūn lǐ。 hūn lǐ qián yī tiān， xīn niàn bì xū gēn jù chuán tǒng huà zhuāng fāng shì， kāi shǐ mǒ yóu、 mù yù、 gēngyī、 shū tóu、 huà yǎn xiàn、 mǒ chún shā、 bìng qiě zài jiǎo shàng tú yǐ hóng sè、 zài 'é tóu diǎn hóng sè dì kǎ、 zài xià bā diǎn hēi zhì， jiē zhe hái yào yòng zhí wù rǎn liào zài shǒu jiǎo shàng huì shì hàn nà tú 'àn， rán hòu sǎ xiāng shuǐ、 pèi dài shǒu shì hé fā shì， zuì hòu shì bǎ yá chǐ rǎn hēi、 jiáo bīn láng、 cā kǒu hóng， cái suàn dà gōng gào chéng。 hūn lǐ dāng tiān， xīn láng guān qí zhe yī pǐ bái mǎ hào hào dàng dàng dì lái dào xīn niàn jiā。 zhè shí nǚ fāng jiā lǐ yǐ jīng jià qǐ huǒ tán， shuāng fāng qīn yǒu zài jì sī niàn sòng de jí xiáng zhēn yán zhōng， rào xíng huǒ tán zhù dǎo。 zhī hòu、 xīn niàn zài nǚ bàn de cù yōng xià zǒu dào huǒ tán qián miàn， yóu jì sī jiāng xīn niàn de shā lì hé xīn láng de wéi jīn xì zài yī qǐ， dài biǎo hūn yīn cháng cháng jiǔ jiǔ。 yìn dù hūn lǐ de wǎn yàn shì zài xīn niàn jiā lǐ jìn xíng， yī duì xīn rén zuò zài hūn yàn zhōng jiē shòu qīn yǒu de zhù fú。 hūn lǐ dāng tiān wǎn shàng xīn láng shì zài xīn niàn jiā guò yè， yì rì cái jiāng xīn niàn yíng qǔ huí jiā。 pǔ jiā yí shì（ Puja） pǔ jiā shì yìn dù jiào zhōng xiàng shén zhǐ mó bài de yí shì， pǔ jiā yí shì bì xū yóu jì sī dān rèn。 yí shì zhōng xìn tú huì jiāng shén xiàng zhuāng shì hòu tái chū sì miào yóu xíng qìng zhù， bìng qiě fèng xiàn xiān huā、 yē zǐ、 dì kǎ fěn…… děng gòngpǐn。 zuì hòu zài yóu jì sī shǒu chí yóu dēng， zài shén xiàng qián miàn jìn xíng“ ā lā tí（ arati）”。 “ ā lā tí” de guò chéng zhōng， xìn tú yòng shǒu qīng qīng fù gài jì sī shǒu zhōng de dēng huǒ， rán hòu zài zì jǐ de yǎn jīng shàng pèng chù yī xià， dài biǎo jiē shòu shén zhǐ cì yú de lì liàng。 tōng cháng zài pǔ jiā yí shì jié shù hòu， xìn tú kě yǐ fēn dào yī xiē jì sì guò de xiān huā、 dì kǎ fěn huò shuǐ， chēng wéi“ bō lā shā dá（ Prasada）”。 suǒ yǐ zài yìn dù， zhǐ yào kàn dào yìn dù rén cóng sì miào mó bài chū lái， é tóu shàng jīhū dū tú yòu hóng sè huò bái sè de fěn mò。 chuán tǒng fú shì zài yìn dù， kě yǐ yóu bù tóng de fú shì hé zhuāng bàn， kàn chū dāng dì rén de zōng jiào xìn yǎng、 zhǒng zú、 jiē jí、 qū yù děng。 nán xìng bāo tóu jīn： yìn dù nán xìng duō bàn bāo yòu tóu jīn， zhè zhǒng tóu jīn chēng wéi Turban。 tóu jīn yòu gè shì gè yàng de bāo guǒ fāng fǎ， qí zhōng xī kè jiào nán xìng tóu jīn， jù yòu tè dìng yàng shì。 gēn jù chuán tǒng， xī kè rén cóng xiǎo dào dà dū bì xū xù tóu fā、 liú hú xū， bìng qiě bāo zhe tóu jīn。 xiǎo hái tóu jīn yàng shì bǐ jiào jiǎn dān， zhǐ yòng hēi bù bǎng chéng fā jì xíng zhuàng。 chéng nián rén de tóu jīn yàng shì bǐ jiào fù zá， shǒu xiān bì xū yòng hēi sè sōng jǐn dài jiāng cháng fā shù chéng fā jì， rán hòu zài yǐ yī tiáo cháng yuē 3 gōng chǐ de bù， guǒ chéng tóu jīn， yàng shì wéi liǎng biān duì chèn chéng guī zé zhuàng。 xī kè rén tóu jīn sè cǎi fán duō， yòu de rén shèn zhì dā pèi yī fú yán sè。 yìn dù nán xìng duō bàn chuānzhuó yī xí kuān sōng de lì lǐng cháng shān（ Tunic）， dā pèi zhǎi jiǎo de cháng kù（ Dhoti）， lā jiǎ sī tǎn dì qū nán xìng， kù zǐ shì yǐ yī tiáo bái sè bù kuài guǒ chéng de， tóu shàng de bù jīn， huā yàng biàn huà jí duō， sè zé xiān míng。 nǚ xìng chuān shā lì： yìn dù fù nǚ chuán tǒng fú shì shì shā lì（ Sari）， shā lì shì zhǐ yī kuài cháng dá 15 mǎ yǐ shàng de bù liào， chuānzhuó shí yǐ pī guǒ de fāng shì chán rào zài shēn shàng。 yìn dù fù nǚ shàn cháng lì yòng zhā、 wéi、 bǎng、 guǒ、 chán、 pī…… děng jì qiǎo， shǐ dé shā lì zài shēn shàng chǎn shēng bù tóng de biàn huà。 lā jiǎ sī tǎn fù nǚ de shā lì jiào duǎn， zhǐ yòu pī fù zài tóu shàng， dàn shì cǎi sè bīn fēn、 xiāng yòu jīn yín xiù biān。 lā jiǎ sī tǎn fù nǚ de shàng yī， yòu diǎn xiàng sì méi yòu lǐng zǐ de zhōng guó fèng xiān zhuāng， xià shēn shì yī tiáo gǔn biān de jí dì cháng qún。 shā lì chuānzhuó fāng shì： yìn dù fù nǚ chuán tǒng fú shì， shì yòng yī kuài cháng dá 3 gōng chǐ de bù bāo guǒ chū lái de， zhè kuài bù chēng wéi shā lì（ Sari）。 yìn dù shā lì de chuānzhuó fāng shì biàn huà fán duō， bù tóng de zhǒng zú、 qū yù、 xìn yǎng， huì yòu xǔ duō bù tóng de sè cǎi、 zhì gǎn hé chuān guǒ fāng shì。 yìn dù fù nǚ chuānzhuó shā lì shí， shàng yī shì yī jiàn duǎn xiù、 lù chū dù qí de jǐn shēn yī（ Choli）， xià shēn shì yī tiáo jí dì de zhí tǒng chèn qún（ Ghagra）。 shā lì zuì jī běn de chuānzhuó fāng shì， kě yǐ fēn wéi yǐ xià jǐ gè bù zhòu : 1. shǒu xiān lā zhù shā lì bù zuǒ biān yī duān， sài jìn yòu cè de chèn qún qún tóu。 2. jiāng shā lì bù yóu yòu zhì zuǒ huán rào xià wéi， yuē sān、 sì juàn。 3. jiē zhe yòng shā lì bù zài yòu qián fāng zhé chéng sì zhé， bìng qiě sài rù qún tóu。 4. rán hòu jiāng shèng yú bù kuài， yóu zuǒ hòu fāng rào guò yòu biān yè xià， pī xiàng zuǒ biān jiān bǎng shàng。 5. zuì hòu zhí jiē jiāng shā lì bù pī zài jiān shàng、 huò pī fù zài tóu shàng。 zì rán zī yuán yìn dù kuàng chǎn zī yuán fēng fù， lǚ tǔ chǔ liàng hé méi chǎn liàng jūn zhàn shì jiè dì wǔ wèi， yún mǔ chū kǒu liàng zhàn shì jiè chū kǒu liàng de 60%。 jié zhì 1996 nián dǐ， yìn dù zhù yào zī yuán kě cǎi chǔ liàng gū jì wéi： méi 463.89 yì dūn（ bù hán jiāo méi）， tiě kuàng shí 97.54 yì dūn， lǚ tǔ 22.53 yì dūn， gè tiě kuàng 1.24 yì dūn， měng kuàng shí 6550 wàn dūn， xīn 589 wàn dūn， tóng 352 wàn dūn， qiān 136 wàn dūn， shí huī shí 684.77 yì dūn， lín suān yán 8100 wàn dūn， huáng jīn 86 dūn， shí yóu 8.96 yì dūn， tiān rán qì 6970 yì lì fāng mǐ。 cǐ wài， hái yòu yún mǔ、 shí gāo、 zuàn shí jí tài、 tǔ、 yóu děng kuàng cáng。 sēn lín fù gài shuài wéi 21.9%。 Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became a modern nation state in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance. India is the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have transformed it into the second fastest growing large economy; however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty, illiteracy, and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India (pronounced /ˈɪndiə/) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus. The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronunciation (help·info), /bʰɑːrət̪/) as an official name of equal status. Hindustan (/hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/ (info)), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India. History Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BC. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country. Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century.In the third century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Great. From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age." Among the notable South Indian empires were the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal Empire. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their Kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, flourished, especially in the south. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the Maratha Empire became the dominant power. From the sixteenth century, several European countries, including Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom, started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company. A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the India's First War of Independence or Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the British Company's control but eventually failed. As a consequence, India came under the direct rule of the British Crown as a colony of the British Empire. Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organizations. In the 1920s and 1930, a movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to ahimsa, or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of civil disobedience. Finally, on 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but was partitioned with independent governments for the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan in accordance to wishes of the Muslim League, along the lines of religion to create the Islamic nation state of Pakistan. Three years later, on 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect. Since independence, India has suffered from religious violence, casteism and insurgencies in various parts, but has been able to control them through tolerance and constitutional reforms. Terrorism in India is also a major security problem, especially in Jammu and Kashmir, North-east India and recently in major cities like Delhi and Mumbai, 2001 Indian Parliament attack being the most prominent one. India has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations (as part of British India). In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test. This was followed by five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state. Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, adding to its global and regional clout. Government National Symbols of India Flag Tricolour Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital Anthem Jana Gana Mana Song Vandē Mātaram Animal Royal Bengal Tiger Bird Indian Peafowl Flower Lotus Tree Banyan Fruit Mango Sport Field hockey Calendar Saka The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950. The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India has a quasi-federal form of government and a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. The President of India is the official head of state elected indirectly by an electoral college for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is, however, the de facto head of government and exercises most executive powers. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People). The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms. Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population. The 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms. The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if, in his opinion, the community is not adequately represented. The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts. It is judicially independent, and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution. The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court. Politics The North Block, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.India, at the federal level, is the most populous democracy in the world. For most of its democratic history, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC). State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)), and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years. The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term. In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP. Foreign relations and military The Sukhoi-30 MKI is part of the Indian Air Force.Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia. India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought four wars with Pakistan, primarily over Kashmir. India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971. In recent years, relations between the United States and India, have improved. Shown here are PM Manmohan Singh and President George W. Bush exchanging handshakes in March, 2006.In recent years, India has played an influential role in the ASEAN, SAARC, and the WTO. India is a founding member and long time supporter of the United Nations, with over 55,000 Indian military and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia, and Africa. India maintains the third largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force. Auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command also come under the military's purview. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha. Further underground testing in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and has a "strong nuclear non-proliferation record" according to the White House, despite not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Subdivisions India is a federal republic of twenty-eight states and seven Union Territories. All states, the union territory of Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis. Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called districts. There are nearly 600 districts in India. The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages. Administrative divisions of India, including 28 states and 7 union territories.States: Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal Union Territories: Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep National Capital Territory of Delhi Puducherry Major Cities: Mumbai • Delhi • Bangalore • Kolkata • Chennai • Ahmedabad • Hyderabad • (others) Geography Topographic map of India.India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate. India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean. The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east. In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast through, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment, now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain. To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert. The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively; the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude. India's coast is 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometers (3,370 mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometers (1,301 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands. According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast. Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal; and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea. Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh. India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea. India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons. The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall. Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane. Flora and fauna The Indian peacock is India's national bird.India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species. Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic. India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain. Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians. Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species. These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle. In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention. Economy The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange.For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment. Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to US$300 billion in March, 2008, while federal and state budget deficits have decreased. Privatization of publicly-owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate. With a GDP growth rate of 9.4% in 2006-07, the economy is among the fastest growing in the world. India's GDP in terms of USD exchange-rate is US$1.089 trillion. When measured in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), India has the world's fourth largest GDP at US$4.726 trillion. India's per capita income (nominal) is US$977, while its per capita (PPP) is US$2700. India has the world's second largest labour force, with 516.3 million people, 60% of whom are employed in agriculture and related industries; 28% in services and related industries; and 12% in industry. Major agricultural crops include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. The agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles. Along with India’s fast economic growth comes its growing demand for energy. According to the Energy Information Administration, India is the sixth largest consumer of oil and third largest consumer of coal. Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas. Income inequality in India is relatively small (Gini coefficient: 36.8 in year 2004), though it has been increasing of late. Wealth distribution in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income. Despite significant economic progress, a quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of $0.40 per day. In 2004–2005, 27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line. More recently, India has capitalised on its large pool of educated, English-speaking people, and trained professionals to become an important outsourcing destination for multinational corporations and a popular destination for medical tourism. India has also become a major exporter of software as well as financial, research, and technological services. Its natural resources include arable land, bauxite, chromite, coal, diamonds, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, natural gas, petroleum, and titanium ore. In 2007, estimated exports stood at US$140 billion and imports were around US$224.9 billion. Textiles, jewellery, engineering goods and software are major export commodities. While crude oil, machineries, fertilizers, and chemicals are major imports. India's most important trading partners are the United States, the European Union, and China. Demographics Population density map of India.With an estimated population of 1.13 billion, India is the world's second most populous country. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's largest cities are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. India is the second most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent. India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the union. English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language.' The constitution also recognises in particular 21 other languages that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652. Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others. Tribals constitute 8.1% of the population. India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males). The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate (91%); Bihar has the lowest (47%). The national human sex ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year. Cities by population Rank Core City State Pop. Rank Core City State Pop. Mumbai Delhi 1 Mumbai Maharashtra 13,662,885 11 Jaipur Rajasthan 2,997,114 2 Delhi Delhi 11,954,217 12 Lucknow Uttar Pradesh 2,621,063 3 Bangalore Karnataka 5,180,533 13 Nagpur Maharashtra 2,359,331 4 Kolkata West Bengal 5,021,458 14 Indore Madhya Pradesh 1,768,303 5 Chennai Tamil Nadu 4,562,843 15 Patna Bihar 1,753,543 6 Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh 3,980,938 16 Bhopal Madhya Pradesh 1,712,355 7 Ahmedabad Gujarat 3,867,336 17 Thane Maharashtra 1,673,465 8 Pune Maharashtra 3,230,322 18 Ludhiana Punjab 1,662,325 9 Surat Gujarat 3,124,249 19 Agra Uttar Pradesh 1,590,073 10 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh 3,067,663 20 Vadodara Gujarat 1,487,956 2008 estimation Culture The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism and cultural pluralism. It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants. Multicultural concerns have long informed India’s history and traditions, constitution and political arrangements. Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation. Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres - North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Highly regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Bihar and Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam. Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue. Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka. Scene from Kalidasa's The Recognition of Śakuntalā as painted by Raja Ravi Varma.The Indian film industry is the largest in the world. Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world. Established traditions also exist in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas. The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down. These included works of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the drama Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya – and the Tamil language Sangam literature. Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913. Indian cuisine is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north). Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include black pepper; in contrast, hot chili peppers, popular across India, were introduced by the Portuguese. Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular. Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti and Vaisakhi. India has three national holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, although urban families now prefer the nuclear family structure due to the socio-economic constraints imposed by traditional joint family system. Sports India's national sport is field hockey although cricket is the most popular sport in India. In some states, particularly those in the northeast and the states of West Bengal, Goa, and Kerala, football (soccer) is also a popular sport. In recent times, tennis has also gained popularity. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters. Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played nationwide. India is also home to the ancient martial arts, Kalarippayattu and Varma Kalai. |
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