南美洲:
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智利 Chile
首都:圣地亚哥 国家代码: cl
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 智利英文缩写——CHI 国旗：由蓝、白、红三色构成。靠旗杆一边上方的旗角为蓝色正方形，其中央绘有一颗白色五角星。旗地由白、红两个平行长方形构成。白色在上，红色在下。白色部分等于红色部分的三分之二。 红色象征为了智利的独立和自由， 为了反抗西班牙殖民军的统治，在兰卡瓜英勇牺性的烈士鲜血。白色象征安第斯山高峰的白雪。蓝色象征海洋。 国徽：盾面来自国旗图案。盾徽左侧是安第斯鹿，右侧是美洲大兀鹰，上方是与国旗颜色相同的美洲鸵鸟羽毛。底部的智利国花“戈比爱”野百合花是独立自由的象征。绶带用西班牙文写着“依靠公理和武力进行斗争”。 国树：阿劳乌卡利亚松。是世界稀有树种。有“黑色金字塔”之称。 国花：“戈比爱”野百合花（柯碧韦）是喇叭藤科植物。花红色，偶尔也开白花，长度３—４寸，花瓣坚挺好像涂蜡。结椒形小果。花开藤上，藤攀缘在树干上。以智利南方多见。 国石：青金石 国舞：昆卡 货币： 智利比索 独立日：９月１８日（１８１０年） 国庆日：９月１８日（１８１０年） 国家政要：总统米歇尔·巴切莱特·赫里亚(Michelle BACHELET Jeria)，２００６年１月当选，2006年 3月11日就职，任期4年。 是智利历史上第一位女总统。 【自然地理】 面积７５６６２６平方公里（其中陆地面积７５６２５３平方公里，岛屿面积３７３平方公里）。位于南美洲西南部，安第斯山脉西麓。东同阿根廷为邻，北与秘鲁、玻利维亚接壤，西临太平洋，南与南极洲隔海相望。海岸线总长约１万公里，南北长４３５２公里，东西最窄９６．８公里、最宽３６２．３公里，是世界上地形最狭长的国家。东为安第斯山脉的西坡，约占全境东西宽度的１／３；西为海拔３００—２０００米的海岸山脉，大部分地带沿海岸伸展，向南入海，形成众多的沿海岛屿；中部是由冲积物所填充的陷落谷地，海拔１２００米左右。境内多火山，地震频繁。位于智利、阿根廷边境上的奥霍斯－德尔萨拉多峰海拔６８８５米，为全国最高点。全国有河流３０余条，较重要的有比奥比奥河等。主要岛屿有火地岛、奇洛埃岛、惠灵顿岛等，气候可分为北、中、南三个明显不同的地段：北段主要是沙漠气候；中段是冬季多雨、夏季干燥的亚热带地中海型气候；南为多雨的温带阔叶林气候。由于地处美洲大陆的最南端，与南极洲隔海相望，智利人常称自己的国家为“天涯之国”。 人口 1609.34万（2004年）。其中城市人口占86.8％。印欧混血种人占75%，白人20%，印第安人4.6%。官方语言为西班牙语。在印第安人聚居区使用马普切语。15岁以上人口中信仰天主教的占69.90%，信仰福音教的占15.14%。 首都：圣地亚哥 (Santiago) ，位于智利中部，人口６０６万（２００２年）。 行政区划：全国分为１３个大区，下设５０个省和３４１个市。各大区名称如下：塔拉帕卡，安托法加斯塔，阿塔卡马，科金博，瓦尔帕莱索，解放者奥希金斯将军，马乌莱，比奥比奥，阿劳卡尼亚，洛斯·拉戈斯，伊瓦涅斯将军的艾森，麦哲伦，圣地亚哥首都区。 重要城市 首都：圣地亚哥（Santiago），智利首都，南美洲第四大城市，位于国境中部，坐落在马波乔河畔，东依安第斯山，西距瓦尔帕来索港约100公里，夏季干燥温和，冬季凉爽多雨雾，碧波鳞鳞的马波乔河从城边缓缓流过，终年积雪的安第斯山仿佛一顶闪闪发光的银冠，天然山水给圣地亚哥增添了动人的风韵。 圣地亚哥是一座拥有400多年历史的古城。1541年，西班牙殖民者瓦尔迪维亚率领150名骑兵来到这里，在位于现在城市中心的圣卢西亚山上修筑了西班牙在南美洲大陆上的第一座炮台，并在山下用泥砖和草木建筑了一批原始的住宅区，这就是圣地亚哥城的雏形。1818年4月5日，经过智利争取独立战争中一场决定性战役——迈普之战后，圣地亚哥成为智利的首都。公元19世纪因智利发现铜矿并逐渐大规模开采，城市迅速得到发展。在随后的年月里，数次遭受地震、洪水等自然灾害的破坏，市区历史性建筑物受到严重毁坏。今天的圣地亚哥是一座现代化的城市，面积100多平方公里，人口534万，是智利最大城市，全国政治、经济、文化和交通中心。 圣地亚哥市所在的地区夏季（10月至次年3月）气温并不太热，最热的1月份平均温度是20℃左右；冬天也不太冷，最冷的7月份平均温度也有8℃左右。宜人的气候使圣地亚哥城风光绮丽、婀娜多姿。这里一年四季，棕榈婆娑，绿草如茵，各种鲜花争相吐艳。圣地亚哥的美丽的城市背景更是令人赞叹不已。从市区可以眺望远处白雪皑皑的安第斯山顶峰。清晨，雪峰四周云雾缭绕；中午，阳光普照，光芒四射； 傍晚，朵朵白云飘荡在山腰。随着风、云、雨、雾的天气变幻和朝阳、夕照彼往此至，雪峰不时地出现银灰、银白、淡青、浅紫或深红的色彩，有时几种色彩交相辉映，形成一幅迷人的画面。 智利是世界上第三大产铜国，也是世界上出口铜最多的国家之一。在圣地亚哥市，人们处处都能感受到铜的存在，到处都可以看到铜的光辉。漫步市区，每隔不远眼前就会出现一座精工细琢的纪念铜像，这些铜雕刻大小各异，千姿百态，栩栩如生。格外引人注目的是耸立在市区“宪法广场”上智利民族解放运动先驱沃伊金斯将军的铜像雕刻，横刀跃马，气壮山河。那一座座铜像雕刻，让人目不暇接，仔细观赏，仿佛置身于铜像的世界，真是别有一番情趣。 不论在商店的橱窗里，还是在智利朋友的家中，举目便是闪闪发光的各种铜制器皿：铜碗、铜盆、铜壶、铜杯、铜烟具……并且每件器皿上面雕有人物、风景、花草以及兽类等。商店里的铜制手工艺品，更是新颖别致，手工精细，令人爱不释手。宾馆、饭店以及居民家庭的门窗、桌子等都是铜镶边，或者有铜的装饰。亲朋自远方来，也总是以铜制艺术品相赠送。 圣地亚哥的市区在历史上是以圣卢西亚山为中心发展起来的。圣卢西亚山高230米，是著名的风景游览区。一条弯弯曲曲的山路盘旋而上，直通山顶。山上有古希腊雅典式的白石门廊，门廊两侧是古朴、苍劲的巨型壁画。满山都是茎干肥硕、形态各异的仙人掌，色彩艳丽的花草点缀其间。山腰有一处“石泉”，泉水缓缓从造型优美的石雕顽童怀抱的罐子中流淌出来，在郁郁葱葱的林木中形成一潭碧水。山岗上的古堡、雉堞和铜炮年代久远，迄今保存完好。站在古堡前俯视全市，长3公里、宽100米的奥希金斯大街横贯全城，公路上汽车川流不息，两侧高楼大厦林立；解放广场、宪法广场、巴格达诺广场等历历在目；市区和近郊的天主教堂、主教堂、市政厅、邮政大楼、智利大学、天主教大学、国民学院、国家图书馆、历史博物馆、美术馆等，一览无余。 市区东北部的圣克里斯托瓦山，海拔1000米，山上有用大理石雕成的巨型圣母像，山坡花草林木之中建有天文台和动物园，被称为“首都公园”，是圣地亚哥市的旅游中心。 瓦尔帕莱索(Valparaiso) 南美洲太平洋岸重要海港，智利阿空加瓜区和瓦尔帕莱索省首府。位于瓦尔帕莱索湾南岸，东南距圣地亚哥约130公里。人口27.6万（1982）。始建于1536年。屡遭海盗、风暴、大火、地震毁坏，现市区大多为1906年地震后重建；1971年又遭地震破坏。港湾开阔，筑有坚固的防波堤以及现代化的港口设施。智利最大贸易港，其中输入占全国进口总值的半数以上。工业约占全国的五分之一，有纺织、金属加工、化工、炼油、制糖、服装、制革、油漆等。气候宜人，风景秀丽，为旅游胜地。设有大学和博物馆。横贯安第斯山国际铁路的西部终端站，与首都有电气火车相通。 瓦尔帕莱索市（Valparaíso）是智利议会所在地，也是第五大区（帕莱索地区）的首府和瓦尔帕莱索省省会、智利第二大城市和南美太平洋沿岸最大的深水港，瓦市也是智利最大的对外贸易港。位于太平洋瓦尔帕莱索海湾南端，距首都圣地亚哥119公里。目前，该市人口有28万多，面积402平方公里。该市东部和南部为海岸山脉。城市宛如一轮明月镶嵌在大海与高山间八平方公里的狭长地带上。 瓦市地理位置优越，是智利最早的贸易港口。巴拿马运河开通之前，瓦市是有“智利门户”之称。目前，瓦市仍是全国重要的港口之一，有2000多米长的泊位，有现代化的装卸设备。繁忙的码头景象，是智利对外经济发展的象征。工商业发达，有铸造、机械、炼油、化工、纺织、化纤、制革、药品、香烟、榨糖、食品、搪瓷、造船和金属加工等，生产油漆、服装等。瓦尔帕莱索也是交通中心，与首都圣地亚哥通电气化铁路。还有铁路通往各大城市和港口。瓦尔帕莱索市是智利通向太平洋之窗和智利与世界各国贸易交流的主要通道，对外贸易输入总量占全国半数以上。服务业和旅游业也很发达。 2003年，联合国教科文组织授予智利瓦尔帕莱索市“人类遗产”称号。 瓦尔帕莱索在西班牙文中意思是“天堂谷”。由西班牙殖民者修建的，至今已有350多年的历史，城内的建筑、街道依然遗留着殖民时期的痕迹。城中的其中特色之一在于一种特别的通工具：缆车。为了人们平时上下山的方便，它几乎全天运作着。在瓦市漫长的历史中也记载了许多痛苦的经历，特别是1905年的地震几乎将瓦市夷为平地。 1996年8月2日-4日，上海市代表团访问瓦尔帕莱索,双方签署了两市结好意向书。2001年7月10日至11日，上海市政协主席、上海市市长代表王力平率领上海市代表团一行5人应瓦尔帕莱索市市长埃尔南·平托·米朗达邀请访问了瓦尔帕莱索市。7月10日王力平代表徐匡迪市长与平托市长共同签署了缔结友好城市协议书。 康塞普西翁 Concepcion 智利中部城市，比奥比奥区康塞普西翁省首府。位于智利中南部。比奥比奥河傍城而过，西距河口10公里。人口约30.3万。最热月平均气温20℃，最冷月平均气温（7月）10℃，年平均降水量1000毫米左右。西距海岸港口城市塔尔卡瓦诺10千米。始建于1550年。屡遭地震、海啸破坏，屡迁城址，1754年迁现址。周围农产丰富，水力资源充足。附近产煤，煤矿占全国的90％以上，为国家重要工商业中心之一。农业发达，是葡萄酒和谷物的贸易中心。工业有纺织、面粉、制革、玻璃、陶瓷、制糖、钢铁、造纸、炼油等。有铁路通圣地亚哥。设有康塞普西翁大学。西北13公里的外港塔尔卡瓦诺，港湾优良，有铁路通连。 【简史】 早期境内居住着阿劳干人、火地人等印第安民族。１６世纪初以前属于印加帝国。１５３５年，西班牙殖民者从秘鲁侵入智利北部。１５４１年建立圣地亚哥城后，智利沦为西班牙殖民地，并受其统治近３００年。１８１０年９月１８日，智利成立执政委员会，实行自治。１８１７年２月与阿根廷联军击败西班牙殖民军。１８１８年２月１２日正式宣布独立，成立智利共和国。 在圣地亚哥举行的国际图书节。智利是南美的图书出版大国，年均出版图书2500多种。 宪法 ２００５年９月，智利颁布宪法新文本，正式取代了皮诺切特军政府时期颁布的宪法文本，这是智利对完善本国民主制度所实现的重大改革承诺和历史性步骤。新宪法对１９８０年宪法作了５８处实质性修改。共和国总统任期将由６年减至４年，取消议会中终身参议员和指定参议员的设置，所有参议员将与众议员一样均由民主选举产生。此外，修改后的宪法将赋予共和国总统对军队和警察拥有绝对的领导权和指挥权，规定总统有权撤换武装部队各军种和警察部队的总司令，改变过去宪法中关于这些职务不可罢免的限制。国家安全委员会将不再可以跨越总统的权力，而使之转变成为隶属总统领导下的国家安全顾问机构。 经济 智利属于中等发展水平国家。矿业、林业、渔业和农业资源丰富，是国民经济四大支柱。矿藏、森林和水产资源丰富，以盛产铜闻名于世，素称“铜矿之国”。已探明的铜蕴藏量达２亿吨以上，居世界第一位，约占世界储藏量的１/３。铜的产量和出口量也均为世界第一。铁蕴藏量约１２亿吨，煤约５０亿吨。此外，还有硝石、钼、金、银、铝、锌、碘、石油、天然气等。盛产温带林木，木质优良，是拉美第一大林产品出口国。渔业资源丰富，是世界第五大渔业国。工矿业是智国民经济的命脉。２００１年，工业总产值为５７２２０.５６亿比索，矿业总产值３０５０７.２７亿比索。工矿业从业人口为８２.９万人，占总劳动力的１４％。２００１年，农、林业产值１５２４３.５１亿比索,农业劳动力７０.４万人，占总劳动力的１２％。耕地面积１.６６万平方公里。全国森林覆盖面积１５６４.９万公顷，占全国土地面积的２０.８％。主要林产品为木材、纸浆、纸张等。智利是是以经济开放而著称于世的贸易国家。２００３年出口额首次突破２００亿美元大关，达到２１０．４６亿美元。 新闻出版 全国有报社８７家。主要报纸有《信使报》，１８２７年创刊；《民族报》，１９８０年创刊；《三点钟报》，１９５０年创刊；《二点钟报》（晚报），１９３１年创刊；《最后消息报》，１９０２年创刊；主要杂志有《事件》，１９７１年创刊；《新情况》，１９７６年创刊；《今日》，１９７７年创刊。主要通讯社为环球通讯社。全国有电台１０９５家，主要有国家电台、合作电视台、波塔莱斯电台、农业电台和矿业电台。电视台９家，其中影响较大的是国家电视台（７台）、智利大学电视台（11台）、天主教大学电视台（１３台）、大视野电视台（９台）和瓦尔帕莱索天主教大学电视台（５台）。 【文化艺术】 是拉美文化艺术水准较高的国家之一。全国有图书馆１９９９家，总藏书量为１７９０.７万册。有电影院２６０家。首都圣地亚哥是全国文化活动中心，有２５个美术馆。诗人加夫列拉·米斯特拉尔获１９４５年诺贝尔文学奖，成为第一个获此奖的南美洲作家。诗人巴勃罗·聂鲁达获１９７１年诺贝尔文学奖。 智利的复活节岛位于太平洋东南部，以神秘巨像名闻遐迩。岛上有６００多尊面对大海的古代巨大半身石雕像。１９９６年２月，该岛被联合国教科文组织宣布为世界文化遗产。 外交：奉行独立自主的民族主义外交政策，遵循不干涉内政和人民自决的原则。 【与中国关系】 １９７０年１２月１５日，智利成为南美洲第一个同中国建交的国家，智利也是最早同中国完成入世谈判的拉美国家。１９７０年中智建交以来，两国关系稳步发展。２００１年，江泽民主席对智利进行国事访问，与拉戈斯总统就发展两国面向２１世纪长期稳定、平等互利的全面合作伙伴关系达成共识。２００４年１１月，胡锦涛主席对智利进行国事访问。2004年11月，胡锦涛主席对智利进行国事访问并出席在智首都举行的亚太经合组织领导人第12次非正式会议。访问期间，两国元首一致同意确立两国全面合作伙伴关系，并宣布启动双边自由贸易协定谈判。智方宣布承认中国的完全市场经济地位。2005年11月，胡锦涛主席在韩国APEC领导人非正式会议期间与拉戈斯总统会晤，并共同出席了中智自由贸易协定签字仪式。2006年9月，吴邦国委员长访智，与巴切莱特总统共同宣布实施中智自由贸易协定和启动中智自贸协定服务贸易和投资谈判。2006年11月，胡锦涛主席在河内亚太经合组织领导人非正式会议期间会晤巴切莱特总统。2007年4月，中共中央政治局常委吴官正同志访智。中方重要去访还有（职务均为时任）：吴学谦国务委员兼外长（1987年）、杨尚昆主席（1990年）、钱其琛国务委员兼外长（1993年）、政协主席李瑞环（1995年）、朱镕基副总理（1996年）、李鹏总理（1996年）、李岚清副总理（1997年）、田纪云副委员长（1998、2002年）、唐家璇外长（2000年）、成思危副委员长（2001年）、中共中央政治局委员、广东省委书记张德江（2003年）、国务院副总理回良玉（2004年）。智重要来访还有：外长阿尔梅达（1973年）、外长库维略斯（1978年）、外长德尔瓦列（1984年）、众议长比埃拉-加略（1991年）、总统艾尔文（1992年）、总统弗雷（1995年）、参议长迭斯（1996年）、外长因苏尔萨（1997、1998、1999年）、众议长马丁内斯（1999年）、外长阿尔韦亚尔（2000年）、总统拉戈斯（2001年）、参议长萨尔迪瓦（2001年）、外长瓦尔克、参议长罗梅罗（2005年）、参议长弗雷（2006年）、众议长莱亚尔（2007年1月）。 双方在国际事务中开展了良好合作。1999年，智利在拉美国家中率先同中国签署“关于中国加入WTO的双边协议”。2002年，中国支持智利竞选联合国安理会2003-2004年度非常任理事国。2004年，智利支持中国成为美洲国家组织常驻观察员和拉美议会观察员。在台湾问题上，智历届政府均奉行一个中国政策。 两国外交部于1988年建立政治磋商制度，迄今已举行10次磋商。目前两国间建有6对友好省市关系。 Chile's unusual, ribbon-like shape —4,300 km long and on average 175 km wide— has given it a hugely varied climate, ranging from the world's driest desert - the Atacama - in the north, through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, to a snow-prone Alpine climate in the south, with glaciers, fjords and lakes. The northern Chilean desert contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century, when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Prior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century, northern Chile was under Inca rule while Araucanian Indians (also known as Mapuches) inhabited central and southern Chile. Although Chile declared its independence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was not achieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-83), Chile defeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern regions. It was not until the 1880s that the Araucanian Indians were completely subjugated. The country, which had been relatively free of the coups and arbitrary governments that blighted the South American continent, endured a 17 year military dictatorship (1973-1990), one of the bloodiest in 20th-century Latin America that left more than 3,000 people dead and missing. Currently, Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations. Within the greater Latin American context it leads in terms of competitiveness, quality of life, political stability, globalization, economic freedom, low perception of corruption and comparatively low poverty rates. It also ranks high regionally in freedom of the press, human development and democratic development. Its status as the region's richest country in terms of gross domestic product per capita (at market prices and purchasing power parity) is countered by its high level of income inequality, as measured by the Gini index. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile. According to one theory the Incas of Peru, who had failed to conquer the Araucanians, called the valley of the Aconcagua "Chili" by corruption of the name of a tribal chief ("cacique") called Tili, who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest. Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Other theories say Chile may derive its name from the indigenous Mapuche word chilli, which may mean "where the land ends," "the deepest point of the Earth," or "sea gulls;" or from the Quechua chin, "cold," or the Aymara tchili, meaning "snow." Another meaning attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of a bird call. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535-36 called themselves the "men of Chilli." History The Mapuche were the original inhabitants of central and southern Chile.About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys and along the coast of what is now Chile. The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the area's barrenness prevented extensive settlement. In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the earth, the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan, discovered the southern passage now named after him, the Strait of Magellan. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered hundreds of thousands of Native Americans from various cultures in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarro's lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on February 12, 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Pedro de Valdivia.Conquest of the land that is today called Chile took place only gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks at the hands of the local population. A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of slavery in 1683 defused tensions on the frontier between the colony and the Mapuche land to the south, and permitted increased trade between colonists and the Mapuche. The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph in 1808. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand—heir to the deposed king—was formed on September 18, 1810. The junta proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish monarchy. A movement for total independence soon won a wide following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the "Reconquista" led to a prolonged struggle. Bernardo O'Higgins.Intermittent warfare continued until 1817, when an army led by Bernardo O'Higgins, Chile's most renowned patriot, and José de San Martín, hero of the Argentine War of Independence, crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On February 12, 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic under O'Higgins' leadership. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained extremely powerful. War of the Pacific: The Battle of Iquique on May 21, 1879.Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by ruthlessly suppressing the Mapuche during the Occupation of Araucanía. In 1881, it signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. The Chilean Civil War in 1891 brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards who had strong ties to foreign investors. Hence the Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri Palma, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. Alessandri Palma's reformist tendencies were partly tempered later by an admiration for some elements of Mussolini's Italian Corporate State. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose. Diego Portales (1793-1837), Founder of the Chilean State and creator of the Constitution of 1833.A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship, although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that has often bedeviled the rest of Latin America, and certainly not comparable to the violent and repressive regime of Augusto Pinochet decades later. By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo, now reincarnated as a sort of Chilean Perón, to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term. The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals. In 1970, Senator Salvador Allende Gossens, a Marxist physician and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the "Popular Unity" (UP or "Unidad Popular") coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action, won a plurality of votes in a three-way contest. Despite pressure from the government of the United States, the Chilean Congress, keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri and chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs. Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests; a thoroughgoing implementation of agrarian reform; the reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors; a foreign policy of "international solidarity" and national independence; and a new institutional order (the "people's state" or "poder popular"), including the institution of a unicameral congress. The Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of foreign (U.S.) ownership of Chile's major copper mines. La Moneda Presidential Palace being bombed during the coup (1973).An economic depression that began in 1967 peaked in 1970, exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits by those opposed to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, which had the effect of increasing consumer spending and redistributing income downward. Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the banking sector was nationalized. Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year. Other reforms undertaken during the early Allende period included redistribution of millions of hectares of land to landless agricultural workers as part of the agrarian reform program, giving the armed forces an overdue pay increase, and providing free milk to children. The Indian Peoples Development Corporation and the Mapuche Vocational Institute were founded to address the needs of Chile's indigenous population. The nationalization of U.S. and other foreign-owned companies led to increased tensions with the United States. The Nixon administration brought international financial pressure to bear in order to restrict economic credit to Chile. Simultaneously, the CIA funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization. By 1972, the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed and the economy was in crisis. Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes. By early 1973, inflation was out of control. The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous strikes by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. A US-backed military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende reportedly committed suicide. A military government, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, took over control of the country. The first years of the regime were marked by serious human rights violations. On October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death. At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the Rettig Report. Some 30,000 were forced to flee the country, and tens of thousands of people were detained and tortured, as investigated by the 2004 Valech Commission. A new Constitution was approved by a highly irregular and undemocratic plebiscite characterized by the absence of registration lists, on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became President of the Republic for an 8-year term. The four Concertación presidents (left to right): Patricio Aylwin, Michelle Bachelet, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle and Ricardo Lagos.In the late 1980s, the regime gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and limited political activity. The right-wing military government pursued free market economic policies. During Pinochet's nearly 17 years in power, Chile moved away from state involvement, toward a largely free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not returned to foreign ownership. In a plebiscite on October 5, 1988, General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on December 14, 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%).. President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile. In January 2006 Chileans elected their first woman president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006, extending the Concertación coalition governance for another four years. Politics Palacio de La Moneda in downtown Santiago.Chile's Constitution was approved in a highly irregular national plebiscite in September 1980, under the military government of Augusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In September 2005, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years. Chileans voted in the first round of presidential elections on December 11, 2005. None of the four presidential candidates won more than 50% of the vote. As a result, the top two vote-getters—center-left Concertación coalition's Michelle Bachelet and center-right Alianza coalition's Sebastián Piñera—competed in a run-off election on January 15, 2006, which Michelle Bachelet won. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006. This was Chile's fourth presidential election since the end of the Pinochet era. All four have been judged free and fair. The President is constitutionally barred from serving consecutive terms. Chile's bicameral Congress has a 38-seat Senate and a 120-member Chamber of Deputies. Senators serve for 8 years with staggered terms, while Deputies are elected every 4 years. The current Senate has a 20-18 split in favor of pro-government Senators. The last congressional elections were held in December 11, 2005, concurrently with the presidential election. The current lower house—the Chamber of Deputies—contains 63 members of the governing center-left coalition and 57 from the center-right opposition. The Congress is located in the port city of Valparaíso, about 140 kilometers (84 mi.) west of the capital, Santiago. Chile's congressional elections are governed by a binomial system that rewards large representations. Therefore, there are only two Senate and two Deputy seats apportioned to each electoral district, parties are forced to form wide coalitions and, historically, the two largest coalitions (Concertación and Alianza) split most of the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket out-polls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 does the winning coalition gain both seats. In the 2001 congressional elections, the conservative Independent Democratic Union surpassed the Christian Democrats for the first time to become the largest party in the lower house. In 2005, both leading parties, the Christian Democrats and the UDI lost representation in favor of their respective allies Socialist Party (which became the biggest party in the Concertación block) and National Renewal in the right-wing alliance. The Communist Party again failed to gain any seats in the election. (See Chilean parliamentary election, 2005.) Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court. In June 2005, Chile completed a nation-wide overhaul of its criminal justice system. The reform has replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system more similar to that of the United States. Administrative division Chile is divided into 15 regions, each of which is headed by an intendant appointed by the President. Every region is further divided into provinces, with a provincial governor also appointed by the President. Finally each province is divided into communes which are administered by municipalities, each with its own mayor and councilmen elected by their inhabitants for four years. Each region is designated by a name and a Roman numeral, assigned from north to south. The only exception is the region housing the nation's capital, which is designated RM, that stands for Región Metropolitana (Metropolitan Region). Two new regions were created in 2006: Arica and Parinacota in the north, and Los Ríos in the south. Both became operative in October 2007. Key Name Spanish Capital XV Arica and Parinacota Región de Arica y Parinacota Arica I Tarapacá Región de Tarapacá Iquique II Antofagasta Región de Antofagasta Antofagasta III Atacama Región de Atacama Copiapo IV Coquimbo Región de Coquimbo La Serena V Valparaíso Región de Valparaíso Valparaiso VI O'Higgins Región del Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins Rancagua VII Maule Región del Maule Talca VIII Biobío Región del Biobío Concepción IX Araucanía Región de la Araucanía Temuco XIV Los Ríos Región de Los Ríos Valdivia X Los Lagos Región de Los Lagos Puerto Montt XI Aisén Región Aisén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo Coihaique XII Magallanes Región de Magallanes y de la Antártica Chilena Punta Arenas RM Santiago Región Metropolitana de Santiago Santiago Geography Parinacota Volcano in northern Chile. Elqui Valley in north-central Chile. Conguillío National Park in south-central Chile. Grey Glacier in southern Chile.A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains, Chile stretches over 4,630 kilometers (2,880 mi) north to south, but only 430 kilometers (265 mi) at its widest point east to west. This encompasses a remarkable variety of landscapes. At 756,950 km² (292,260 sq mi), Chile is the world's 38th-largest country. It is comparable in size to Zambia, and is about twice the size of Japan. The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late nineteenth century, when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Chile is the longest (N-S) country in the world (over 4,200 km (2,610 mi)), and also claims 1,250,000 km² (482,628 sq mi) of Antarctica as part of its territory. However, this latter claim is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty, of which Chile is signatory. Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and Robinson Crusoe Island, more than 600 km (373 mi) from the mainland, in the Juan Fernández archipelago. Easter Island is nowadays a province of Chile. Also controlled but only temporally inhabited (by some local fishermen) are the small islands of Sala y Gómez, San Ambrosio and San Felix, these islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific. Climate The climate of Chile comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale, extending across 38 degrees in latitude, making generalisations difficult. According to the Köppen system, Chile within its borders hosts at least seven major climatic subtypes, ranging from desert in the north, to alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south east, humid subtropical in Easter Island, Oceanic in the south and mediterranean climate in central Chile. There are four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November). Time zones Because of the distance between the mainland and Easter Island, Chile uses 4 different UTC offsets: The mainland uses UTC-4, and in summer as daylight saving time UTC-3. Easter Island uses UTC-6, and in summer as daylight saving time UTC-5. Economy Chilean notes currently in circulation.After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999, brought on by unfavorable global economic conditions related to the Asian financial crisis, which began in 1997. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% real GDP growth. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.0%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4.0% growth in 2006. Higher energy prices as well as lagging consumer demand were drags on the economy in 2006. Higher Chilean Government spending and favorable external conditions (including record copper prices for much of 2006) were not enough to offset these drags. For the first time in many years, Chilean economic growth in 2006 was among the weakest in Latin America. GDP expanded 5.1% in 2007. Chile has pursued generally sound economic policies for nearly three decades. The 1973-90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization, though at a slower pace. The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant CODELCO and a few other enterprises (there is one state-run bank). Chile is strongly committed to free trade and has welcomed large amounts of foreign investment. Chile has signed free trade agreements (FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States, which was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004. Over the last several years, Chile has signed FTAs with the European Union, South Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, China, and Japan. It reached a partial trade agreement with India in 2005 and began negotiations for a full-fledged FTA with India in 2006. Chile conducted trade negotiations in 2007 with Australia, Malaysia, and Thailand, as well as with China to expand an existing agreement beyond just trade in goods. Chile hopes to conclude FTA negotiations with Australia and the expanded agreement with China in 2008. Negotiations with Malaysia and Thailand are scheduled to continue throughout 2008. The members of the P4 (Chile, Singapore, New Zealand, and Brunei) also plan to conclude a chapter on finance and investment in 2008. The economic international organization the OECD agreed to invite Chile to be among four countries to open discussions in becoming an official member. High domestic savings and investment rates helped propel Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the 1990s. The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP. However, the AFP is not without its critics, who cite low participation rates (only 55% of the working population is covered), with groups such as the self-employed outside the system. There has also been criticism of the inefficiency and high costs due to a lack of competition among pension funds. Critics cite loopholes in the use of pension savings through lump sum withdraws for the purchase of a second home or payment of university fees as fundamental weaknesses of the AFP. The Bachelet administration plans substantial reform, but not an overhaul, of the AFP during the next several years. Chile GDP growth since 1961.Unemployment stubbornly hovered in the 9%-10% range after the start of the economic slowdown in 1999, above the 7% average for the 1990s. Unemployment finally dipped to 7.8% for 2006, and has kept falling in 2007, averaging 6.8% monthly (up to August). Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The percentage of Chileans with household incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 13.7% in 2006, according to government polls. Critics in Chile, however, argue true poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published, due to the government's use of an outdated 1987 household budget poll, updated every 10 years. According to these critics, using the 1997 household budget data, the poverty rate rises to 29%. Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of the ECLAC. Despite enjoying a comparatively higher GDP and more robust economy compared to most other countries of Latin America, Chile also suffers from one of the most uneven distributions of wealth in the world, ahead only of Brazil in the Latin American region and lagging behind even of most developing sub-Saharan African nations. Chile's top 10 richest percentile possesses 47 percent of the country's wealth. In relation to income distribution, some 6.2% of the country populates the upper economic income bracket, 15% the middle bracket, 21% the lower middle, 38% the lower bracket, and 20% the extreme poor. Airbus A340 of Chile's LAN Airlines.Chile's independent Central Bank pursues an inflation target of between 2% and 4%. Inflation has not exceeded 5% since 1998. Chile registered an inflation rate of 3.2% in 2006. The Chilean peso's rapid appreciation against the U.S. dollar in recent years has helped dampen inflation. Most wage settlements and loans are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility. Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds. Total foreign direct investment (FDI) was only $3.4 billion in 2006, up 52% from a poor performance in 2005. However, 80% of FDI continues to go to only four sectors: electricity, gas, water and mining. Much of the jump in FDI in 2006 was also the result of acquisitions and mergers and has done little to create new employment in Chile. The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, which is tasked with identifying new sectors and industries to promote. It is hoped that this, combined with some tax reforms to encourage domestic and foreign investment in research and development, will bring in additional FDI and to new parts of the economy. As of 2006, Chile invested only 0.6% of its annual GDP in research and development (R&D). Even then, two-thirds of that was government spending. The fact that domestic and foreign companies spend almost nothing on R&D does not bode well for the Government of Chile's efforts to develop innovative, knowledge-based sectors. Beyond its general economic and political stability, the government also has encouraged the use of Chile as an "investment platform" for multinational corporations planning to operate in the region, but this will have limited value given the developing business climate in Chile itself. Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. Foreign trade Chile is responsible for over a third of world's copper production.2006 was a record year for Chilean trade. Total trade registered a 31% increase over 2005. During 2006, exports of goods and services totaled U.S. $58 billion, an increase of 41%. This figure was somewhat distorted by the skyrocketing price of copper. In 2006, copper exports reached a historical high of U.S. $33.3 billion. Imports totaled U.S. $35 billion, an increase of 17% compared to the previous year. Chile thus recorded a positive trade balance of U.S. $23 billion in 2006. The main destinations for Chilean exports were the Americas (U.S. $39 billion), Asia (U.S. $27.8 billion) and Europe (U.S. $22.2 billion). Seen as shares of Chile's export markets, 42% of exports went to the Americas, 30% to Asia and 24% to Europe. Within Chile's diversified network of trade relationships, its most important partner remained the United States. Total trade with the U.S. was U.S. $14.8 billion in 2006. Since the U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement went into effect on January 1, 2004, U.S.-Chilean trade has increased by 154%. Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then. Total trade with Europe also grew in 2006, expanding by 42%. The Netherlands and Italy were Chile's main European trading partners. Total trade with Asia also grew significantly at nearly 31%. Trade with Korea and Japan grew significantly, but China remained Chile's most important trading partner in Asia. Chile's total trade with China reached U.S. $8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia. Chile is the world's fifth largest exporter of wine.The growth of exports in 2006 was due mainly to a strong increase in sales to the United States, the Netherlands, and Japan. These three markets alone accounted for an additional U.S. $5.5 billion worth of Chilean exports. Chilean exports to the United States totaled U.S. $9.3 billion, representing a 37.7% increase compared to 2005 (U.S. $6.7 billion). Exports to the European Union were U.S. $15.4 billion, a 63.7% increased compared to 2005 (U.S. $9.4 billion). Exports to Asia increased from U.S. $15.2 billion in 2005 to U.S. $19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase. During 2006, Chile imported U.S. $26 billion from the Americas, representing 54% of total imports, followed by Asia at 22%, and Europe at 16%. Mercosur members were the main suppliers of imports to Chile at U.S. $9.1 billion, followed by the United States with U.S. $5.5 billion and the European Union with U.S. $5.2 billion. From Asia, China was the most important exporter to Chile, with goods valued at U.S. $3.6 billion. Year-on-year growth in imports was especially strong from a number of countries—Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%). Chile's overall trade profile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports. The state-owned firm CODELCO is the world's largest copper-producing company, with recorded copper reserves of 200 years. Chile has made an effort to expand nontraditional exports. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and processed food, fishmeal and seafood, and wine. Successive Chilean governments have actively pursued trade-liberalizing agreements. During the 1990s, Chile signed free trade agreements (FTA) with Canada, Mexico, and Central America. Chile also concluded preferential trade agreements with Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. An association agreement with Mercosur—Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay—went into effect in October 1996. Continuing its export-oriented development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and South Korea. Chile, as a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization, is seeking to boost commercial ties to Asian markets. To that end, it has signed trade agreements in recent years with New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, India, China, and most recently Japan. In 2007, Chile held trade negotiations with Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, and China. In 2008, Chile hopes to conclude an FTA with Australia, and finalize an expanded agreement (covering trade in services and investment) with China. The P4 (Chile, Singapore, New Zealand, and Brunei) also plan to expand ties through adding a finance and investment chapter to the existing P4 agreement. Chile's trade talks with Malaysia and Thailand are also scheduled to continue in 2008. San Antonio port in Chile.After two years of negotiations, the United States and Chile signed an agreement in June 2003 that will lead to completely duty-free bilateral trade within 12 years. The U.S.-Chile FTA entered into force January 1, 2004 following approval by the U.S. and Chilean congresses. The bilateral FTA has inaugurated greatly expanded U.S.-Chilean trade ties, with total bilateral trade jumping by 154% during the FTA's first three years. Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board import tariff for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations in 2002, and the government has introduced legislation to modify them. Under the terms of the U.S.-Chile FTA, the price bands will be completely phased out for U.S. imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar within 12 years. Chile is a strong proponent of pressing ahead on negotiations for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and is active in the WTO's Doha round of negotiations, principally through its membership in the G-20 and Cairns Group. Finance Skyline of Santiago's Financial District.Chile's financial sector has grown quickly in recent years, with a banking reform law approved in 1997 that broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. The Chilean Government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001, and there is further pending legislation proposing further liberalization. Over the last ten years, Chileans have enjoyed the introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has also been accompanied by an increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $70 billion at the end of 2006, has been an important source of investment capital for the capital market. Chile maintains one of the best credit ratings (S&P A+) in Latin America. There are three main ways for Chilean firms to raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stocks on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised through these means go to finance domestic Chilean investment. The government is required by law to run a fiscal surplus of at least 1% of GDP. In 2006, the Government of Chile ran a surplus of $11.3 billion, equal to almost 8% of GDP. The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006. Defense Leopard 2A4 of the Chilean army in Fidae 2008.Chile's Armed Forces are subject to civilian control exercised by the President through the Minister of Defense. The President has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces. Army The commander in chief of the Chilean Army is General Oscar Izurieta Ferrer. The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, seven divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in Rancagua, and a Special Forces Command in Colina. The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America. Navy Chilean frigate Almirante Blanco Encalada (FF-15) at Pearl Harbor, 2006.Admiral Rodolfo Codina directs the 23,000-person Navy, including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based in Valparaiso. The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano. Air Force (FACH) Gen. Ricardo Ortega Perrier heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica. The FACH took delivery of the final 2 of 10 F-16s, all purchased from the U.S., in March 2007. Chile also took delivery in 2007 of a number of reconditioned Block 15 F-16s from the Netherlands, bringing to 18 the total of F-16s purchased from the Dutch. Carabineros After the military coup in September 1973, the Chilean national police (Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Eduardo Gordon is the head of the national police force of 40,964 men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile. Foreign relations Former President Ricardo Lagos with United States President George W. Bush.Since the early decades after independence, Chile has always had an active involvement in foreign affairs. In 1837 the country aggressively challenged the dominance of Peru's port of Callao for preeminence in the Pacific trade routes, defeating the short-lived alliance between Peru and Bolivia, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836-39) in the War of the Confederation. The war dissolved the confederation while distributing power in the Pacific. A second international war, the War of the Pacific (1879-83), further increased Chile's regional role, while adding considerably to its territory. During the nineteenth century, Chile's commercial ties were primarily with Britain, a country that had a decisive influence on the organization of the navy. The French influenced Chile's legal and educational systems and had a decisive impact on Chile, through the architecture of the capital in the boom years at the turn of the century. German influence came from the organization and training of the army by Prussians. On June 26, 1945 Chile participated as a founding member of the United Nations being among 50 countries that signed the United Nations Charter in San Francisco. With the military coup of 1973, Chile became isolated politically as a result of widespread human rights abuses. Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a 2-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. Jose Miguel Insulza, a Chilean national, was elected Secretary General of the Organization of American States in May 2005. Chile is currently serving on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Board of Governors, and the 2007-2008 chair of the board is Chile's ambassador to the IAEA, Milenko E. Skoknic. The country is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. It is currently bidding for a seat on the UN Human Rights Council. Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. It also hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005 and the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade. The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with Argentina during the 1990s. Chile and Bolivia severed diplomatic ties in 1978 over Bolivia's desire to reacquire territory it lost to Chile in 1879-83 War of the Pacific. The two countries maintain consular relations and are represented at the Consul General level. Demographics Chile's 2002 census reported a population of 15,116,435. Its growth has been declining since 1990, due to a decreasing birth rate. By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 20.2 million. About 85% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in Greater Santiago. The largest agglomerations according to the 2002 census are Greater Santiago with 5.4 million people, Greater Valparaíso with 804,000 and Greater Concepción with 666,000. Racial structure The bulk of the Chilean population features a considerably homogeneous mestizo quality, the product of miscegenation between colonial Spanish immigrants and Amerindian females (including the Atacameños, Diaguitas, Picunches, Araucanians or Mapuches, Huilliches, Pehuenches, and Cuncos). Chile's ethnic structure can be classified as 30% white, 5% Native American and 65% predominantly white mestizos. Whites are mostly Spanish in origin (mainly Castilians, Andalusians and Basques), and to a much lesser degree from Chile's various waves of immigrants (Italians, Germans, Israelis, Yugoslavians, Arabs, etc.). Foreigners have always been scarce in Chile, totalling 600 in the whole colonial period. At the 1960 census they numbered 105,000 (55% being Spanish, German, Italians or Argentines, in that order). Besides being small in number, they mixed quickly with the locals. The black population was always scant, reaching a high of 25,000 during the colonial period; its racial contribution is less than 1%. The current Native American population is relatively small (see below) according to the censuses; their numbers are augmented when one takes into consideration those that are physically similar, and those that are linguistically or socially thought to belong to them. Indigenous communities Those belonging to recognised indigenous communities (2002) Alacaluf 2,622 0.02% Mapuche 604,349 4.00% Atacameño 21,015 0.14% Quechua 6,175 0.04% Aymara 48,501 0.32% Rapanui 4,647 0.03% Colla 3,198 0.02% Yámana 1,685 0.01% In the 1992 Chilean census, a total of 10.5% of the total population surveyed declared themselves indigenous, irrespective of whether they currently practiced or spoke a native culture and language; almost one million people (9.7% of the total) declared themselves Mapuche, 0.6% declared to be Aymara, and 0.2% reported as Rapanui. At the 2002 census, only indigenous people that still practiced a native culture or spoke a native language were surveyed: 4.6% of the population (692,192 people) fit that description; of these, 87.3% declared themselves Mapuche. Immigration German influence is apparent in southern Chile.Relative to its overall population, Chile never experienced any large scale wave of immigrants. The total number of immigrants to Chile, both originating from other Latin American countries and all other (mostly European) countries, never surpassed 4% of its total population. This is not to say that immigrants were not important to the evolution of Chilean society and the Chilean nation. Basque families who migrated to Chile in the 18th century vitalized the economy and joined the old Castilian aristocracy to become the political elite that still dominates the country. Some non-Spanish European immigrants arrived in Chile — mainly to the northern and southern extremities of the country — during the 19th and 20th centuries, including English, Germans, Irish, Italians, French, Croatians and other former Yugoslavians. The prevalence of non-Hispanic European surnames among the governing body of modern Chile are a testament to their disproportionate contribution and influence on the country. Also worth mentioning are the Korean, and especially Palestinian communities, the latter being the largest colony of that people outside of the Arab world. The volume of immigrants from neighboring countries to Chile during those same periods was of a similar value. After independence and during the republican era, English, Italian, and French merchants established themselves in the growing cities of Chile and incidentally joined the political or economic elites of the country. The official encouragement of German and Swiss colonization in the Lake District (Los Lagos Region) during the second half of the 19th century was exceptional. Small numbers of displaced eastern European Jews and Christian Syrians and Palestinians fleeing the Ottoman Empire arrived in Chile. Today they spearhead financial and small manufacturing operations. Croats have also immigrated to Chile and have formed a notable ethnic identity. Currently, immigration from neighboring countries to Chile is greatest, and during the last decade immigration to Chile has doubled to 184,464 people in 2002, originating primarily from Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Emigration of Chileans has decreased during the last decade: It is estimated that 857,781 Chileans live abroad, 50.1% of those being in Argentina, 13.3% in the United States, 8.8% in Brazil, 4.9% in Sweden, and around 2% in Australia, with the rest being scattered in smaller numbers across the globe. Culture Gabriela Mistral, Nobel Prize for Literature (1945). Pablo Neruda, Nobel Prize for Literature (1971).Northern Chile was an important center of culture in the medieval and early modern Inca empire, while the central and southern regions were areas of Mapuche cultural activities. Through the colonial period following the conquest, and during the early Republican period, the country's culture was dominated by the Spanish. Other European influences, primarily English, French, and German began in the 19th century and have continued to this day. German migrants influenced the Bavarian style rural architecture and cuisine in the south of Chile in cities such as Valdivia and Puerto Montt. Music and dance The national dance is the cueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is the tonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody. In the mid-1960s native musical forms were revitalized by the Parra family with the Nueva Canción Chilena, which was associated with political activists and reformers, and by the folk singer and researcher on folklore and Chilean ethnography, Margot Loyola. Literature Chileans call their country país de poetas—country of poets. Gabriela Mistral was the first Chilean to win a Nobel Prize for Literature (1945). Chile's most famous poet, however, is Pablo Neruda, who also won the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly individualistic homes, located in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations. Cuisine Chilean cuisine is a reflection of the country's topographical variety, featuring an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Traditional recipes include cazuela, empanadas, humitas, and curanto. Sports Rodeo is a national sport in rural Chile. Marcelo Ríos was chosen Chilean sportsman of the century.Chile's most popular sport is association football (soccer). Chile hosted the 1962 FIFA World Cup and its national football team finished third. Other results achieved by the national football team include four finals at the Copa América, one silver and two bronze medals at the Pan American Games and a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics. The main soccer clubs are Colo-Colo, CF Universidad de Chile and CD Universidad Católica. Colo-Colo is the country's most successful club, winning 41 national tournaments and three international championships, including the coveted Copa Libertadores South American club tournament. Tennis is the country's most successful sport and second most popular. Its national team won the World Team Cup clay tournament twice in 2003-04, and played the Davis Cup final against Italy in 1976. At the 2004 Summer Olympics the country captured gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles. Marcelo Ríos became the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in the ATP singles rankings in 1998. Anita Lizana won the US Open in 1937, becoming the first women from Latin America to win a grand slam tournament. Luis Ayala was twice a runner-up at the French Open and both Ríos and Fernando González reached the Australian Open men's singles finals. At the Olympic Games Chile boasts two gold medals (tennis), six silver medals (athletics, equestrian, boxing and shooting) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football). Rodeo is the country's national sport and is practiced in the more rural areas of the country. A sport similar to hockey called chueca was played by the Mapuche people during the Spanish conquest. Skiing and snowboarding are practiced at ski centers located in the Central Andes, while surfing is popular at some coastal towns. Tourism San Pedro de Atacama.Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last few decades. In 2005, tourism grew by 13.6%, generating more than 4.5 billion dollars of which 1.5 billion is attributed to foreign tourists. According to the National Service of Tourism (Sernatur), 2 million people a year visit the country. Most of these visitors come from other countries in the American continent, mainly Argentina; followed by a growing amount from the United States, Europe, and Brazil with a growing amount of Asians from South Korea and PR China. Easter Island.The main attractions for tourists are places of natural beauty situated in the extreme zones of the country: San Pedro de Atacama, in the north, is very popular with foreign tourists who arrive to admire the Incaic architecture and the altiplano lakes of the Valley of the Moon. In Putre, also in the North, there is the Chungará Lake, as well as the Parinacota and the Pomerape volcanoes, with altitudes of 6,348 m and 6,222 m, respectively. Throughout the central Andes there are many ski resorts of international repute, like Portillo and Valle Nevado. In the south, the main tourist sites are the Chiloé Archipelago, Patagonia, the San Rafael Lagoon, with its many glaciers, and the Towers of Paine national park. The central port city of Valparaíso, with its unique architecture, is also popular. Finally, Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean is probably the main Chilean tourist destination. Torres del Paine.For locals, tourism is concentrated mostly in the summer (December to March), and mainly in the coastal beach towns. Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, La Serena and Coquimbo are the main summer centres in the north, and Pucón on the shores of Lake Villarrica is the main one in the south. Due to its proximity to Santiago, the coast of the Valparaíso Region, with its many beach resorts, receives the largest amount of tourists. Viña del Mar, Valparaíso's northern affluent neighbor, is popular due to its beaches, casino, and its annual song festival, the most important musical event in Latin America. In November 2005, the government launched a campaign under the brand "Chile: All Ways Surprising," intended to promote the country internationally for both business and tourism. Languages Spanish The Spanish spoken in Chile is distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighbouring South American countries due to the dropping of final syllables and 's' sounds, and the soft pronunciation of some consonants. English language learning and teaching is popular among students, academics and professionals, with some English words being absorbed and appropriated into everyday Spanish speech, although they might seem unrecognizable due to Non-native pronunciations of English. Indigenous languages There are several indigenous languages spoken in Chile: Mapudungun, Quechua, Rapa Nui, Huilliche, Aimará, Kawésqar and Yámana. After the Spanish invasion, Spanish took over as the lingua franca and the indigenous languages have become minority languages, with some now extinct or close to extinction. National symbols A red copihue.The national flower is the copihue (Lapageria rosea, Chilean bellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile. The coat of arms depicts the two national animals: the condor (Vultur gryphus, a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus, an endangered white tail deer). It also has the legend Por la razón o la fuerza (By right or might or By reason or by force). The flag of Chile consists of two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red stands for the blood spilled to achieve independence. Religion Chile is a traditionally Catholic nation, with an estimated 70% of Chileans belonging to that church. According to census data other declared denominations or groupings include: Protestant or Evangelical (15.1%), Jehovah's Witnesses (1%), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (0.9%), Jewish (0.1%), Atheist or Agnostic (8.3%), and other (4.4%). Less than 0.1% are either Orthodox or Muslim. (For the precise numbers of declared religions among the population ages 15 and over as indicated by the results of the latest census, see: 2002 Census data.) The LDS church statistics claim to have 543,628 members within Chile. |
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