| jíguàn： | sū gé lán | ||
yuèdòuyà dāng · sī mì Adam Smithzài百家争鸣dezuòpǐn!!! | |||
亚当·斯密shì shì：１７ ９ ０ nián７ yuè１７ rì（ sū gé lán sū gé lán 'ài dīng bǎo）
xué pài ／ liú pài： gǔ diǎn jīng jì xué
zhù yào lǐng yù： zhèng zhì zhé xué、 lún lǐ xué、 jīng jì xué
zhù míng sī xiǎng： gǔ diǎn jīng jì xué、 xiàn dài zì yóu shì chǎng、 láo dòng fēn gōng
shòu yǐng xiǎng yú： yà lǐ shì duō dé、 huò bù sī、 luò kè、 hā qí sēn、 xiū mó、 mèng dé sī jiū
shī yǐng xiǎng yú： mǎ 'ěr sà sī、 lǐ jiā tú、 mì 'ěr、 kǎi 'ēn sī、 mǎ kè sī、 ēn gé sī、 měi guó kāi guó xiān qū
yà dāng · sī mì（１７２３ ～１７９０） shì jīng jì xué de zhù yào chuàng lì zhě。１７２３ nián yà dāng sī mì chū shēng zài sū gé lán fǎ fū jùn（ CountyFife） de kòu kè kǎ dí（ Kirkcaldy）。 yà dāng · sī mì de fù qīn yě jiào yà dāng · sī mì， shì lǜ shī、 yě shì sū gé lán de jūn fǎ guān hé kòu kè kǎ dí de hǎi guān jiān dū， zài yà dāng sī mì chū shēng qián jǐ gè yuè qù shì； mǔ qīn mǎ gé lì tè（ Margaret） shì fǎ fū jùn sī tè lā sēn dé lì（ Strathendry） dà dì zhù yuē hàn · dào gé lā sī（ JohnDouglas） de nǚ 'ér， yà dāng sī mì yī shēng yǔ mǔ qīn xiāng yǐ wéi mìng， zhōng shēn wèi qǔ。
yà dāng sī mì cháng xiǎng shì qíng xiǎng dé chū shén、 sī háo bù shòu wài wù gān rǎo； yòu shí yě yīn cǐ fā shēng qiǔ shì， lì rú： yà dāng sī mì dān rèn hǎi guān zhuān yuán shí， yòu cì yīn dú zì chū shén jiāng zì jǐ gōng wén shàng de qiān míng bù zì jué xiě chéng qián yī gè qiān míng zhě de míng zì。 yà dāng sī mì zài mò shēng huán jìng fā biǎo wén zhāng huò yǎn shuō shí， gāng kāi shǐ huì yīn hài xiū pín pín kǒu chī， yī dàn shú xī hòu biàn huī fù biàn cái wú 'ài de qì shì， kǎn kǎn 'ér tán； ér qiě yà dāng sī mì duì xǐ 'ài de xué wèn yán jiū qǐ lái xiāng dāng zhuān zhù、 rè qíng， shèn zhì fèi qǐn wàng shí。
１７２３～１７ ４０ nián jiān， yà dāng · sī mì zài jiā xiāng sū gé lán qiú xué， zài gé lā sī gē dà xué（ UniversityofGlasgow） shí qī yà dāng · sī mì wán chéng lā dīng yǔ、 xī là yǔ、 shù xué hé lún lǐ xué děng kè chéng；１７４０～１７４６ nián jiān， fù niú jīn dà xué（ CollegesatOxford） qiú xué， dàn zài niú jīn bìng wèi huò dé liáng hǎo de jiào yù， wéi yī shōu huò shì dà liàng yuè dú xǔ duō gé lā sī gē dà xué quē fá de shū jí。１７５０ nián hòu， yà dāng · sī mì zài gé lā sī gē dà xué bù jǐn dān rèn guò luó ji xué hé dào dé zhé xué jiào shòu， hái jiān fù zé xué xiào xíng zhèng shì wù， yī zhí dào１７６４ nián lí kāi wéi zhǐ； zhè shí qī zhōng， yà dāng · sī mì yú１７５９ nián chū bǎn de《 dào dé qíng cāo lùn》 huò dé xué shù jiè jí gāo píng jià。 ér hòu yú１７６ ８ nián kāi shǐ zhuóshǒu zhù shù《 guó jiā kāng fù de xìng zhì hé yuán yīn de yán jiū》（ jiǎn chēng《 guó fù lùn》）。１７７３ nián shí rèn wéi《 guó fù lùn》 yǐ jī běn wán chéng， dàn yà dāng · sī mì duō huā sān nián shí jiān rùn shì cǐ shū，１７７６ nián３ yuè cǐ shū chū bǎn hòu yǐn qǐ dà zhòng guǎng fàn de tǎo lùn， yǐng xiǎng suǒ jí chú liǎo yīng guó běn dì， lián 'ōu zhōu dà lù hé měi zhōu yě wéi zhī fēng kuáng， yīn cǐ shì rén zūn chēng yà dāng · sī mì wéi “ xiàn dài jīng jì xué zhī fù ” hé“ zì yóu qǐ yè de shǒu hù shén”。
１７７８～１７９０ nián jiān yà dāng · sī mì yǔ mǔ qīn hé 'ā yí zài 'ài dīng bǎo dìng jū，１７８７ nián bèi xuǎn wéi gé lā sī gē dà xué róng yù xiào cháng， yě bèi rèn mìng wéi sū gé lán de hǎi guān hé yán shuì zhuān yuán。１７８４ nián sī mì chū xí gé lā sī gē dà xué xiào cháng rèn mìng yí shì， yīn yà dāng sī mì zhī mǔ yú１７５４ nián５ yuè qù shì suǒ yǐ chí wèi shàng rèn； zhí dào１７８７ nián cái dān rèn xiào cháng zhí wèi zhì１７８９ nián。 yà dāng sī mì zài qù shì qián jiāng zì jǐ de shǒu gǎo quán shù xiāo huǐ， yú１７９０ nián７ yuè１７ rì yǔ shì cháng cí， xiǎng nián６７ suì。
yà dāng · sī mì bìng bù shì jīng jì xué shuō de zuì zǎo kāi tuò zhě， tā zuì zhù míng de sī xiǎng zhōng yòu xǔ duō yě bìng fēi xīn yíng dú tè， dàn shì tā shǒu cì tí chū liǎo quán miàn xì tǒng de jīng jì xué shuō， wéi gāi lǐng yù de fā zhǎn dǎ xià liǎo liáng hǎo de jī chǔ。 yīn cǐ wán quán kě yǐ shuō《 guó fù lùn》 shì xiàn dài zhèng zhì jīng jì xué yán jiū de qǐ diǎn。
gāi shū de wěi dà chéng jiù zhī yī shì bìng qì liǎo xǔ duō guò qù de cuò wù gài niàn。 yà dāng sī mì bó chì liǎo jiù de zhòng shāng zhù yì xué shuō。 zhè zhǒng xué shuō piàn miàn qiáng diào guó jiā zhù bèi dà liàng jīn bì de zhòng yào xìng。 tā fǒu jué liǎo zhòng nóng zhù yì zhě de tǔ dì shì jià zhí de zhù yào lái yuán de guān diǎn， tí chū liǎo láo dòng de jī běn zhòng yào xìng。 yà dāng · sī mì（ fēn gōng lǐ lùn） zhòng diǎn qiáng diào láo dòng fēn gōng huì yǐn qǐ shēng chǎn de dà liàng zēngzhǎng， pēng jī liǎo zǔ 'ài gōng yè fā zhǎn de yī zhěng tào fǔ xiǔ de、 wǔ duàn de zhèng zhì xiàn zhì。
《 guó fù lùn》 de zhōng xīn sī xiǎng shì kàn qǐ lái sì hū zá luàn wú zhāng de zì yóu shì chǎng shí jì shàng shì gè zì xíng tiáozhěng jī zhì， zì dòng qīng xiàng yú shēng chǎn shè huì zuì pò qiē xū yào de huò pǐn zhǒng lèi de shù liàng。 lì rú， rú guǒ mǒu zhǒng xū yào de chǎn pǐn gōng yìng duǎn quē， qí jià gé zì rán shàng shēng， jià gé shàng shēng huì shǐ shēng chǎn shāng huò dé jiào gāo de lì rùn， yóu yú lì rùn gāo， qí tā shēng chǎn shāng yě xiǎng yào shēng chǎn zhè zhǒng chǎn pǐn。 shēng chǎn zēng jiā de jiēguǒ huì huǎn hé yuán lái de gōng yìng duǎn quē， ér qiě suí zhe gè gè shēng chǎn shāng zhī jiān de jìng zhēng， gōng yìng zēngzhǎng huì shǐ shāng pǐn de jià gé jiàng dào“ zì rán jià gé” jí qí shēng chǎn chéng běn。 shuídōu bù shì yòu mùdì dì tōng guò xiāo chú duǎn quē lái bāng zhù shè huì， dàn shì wèn tí què jiě jué liǎo。 yòng yà dāng sī mì de huà lái shuō， měi gè rén“ zhǐ xiǎng dé dào zì jǐ de lì yì”， dàn shì yòu hǎo xiàng“ bèi yī zhǐ wú xíng de shǒu qiān zhe qù shí xiàn yī zhǒng tā gēn běn wú yì yào shí xiàn de mùdì， …… tā men cù jìn shè huì de lì yì， qí xiào guǒ wǎng wǎng bǐ tā men zhēn zhèng xiǎng yào shí xiàn de hái yào hǎo。”（《 guó fù lùn》， dì sì juàn dì 'èr zhāng）
dàn shì rú guǒ zì yóu jìng zhēng shòu dào zǔ zhàng， nà zhǐ“ wú xíng de shǒu” jiù bù huì bǎ gōng zuò zuòde qià dào hǎo chù。 yīn 'ér yà dāng sī mì xiāng xìn zì yóu mào yì， wéi jiān jué fǎn duì gāo guān shuì 'ér shēn biàn。 shì shí shàng tā jiān jué fǎn duì zhèng fǔ duì shāng yè hé zì yóu shì chǎng de gān shè。 tā shēng yán zhè yàng de gān shè jīhū zǒng yào jiàng dī jīng jì xiàolǜ， zuì zhōng shǐ gōng zhòng fù chū jiào gāo de dài jià。 yà dāng sī mì suī rán méi yòu fā míng“ fàng rèn zhèng cè” zhè gè shù yǔ， dàn shì tā wéi jiàn lì zhè gè gài niàn suǒ zuò de gōng zuò bǐ rèn hé qí tā réndōu duō。
yòu xiē rén rèn wéi yà dāng · sī mì zhǐ bù guò shì yī wèi shāng yè lì yì de biàn hù shì， dàn shì zhè zhǒng kàn fǎ shì bù zhèng què de。 tā jīng cháng fǎn fù yòng zuì qiáng liè de yán cí tòng chì lǒng duàn shāng de huó dòng， jiān jué yào qiú jiāng qí xiāo miè。 yà dāng sī mì duì xiàn shí de shāng yè huó dòng de rèn shí yě bìng fēi tiān zhēn yòu zhì。《 guó fù lùn》 zhōng jì yòu zhè yàng yī gè diǎn xíng guān chá：“ tóng xíng rén hěn shǎo jù huì， dàn shì tā men huì tán bù shì cè huá chū yī gè duì fù gōng zhòng de yīn móu jiù shì páozhì chū yī gè yǎn rén 'ěr mù tí gāo wù jià de jìhuà。”
yà dāng · sī mì de jīng jì sī xiǎng tǐ xì jié gòu yán mì， lùn zhèng yòu lì， shǐ jīng jì sī xiǎng xué pài zài jǐ shí nián nèi jiù bèi pāo qì liǎo。 shí jì shàng yà dāng · sī mì bǎ tā men suǒ yòu de yōu diǎn dū xī rù jìn liǎo zì jǐ de tǐ xì， tóng shí yě xì tǒng dì pī lù liǎo tā men de quē diǎn。 yà dāng sī mì de jiē bān rén， bāo kuò xiàng tuō mǎ sī · mǎ 'ěr sà sī hé dà wèi · lǐ jiā tú zhè yàng zhù míng de jīng jì xué jiā duì tā de tǐ xì jìn xíng liǎo jīng xīn de chōng shí hé xiū zhèng（ méi yòu gǎi biàn jī běn gāng yào）， jīn tiān bèi chēng wéi jīng diǎn jīng jì xué tǐ xì。 suī rán xiàn dài jīng jì xué shuō yòu zēng jiā liǎo xīn de gài niàn hé fāng fǎ， dàn zhè xiē dà tǐ shuō lái shì jīng diǎn jīng jì xué de zì rán chǎn wù。 zài yī dìng yì yì shàng lái shuō， shèn zhì kǎ 'ěr · mǎ kè sī de jīng jì xué shuō（ zì rán bù shì tā de zhèng zhì xué shuō） dōukě yǐ kàn zuò shì jīng diǎn jīng jì xué shuō de jì xù。
zài《 guó fù lùn》 zhōng， yà dāng sī mì zài yī dìng chéng dù shàng yù jiàn dào liǎo mǎ 'ěr sà sī rén kǒu guò shèng de guān diǎn。 suī rán lǐ jiā tú hé kǎ 'ěr · mǎ kè sī dū jiān chí rèn wéi rén kǒu fù dān huì zǔ 'ài gōng zī gāo chū wéi chí shēng jì de shuǐ píng（ suǒ wèi de“ gōng zī gāng tiě dìng lǜ”）， dàn shì yà dāng sī mì zhǐ chū zài zēng jiā shēng chǎn de qíng kuàng xià gōng zī jiù huì zēngzhǎng。 shì shí yǐ jīng shí fēn qīng chǔ dì biǎo míng yà dāng sī mì zài zhè yī diǎn shàng zhèng què， ér lǐ jiā tú hé mǎ kè sī shì cuò de。
chú liǎo yà dāng · sī mì guān diǎn de zhèng què xìng jí duì hòu lái lǐ lùn jiā de yǐng xiǎng zhī wài jiù shì tā duì lì fǎ hé zhèng fǔ zhèng cè de yǐng xiǎng。《 guó fù lùn》 yī shū jì qiǎo gāo chāo， wén bǐ qīng xī， yōng yòu guǎng fàn de dú zhě。 yà dāng sī mì fǎn duì zhèng fǔ gān shè shāng yè hé shāng yè shì wù、 zàn chéng dī guān shuì hé zì yóu mào yì de guān diǎn zài zhěng gè shí jiǔ shì jì duì zhèng fǔ zhèng cè dōuyòu jué dìng xìng de yǐng xiǎng。 shì shí shàng tā duì zhè xiē zhèng cè de yǐng xiǎng jīn tiān rén men réng néng gǎn jué chū lái。
zì cóng yà dāng sī mì yǐ lái jīng jì xué yòu liǎo tū fēi měng jìn de fā zhǎn yǐ zhì tā de yī xiē sī xiǎng yǐ bèi gē zhì yī biān， yīn 'ér rén men róng yì dī gū tā de zhòng yào xìng。 dàn shí jì shàng tā shì shǐ jīng jì xué shuō chéng wéi yī mén xì tǒng kē xué de zhù yào chuàng lì rén， yīn 'ér shì rén lèi sī xiǎng shǐ shàng de zhù yào rén wù。
shí dài bèi jǐng
１７２３ nián yà dāng sī mì chū shēng zài sū gé lán fǎ fū jùn（ CountyFife） de kòu kè kǎ dí（ Kirkcaldy）。 dāng shí de yīng guó kě yǐ shuō shì 'ōu zhōu de xiān jìn zī běn zhù yì guó jiā。 bù jǐn shì shì jiè mào yì de zhōng xīn guó， shàng qiě shì lǐng xiān qí tā guó jiā de gōng yè guó。１８ shì jì qián qī 'ōu lù de fǎ guó hé de dé guó， shàng tíng liú zài yòu zhì de fēng jiàn de jiā nèi gōng yè， huò dú lì shǒu gōng yè de jiē duàn， réng rán yǐ zhè zhǒng fāng shì lái zhī pèi shēng chǎn。 dàn yīng guó què bù rán， yǐ jīng zǒu rù zī běn zhù yì chū jí jiē duàn， suǒ wèi gōng chǎng shǒu gōng yè yǐ zài guó nèi gè dà dū shì zhù xià gēn dǐ。
zhōng shì jì de jiā nèi gōng yè huò dú lì shǒu gōng yè， gōng rén shì fēn sàn zài gè jiā gè hù， gè rén zài quán tǐ zuò yè guò chéng zhōng bù guò shì yī gè gū lì de láo dòng zhě。 gōng chǎng zhì shǒu gōng yè què shì xǔ duō de gōng rén zài yī gè gōng chǎng láo dòng， zài yī gè zī běn jiā de zhǐ huī mìng lìng xià， shǐ yòng jiǎn dān de gōng jù， cóng shì fēn gōng de zuò yè。 yī zhí dào１７６０ nián yǐ jiàng fā shēng liǎo chǎn yè gé mìng， shǐ yòng jī xiè de dà gōng yè chū xiàn wéi zhǐ， zài chǎn yè gé mìng qián yīng guó gè guó gè dì suǒ shí xíng de， réng rán shì zhè zhǒng zī běn zhù yì qián qī de gōng chǎng zhì shǒu gōng yè。
zhè wèi jǔ shì wén míng de gǔ diǎn pài jīng jì xué de jù jiàng yà dāng sī mì， shēng dāng gōng chǎng zhì shǒu gōng yè hé jī xiè zhì dà gōng yè de guò dù shí qī。 tā de gōng jì jiù shì bǎ dāng shí líng xīng piàn duàn de jīng jì xué xué shuō， jīng guò yòu tǐ xì de zhěng lǐ， shǐ zhī chéng wéi yī mén fēn mén bié lèi dú lì yú zhé xué de dà xué wèn。
yǐng xiǎng rén wù
tuō mǎ sī · huò bù sī（ ThomasHobbes， 1588 héng 1697）
huò bù sī rèn wéi， chǔyú zì rán zhuàng tài zhōng de rén men， yóu yú zì sī zì lì de běn xìng qū shǐ， zài shè huì shēng huó zhōng bì rán yào fā shēng lì yì shàng de chōng tū。“ zài méi yòu yī gè gòng tóng quán lì shǐ dà jiā shè fú de shí hòu， rén men biàn chù zài suǒ wèi de zhàn zhēng zhuàng tài zhōng。 zhè zhǒng zhàn zhēng shì měi yī gè rén duì měi yī gè rén de zhàn zhēng。 wèile yì zhì zhè zhǒng zhàn zhēng zhuàng tài de fā shēng， shè huì jiù yào yī gè chāo hū shè huì zhī shàng de jù dà lì liàng， ér guó jiā jiù shì zhè zhǒng lì liàng de huà shēn。
yuē hàn · luò kè（ JohnLocke， 1632.8.29-1704.10.28）
zhù zhāng gōng mín zài yǔ zhèng fǔ qiān dìng qì yuē shí， bìng méi yòu fàng qì zì jǐ quán bù de zì rán quán lì， zhǐ shì bǎ bù fēn quán lì chū ràng gěi zhèng fǔ， zì jǐ bǎo chí zhe nà xiē zhèng fǔ bù néng gān shè de quán lì。 gōng mín jiāo chū de nà bù fèn quán lì tǒng yī jiāo gěi yóu yī xiē rén zǔ chéng de yì huì， jiàn lì yì huì zhì dù de zhèng fǔ， shí xíng lì fǎ yǔ xíng zhèng liǎng dà zhí néng“ fēn lì” de jī zhì， xíng zhèng fú cóng yì huì， gōng mín yòu kòng zhì yì huì de zhōng jí quán lì。 bì yào shí， gōng mín kě yǐ shōu huí zì jǐ jiāo chū de nà bù fèn quán lì， jiě sàn yì huì， zài bǎ quán lì jiāo gěi lìng yī xiē rén， zǔ jiàn xīn de yì huì。
hā qí sēn
zài dà yuē 14 suì shí， sī mì jìn rù liǎo gé lā sī gē dà xué， zài“ yǒng héng de”（ sī mì rú cǐ chēng hū tā） hā qí sēn de jiào dǎo xià yán dú dào dé zhé xué。 sī mì zài zhè gè shí qī fā zhǎn chū tā duì zì yóu、 lǐ xìng、 hé yán lùn zì yóu de rè qíng。
sī xiǎng bèi jǐng
yī . zhé xué jiā
１ màn dé fèi 'ěr（ Mandeville,Bernardde,1670-1731）
２ hā qǐ shēng（ Hutcheson,Francis,1694-1746）
３ xiū mó（ Hume,David1711-1776）
èr . jīng jì xué jiā
１ fán tè lín（ VanderlintJ. shēng nián bù míng， sǐ yú yī qī sì líng nián）
２ bó gé léi（ Berkeley,George1685-1753）
zhù yào lǐ lùn
yī、 fēn gōng lǐ lùn
yà dāng sī mì rèn wéi， fēn gōng de qǐ yuán shì yóu rén de cái néng jù yòu zì rán chā yì， nà shì qǐ yīn yú rén lèi dú yòu de jiāo huàn yǔ yì huò qīng xiàng， jiāo huàn jí yì huò xì shǔ sī lì xíng wéi， qí lì yì jué dìng yú fēn gōng， jiǎ dìng gè rén lè yú zhuān yè huà jí tí gāo shēng chǎn lì， jīng yóu shèng yú chǎn pǐn zhī jiāo huàn xíng wéi， cù shǐ gè rén zēng jiā cái fù， cǐ děng guò chéng jiāng kuò dà shè huì shēng chǎn， cù jìn shè huì fán róng， bìng dá sī lì yǔ gōng yì zhī tiáohé。
tā liè jǔ zhì zhēn yè lái shuō míng。“ rú guǒ tā men gè zì dú lì gōng zuò， bù zhuān xí yī zhǒng tè shū yè wù， nà me tā men bù lùn shì shuí， jué duì bù néng yī rì zhì zào 'èr shí méi zhēn， shuō bù dìng yī tiān lián yī méi yě zhì zào bù chū lái。 tā men bù dàn bù néng zhì chū jīn rì yóu shìdàng fēn gōng hé zuò 'ér zhì chéng de shù liàng de 'èr bǎi sì shí fēn zhī yī， jiù lián zhè shù liàng de sì qiān bā bǎi fēn zhī yī， kǒng pà yě zhì zào bù chū lái。”
fēn gōng cù jìn láo dòng shēng chǎn lì de yuán yīn yòu sān： dì yī， láo dòng zhě de jì qiǎo yīn zhuān yè 'ér rì jìn； dì 'èr， yóu yī zhǒng gōng zuò zhuǎn dào lìng yī zhǒng gōng zuò，
èr、 huò bì lǐ lùn
huò bì de shǒu yào gōng néng shì liú tōng shǒu duàn， chí yòu rén chí yòu huò bì shì wéi liǎo gòu mǎi qí tā wù pǐn。 dāng wù wù jiāo huàn fā zhǎn dào yǐ huò bì wéi méi jiè de jiāo huàn hòu， shāng pǐn de jià zhí jiù yòng huò bì lái héng liàng。 zhè shí， biàn chǎn shēng liǎo huò bì de lìng yī gōng néng － jià zhí chǐ dù。 yà dāng sī mì yě tán dào huò bì de chǔ cáng gōng néng、 zhī fù gōng néng。 dàn shì， tā tè bié qiáng diào huò bì de liú tōng gōng néng。
sān、 jià zhí lùn
tí jí jià zhí wèn tí， yà dāng sī mì zhǐ chū， jià zhí hán gài shǐ yòng jià zhí yǔ jiāo huàn jià zhí， qián zhě biǎo shì tè dìng cái huò zhī xiào yòng， hòu zhě biǎo shì yōng yòu cǐ yī cái huò qǔ lìng yī cái huò de gòu mǎi lì。 jìn yī bù zhǐ chū， jù yòu zuì dà shǐ yòng jià zhí zhī cái huò， wǎng wǎng bù jù jiāo huàn jià zhí， shuǐ jí zuàn shí shì qí zhù míng de lì zǐ。 bù guò shuǐ yǔ zuàn shí jià zhí zhī bǐ jiào shì bǎi nián zhī hòu biān jì xiào yòng xué pài cái yuán mǎn jiě jué cǐ yī wèn tí。
sì、 fēn pèi lǐ lùn
yà dāng sī mì de fēn pèi lùn， shì jí láo dòng gōng zī、 zī běn lì rùn jí tǔ dì dì zū zì rán shuài zhī jué dìng lǐ lùn。
yà dāng sī mì zhǐ chū， jìn guǎn gù zhù yōng yòu yì dī gōng zī de lì liàng， gōng zī réng yòu qí zuì dī shuǐ píng， cǐ yī zuì dī shuǐ píng shì láo dòng zhě bì xū néng gòu wéi chí jī běn shēng huó， jiǎ dìng shè huì gōng rén xū qiú zēng jiā huò gōng zī jī jīn tí gāo， gōng zī jiāng gāo yú zuì dī shuǐ píng。 jiù lìng yī jiǎo dù yán zhī， yī guó guó fù、 zī běn huò suǒ dé zēng jiā， jiāng cù shǐ gōng zī shàng zhǎng， gōng zī shàng zhǎng zé cù jìn rén kǒu zēng jiā。
zī běn lì rùn zhī gāo dī rú tóng láo dòng gōng zī， jué dìng yú shè huì cái fù zhī zēng jiǎn， zī běn zēng jiā gù kě cù shǐ gōng zī shàng zhǎng， què shǐ lì rùn wéi zhī xià jiàng。 yà dāng sī mì zhǐ chū， jiǎ dìng shāng rén tóu zī tóng yī shì yè， yīn wéi bǐ cǐ xiāng hù jìng zhēng， zì rán zhì shǐ lì rùn shuài jiàng dī。
dì zū xì zhǐ duì tǔ dì shǐ yòng suǒ zhī fù de jià gé。 yà dāng sī mì rèn wéi， dì zū gāo dī yǔ tǔ dì féi wò chéng dù jí shì chǎng yuǎn jìn yòu guān。
wǔ、 zī běn jī lěi lǐ lùn
zī běn lěi jī shì dà liàng jìn xíng fēn gōng bì bèi de lìng yī yào sù。 fēn gōng de kuò zhāng yǔ shēng chǎn xiàolǜ de tí gāo gēn zī běn de zǒng 'é chéng zhèng bǐ。 zī běn de lěi jī bì xū zài fēn gōng zhī qián jìn xíng， yīn wéi fēn gōng xū yào shǐ yòng xǔ duō tè shū de shè bèi yǔ jī xiè liào， zài zài dū xū yào yǐ zī běn lái gòu qǔ。 fēn gōng yù xì， gōng jù de xū yào yù duō， zī běn yù xiǎn dé zhòng yào。 tòu guò fēn gōng guò chéng， kě zēng jiā láo dòng shēng chǎn liàng， tí gāo guó mín suǒ dé， zēng qiáng guó mín chǔ xù yì yuàn yǔ néng lì。
liù、 fù shuì lǐ lùn
yà dāng sī mì tí chū sì dà fù shuì yuán zé， jí gōng píng、 què dìng、 biàn lì、 jīng jì。
gōng píng： yī guó guó mín yìng jìn kě néng 'àn qí néng lì yǐ zhī chí zhèng fǔ， yì jí guó mín yìng 'àn qí zài zhèng fǔ bǎo hù xià suǒ xiǎng yòu de lì dé bǐ lì nà shuì。
què dìng： gè guó mín yīngdāng jiǎo nà de shuì juān， xū què dìng bìng bù dé suí yì biàngēng， jiǎo nà shí qī、 jiǎo nà fāng fǎ、 yìng fù shuì 'é， dū yìng duì nà shuì rén qīng chǔ xuān shì。
biàn lì： yī qiē shuì juān， dū yìng zài zuì shì hé yú nà shuì rén de shí jiān yǔ fāng fǎ shōu zhī。
jīng jì： měi yī shuì juān dū yìng shàn jiā shè jì， wù shǐ gōng mín jiǎo fù guó kù yǐ wài， zài tā de cái lì shàng shòu dào zuì shǎo kě néng de jī dòng。
xué shuō jīng huá
guó fù lùn zhōng de zhé xué jī chǔ shuō míng yào huò dé xié zhù， bù néng zhǐ yǐ lài tā rén de tóng qíng xīn huò lì tā zhù yì， hái yào kào jī qǐ tā rén de lì jǐ xīn lái shí xiàn。“ qǐng gěi wǒ wǒ suǒ yào de dōng xī bā， tóng shí， nǐ yě kě yǐ huò dé nǐ suǒ yào de dōng xī。” huàn yán zhī， zài jīng jì shēng huó zhōng， yī qiē xíng wéi de yuán dòng lì zhù yào shì lì jǐ xīn 'ér bù shì tóng qíng xīn huò lì tā zhù yì。
zuò wéi yī gè jīng jì yuán dòng lì de lì jǐ xīn， tóng shí yě shì yī gè jīng jì jiāo huàn de jī chǔ。 yào cóng bié rén nà lǐ huò dé zì jǐ suǒ xū yào de dōng xī， bì xū gěi bié rén yǐ tā suǒ xū yào de dōng xī。 yú shì， jiù yòu fēn gōng、 yòu jiāo huàn、 yòu jià zhí、 yòu huò bì děng děng xiàn xiàng chǎn shēng。 rén men zài lì jǐ xīn de zhī pèi xià zuò gè zhǒng láo dòng， cóng 'ér gòu chéng liǎo sī rén cái fù hé shè huì cái fù de yuán quán。 jiāng lì jǐ xīn kàn zuò rén de běn xìng， jiāng jīng jì huó dòng kàn zuò lì jǐ xīn zuò yòng de jiēguǒ， shí jì shàng fǎn yìng liǎo yī qiē jīng jì xiàn xiàng shì kè guān de， dū shòu mǒu zhǒng zì rán guī lǜ de zhī pèi。
jì rán lì jǐ xīn shì rén de tiān xìng， shì zì rán fù yú de， zhuī qiú gè rén lì yì jiù chéng liǎo zì rán zhī lǐ， duì zhuī qiú gè rén lì yì de huó dòng jiù bù yìng xiàn zhì， yà dāng sī mì rèn wéi sī lì yǔ gōng yì sì yóu“ yī zhǐ kàn bù jiàn de shǒu” suǒ yǐn dǎo， yī bù yī bù qū xiàng hé xié yǔ jūn héng， cǐ nǎi zì rán zhì xù de běn zhì。
yǐng xiǎng
《 guó fù lùn》 yī shū chéng wèile dì yī běn shì tú chǎn shù 'ōu zhōu chǎn yè zēng cháng hé shāng yè fā zhǎn lì shǐ de zhù zuò， yě chéng wéi liǎo kāi zhǎn xiàn dài jīng jì xué kē de xiān qū。 tā yě tí gōng liǎo zī běn zhù yì hé zì yóu mào yì zuì wéi zhòng yào de lùn shù jī chǔ zhī yī， jí dà de yǐng xiǎng liǎo hòu dài de jīng jì xué jiā。
《 guó fù lùn》 yī shū de yuán shǐ bǎn běn zé cún zài yī xiē zhēng yì， yī xiē rén zhù zhāng shū zhōng de nèi róng céng bèi cuàn gǎi de jiào wéi wēn hé， yǐ fú hé dāng shí mǒu xiē sī xiǎng jiā rú xiū mò hé mèng dé sī jiū de jì dìng lǐ lùn。 díquè， xǔ duō sī mì de lǐ lùn dū zhǐ jiǎn dān dì miáo shù lì shǐ de zǒu xiàng jiāng huì yuǎn lí zhòng shāng zhù yì bìng cháo xiàng zì yóu mào yì， ér dāng shí zhè zhǒng zǒu xiàng zǎo yǐ fā zhǎn liǎo shù shí nián， bìng qiě yǐ duì zhèng fǔ zhèng cè yòu jí dà yǐng xiǎng。 wú lùn rú hé， sī mì de zuò pǐn guǎng fàn dì zǔ zhì liǎo tā men de lǐ lùn， yīn cǐ zhì jīn réng shì jīng jì xué jiè zuì wéi zhòng yào 'ér zuì jù yǐng xiǎng lì de shū jí zhī yī。
jié lùn
cóng yà dāng sī mì de jīng jì sī xiǎng kě fā xiàn： yǐ qián xué zhě duō yán jiū jīng jì xiàn xiàng， suǒ chēng jīng jì xué bù guò shì tè dìng shí dài、 tè dìng chǎng suǒ de jīng jì zhèng cè， yà dāng sī mì yǐ” rén xìng” wéi chū fā diǎn， bǎ pǔ biàn xìng dài rù liǎo jīng jì xué de lǐng yù， shǐ zhī chéng wéi shè huì kē xué。
yǐ qián xué zhě yǐ zēng jiā rén mín cái fù zuò wéi fù yù guó jiā de shǒu duàn， yà dāng sī mì zé què lì yǐ gǎi shàn rén mín shēng huó wéi zhù de jīng jì xué guān niàn。 jiāng” guó fù” de biāo zhǔn， yóu bù shēng chǎn de“ huò bì” yǔ jǐn shēng chǎn“ chún chǎn wù” de nóng yè， yǐn rù yǐ guó mín měi nián láo dòng shēng chǎn“ wù pǐn” zǒng liàng de zēng jiā， yì jí guó jiā suǒ yōng yòu quán bù jiāo huàn jià zhí zǒng 'é de zēng jiā wéi biāo zhǔn。
yà dāng sī mì jī jí chàng dǎo“ zì yóu fàng rèn” hé pái chú zhèng fǔ gān yù jīng jì shì wù， cù jìn yīng guó zì yóu mào yì zhèng cè de shí xiàn； yī bā sì liù nián jí１８６０ nián，“ gǔ wù tiáo lì”（ duì jìn kǒu gǔ wù zhēng zhòng shuì de fǎ lǜ，１４３６ nián shí shī，１８４６ nián yīng guó shǒuxiàng luó bó tè · pí 'ěr yú yǐ fèi chú） yǔ“ bǎo hù guān shuì” jí xiāng jì bèi fèi chú。
zuò wéi yī wèi“ jīng jì zì yóu zhù yì” de chàng dǎo zhě， yà dāng sī mì duì gōng shāng yè zhě de gōng zuò shèn wéi zàn shǎng， dàn duì tā men de dòng jī bù wú huái yí。
tā pī píng zhì zào yè yǔ mào yì zhě bào yòu zhuān lì de qǐ tú， bìng wèi qí lì yì“ cóng wèi yǔ gōng gòng de lì yì xié diào…… ..
tā duì nóng gōng dà zhòng de lì yì pō wéi guān huái， tóng qíng gōng rén， rèn wéi hé lǐ gōng zī duì zhàn shè huì duō shù de gōng rén shì bì yào de。“…… gè zhǒng gè lèi bù tóng de gōng rén， zài zhěng gè zhèng zhì shè huì zhōng zhàn qí duō shù…… fán zú yǐ gǎi shàn duō shù rén zhī shēng huó， biàn yǒng yuǎn bù néng shì wéi yòu hài yú shè huì quán tǐ。…… dāng shè huì zuì dà bù fēn de fènzǐ qióng kǔ wú yǐ， zé nà gè shè huì duàn rán bù néng chāng shèng 'ér 'ān lè， shì yǐ fán gēngzhòng wǔ gǔ yǐ yǎng rén、 féng zhì yī fú yǐ yī rén， jí jiàn zhù fáng zǐ yǐ jū rén zhě， yìng shǐ tā men běn shēn zài tā men zì jǐ de gōng zuò nèi huò yòu yī bù fēn de chǎn pǐn yǐ miǎn zī zì yǎng、 zì yī zì jū， bì jìng shì zuì gōng dào bù guò de shì。”
“ zhèng fǔ bù gān shè” duì yà dāng sī mì 'ér yán， bù guò shì gè pǔ tōng de yuán zé， ér bù shì yī tiáo jué duì de yuán zé。 chú zhèng fǔ sān rèn wù wài（ yī、 gǒng gù guó fáng， yǐ fáng zhǐ wài lì de qīn fàn。 èr、 jiàn lì sī fǎ zǔ zhì， yǐ wéi chí shè huì zhì 'ān yǔ gōng dào。 sān、 chuàng shè gōng gòng gōng chéng zhì dù， yǐ bǔ jiù sī rén qǐ yè zhī bù zú。）， tā hái zàn chéng zhèng fǔ guǎn lǐ yóu zhèng、 hé fǎ xiàn zhì lìlǜ、 guó mín yì wù jiào yù， jí yī qiē zì yóu yè huò xìn yòng yè de zhí zhào kǎo shì děng。 tā yě tóng yì yòng gōng gòng guī zhāng yǐ bǎo zhàng guó mín zhī yòu xíng 'ān quán， xiàng shì cǎi qǔ wèi shēng cuò shī yǐ yù fáng chuán rǎn bìng de màn yán。
yà dāng sī mì xīn mù zhōng de zhèng fǔ， bù shì wú wéi de。 tā xīn mù zhōng de zì yóu， bù shì wú tiáo jiàn de。 tā céng míng bái biǎo shì：“ ruò yī xiǎo bù fēn rén qīn fàn tiān fù de zì yóu quán，…… . zú shǐ shè huì quán tǐ yòu méng shòu wēi xiǎn zhī yú， zé kě yǐ bìng qiě yìng yòng zhèng fǔ fǎ lǜ lái jiā yǐ yì zhì。 zhè yǔ zhèng fǔ zhī wéi zì yóu zhèng fǔ huò zhuān zhì zhèng fǔ wú guān。”
zhù yào zhù zuò
yī、 dào dé qíng cāo lùn（１７５９）
zài yà dāng sī mì shēng huó de nà gè shí dài，“ dào dé qíng cāo” zhè yī duǎn yǔ， shì yòng lái shuō míng rén（ bèi shè xiǎng wéi zài běn néng shàng shì zì sī de dòng wù） de lìng rén nán yǐ lǐ jiě de néng lì， jí néng pàn duàn kè zhì sī lì de néng lì。 yīn cǐ， yà dāng sī mì jié lì yào zhèng míng de shì： jù yòu lì jǐ zhù yì běn xìng de gè rén ﹝ zhù yào shì zhuī zhú lì rùn de zī běn jiā ﹞ shì rú hé zài zī běn zhù yì shēng chǎn guān xì hé shè huì guān xì zhōng kòng zhì zì jǐ de gǎn qíng hé xíng wéi， yóu qí shì zì sī de gǎn qíng hé xíng wéi， cóng wèi 'ér jiàn lì yī gè yòu bì yào què lì xíng wéi zhǔn zé de shè huì 'ér yòu guī lǜ de huó dòng。 yà dāng sī mì zài《 guó fù lùn》 zhōng suǒ jiàn lì de jīng jì lǐ lùn tǐ xì， jiù shì yǐ tā zài《 dào dé qíng cāo lùn》 de zhè xiē lùn shù wéi qián tí de。
《 dào dé qíng cāo lùn》 hé《 guó fù lùn》 bù jǐn shì yà dāng sī mì jìn xíng jiāo tì chuàng zuò、 xiū dìng zài bǎn de liǎng bù zhù zuò， ér qiě shì qí zhěng gè xiě zuò jìhuà hé xué shù sī xiǎng tǐ xì de liǎng gè yòu jī zǔ chéng bù fēn。《 dào dé qíng cāo lùn》 suǒ chǎn shù de zhù yào shì lún lǐ dào dé wèn tí，《 guó fù lùn》 suǒ chǎn shù de zhù yào shì jīng jì fā zhǎn wèn tí， cóng xiàn zài de guān diǎn kàn lái， zhè shì liǎng mén bù tóng de xué kē， qián zhě shǔ yú lún lǐ xué， hòu zhě shǔ yú jīng jì xué。 yà dāng sī mì bǎ《 guó fù lùn》 kàn zuò shì zì jǐ zài《 dào dé qíng cāo lùn》 lùn shù de sī xiǎng de jì xù fā huī。《 dào dé qíng cāo lùn》 hé《 guó fù lùn》 zhè liǎng bù zhù zuò， zài lùn shù de yǔ qì、 lùn jí fàn wéi de kuān zhǎi、 xì mùdì zhì dìng hé zhuózhòng diǎn shàng suī yòu bù tóng， rú duì lì jǐ zhù yì xíng wéi de kòng zhì shàng，《 dào dé qíng cāo lùn》 jì zhòng tuō yú tóng qíng xīn hé zhèng yì gǎn， ér zài《 guó fù lùn》 zhōng zé jì xī wàng yú jìng zhēng jī zhì； dàn duì zì lì xíng wéi dé dòng jī de lùn shù， zài běn zhì shàng què shì yī zhì de。 zài《 dào dé qíng cāo lùn》 zhōng， yà dāng sī mì shì bǎ“ tóng qíng” zuò wéi pàn duàn hé xīn de， ér qí zuò wéi xíng wéi de dòng jī zé wán quán shì lìng yī huí shì。
èr、 guó fù lùn（１７７６）
《 guó fù lùn》 xì jīng jì xué bí zǔ yà dāng · sī mì de jù zhù。
dì yī piān lùn láo dòng shēng chǎn lì gǎi shàn de yuán yīn jí qí shēng chǎn wù zài gè jiē jí de rén men jiān zhī zì rán de fēn pèi shùn xù。
dì yī piān kāi shǐ shuō míng： gè zhǒng shēng chǎn lì de zuì dà gǎi shàn， qǐ yīn yú fēn gōng。 yòu fēn gōng， cái yòu huò bì。 yīn wéi， yòu liǎo fēn gōng， bì yòu jiāo huàn； yòu liǎo jiāo huàn， jiù yào huò bì； suǒ yǐ， huò bì shì zhùzhǎng fēn gōng suǒ bì xū de。 zhè yàng de yì lùn， zì rán jìn zhǎn dào jiāo huàn de tiáo jiàn； nà jiù shì jià zhí lùn jí jià gé lùn。 guān yú jià gé de yán jiū， wèi jià gé bèi fēn wéi gōng zī、 lì rùn jí dì zū； yīn cǐ， wèile shuō míng jià gé qǔ jué yú gōng zī、 lì rùn jí dì zū de bǐlǜ zhè yī shì shí， bì xū jiǎng dào zhè xiē bǐlǜ de biàn dòng。
dì 'èr piān lùn zī chǎn de xìng zhì、 jī xù jí yòng tú。 dì 'èr piān yòu wǔ dà lùn diǎn：
yī lùn zī chǎn de xìng zhì jí fēn lèi；
èr lùn shè huì zǒng zī chǎn zhōng de yī zhǒng tè bié bù mén（ jí huò bì） jí yínháng de gè zhǒng cāo zuò yǐ jié yuē huò bì de fāng fǎ；
sān lùn zī běn de jī xù jí shēng chǎn yǔ bù shēng chǎn de láo dòng；
sì lùn lì xī de shēng jiàng；
wǔ lùn zī běn de gè zhǒng yòng tú， bìng yú yǐ bǐ jiào。
dì sān piān lùn gè guó fù yù jìn bù de bù tóng。 dì sān piān shuō míng： guó fù de zì rán jìn bù， zī běn shì zuì chū yòng yú nóng yè， ér hòu yòng yú gè zhǒng zhì zào yè， zuì hòu yòng yú guó wài mào yì。
dì sì piān lùn jīng jì zhèng cè yǔ jīng jì xué shuō zhī zhū tǐ xì。 jí shāng yè tǐ xì yǔ nóng yè tǐ xì。
dì wǔ piān lùn yuán shǒu huò guó jiā de shōu rù。 bìng jù tǐ shuō míng xià liè sān diǎn：
yī， nǎ xiē shì jūn zhù huò zhèng fǔ de bì yào fèi yòng； zài zhè xiē fèi yòng dāng zhōng， nǎ xiē gāi yóu shè huì yī bān rén mín de fèng xiàn lái zhī yìng； nǎ xiē zé gāi yóu tè bié de shè huì tuán tǐ huò gè rén lái chéng dān。
èr， yòu nǎ xiē bù tóng de fāng fǎ， kě yǐ ràng yī bān shè huì chéng yuán wéi zhěng gè shè huì yīnggāi chéng dān de fèi yòng zuò chū fèng xiàn； zhè xiē fāng fǎ fēn bié yòu nǎ xiē zhòng yào de yōu quē diǎn。
sān， zuì hòu yī diǎn zé shuō míng， jiū jìng shì shénme lǐ yóu， shǐ dé jīhū suǒ yòu xiàn dài zhèng fǔ dū jǔ zhài dù rì； ér nà zhǒng zhài wù， duì zhěng gè shè huì de zhēn shí cái fù， yì jí， duì zhěng gè shè huì tǔ dì yǔ láo dòng měi nián de chǎn chū， huì zào chéng shénme yǐng xiǎng。
《 guó fù lùn》 zhōng tā yòu xià liè zhòng yào zhù zhāng：
１ gè rén zhù yì： jīng jì tǐ zhì zhī jiàn gòu， yìng yǐ bǎo zhàng gè rén zhī shēng cún jí fā zhǎn wéi yuán zé。 yīn wéi měi gè rén ruò néng chōng fēn fā zhǎn zì wǒ， zé shè huì zhěng tǐ yě jiāng huò dé jìn bù。
２ cái chǎn sī yòu zhì： jiù shì zhù zhāng sī rén yòu quán yōng yòu jí zhī pèi zì jǐ de cái fù。 yīn wéi rú cǐ cái néng shǐ gè rén chōng fēn fā zhǎn， tóng shí cù jìn wén míng de fā zhǎn。
３ zhuī qiú lì rùn jù yòu zhèng dāng xìng： qǐ yè jiā tóu zī gōng shāng yè suī rán wèile zhuī qiú lì rùn， dàn shì zài guò chéng zhōng wǎng wǎng chǎn shēng fú wù rén qún、 gòng xiàn shè huì de xiào guǒ， cù jìn shè huì jìn bù。
４ jīng jì zì yóu： zhù zhāng zhèng zhì zhōng lì， bù suí biàn gān yù jīng jì huó dòng， shǐ měi gè rén dé 'àn zhào zì jǐ de yì zhì， zì yóu dì jìn xíng qí jīng jì huó dòng， rú cǐ cái néng yòu xiàolǜ。
５ jià gé jī néng： shāng pǐn de jià gé， yóu shì chǎng lái jué dìng， rú cǐ jià gé zì rán huì tiáozhěng qiàdàng， ér qiě zī yuán yě huì pèi zhì dé dāng， jiēguǒ jiāng shǐ shè huì xiào yì dá dào zuì jiā de zhuàng tài。
tā rèn wéi rén lèi yòu zì sī lì jǐ de tiān xìng， yīn cǐ zhuī qiú zì lì bìng fēi bù dào dé zhī shì。 cháng ruò fàng rèn gè rén zì yóu jìng zhēng， rén rén zài cǐ jìng zhēng de huán jìng zhōng， bù dàn huì píng zhe zì jǐ lǐ xìng pàn duàn， zhuī qiú gè rén zuì dà de lì yì， tóng shí yòu yī zhǐ“ kàn bù jiàn de shǒu（ zhǐ shì chǎng）” shǐ shè huì zī yuán fēn pèi dá dào zuì jiā zhuàng tài。
Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and the University of Oxford. After graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith returned home and spent the next ten years writing The Wealth of Nations, publishing it in 1776. He died in 1790.
Biography
Early life
Smith was born to Margaret Douglas at Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland. His father, also named Adam Smith, was a lawyer, civil servant, and widower who married Margaret Douglas in 1720 and died two months before Smith was born. Although the exact date of Smith's birth is unknown, his baptism was recorded on 5 June 1723 at Kirkcaldy. Though few events in Smith's early childhood is cracked, Scottish journalist and Smith's biographer John Rae recorded that Smith was abducted by gypsies at the age of four and released when others went to rescue him.[N 1] Smith was close to his mother, who likely encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period"—from 1729 to 1737. While there, Smith studied Latin, mathematics, history, and writing.
A plaque of Smith
A commemorative plaque for Smith is located at Smith's home town of Kirkcaldy.
Formal education
Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, and free speech. In 1740, Smith was awarded the Snell exhibition and left to attend Balliol College, Oxford.
Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow far superior to that at Oxford, which he found intellectually stifling. In Book V, Chapter II of The Wealth of Nations, Smith wrote: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once discovered him reading a copy of David Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it. According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework." Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Oxford library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters. Near the end of his time at Oxford, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown. He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.
In Book V of The Wealth of Nations, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at English universities, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished men of letters could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the Church of England.
Teaching career
Smith began delivering public lectures in 1748 at Edinburgh under the patronage of Lord Kames. His lecture topics included rhetoric and belles-lettres, and later the subject of "the progress of opulence". On this latter topic he first expounded his economic philosophy of "the obvious and simple system of natural liberty". While Smith was not adept at public speaking, his lectures met with success.
A man posing for a painting
David Hume was a friend and contemporary of Smith.
In 1750, he met the philosopher David Hume, who was his senior by more than a decade. In their writings covering history, politics, philosophy, economics, and religion, Smith and Hume shared closer intellectual and personal bonds than with other important figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.
In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses. When the head of Moral Philosophy died the next year, Smith took over the position. He worked as an academic for the next thirteen years, which he characterized as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honorable period [of his life]".
Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human morality depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. Smith defined "sympathy" as the feeling of moral sentiments. He bases his explanation not on a special "moral sense", as the third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, nor on utility as Hume did, but on sympathy. Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith became so popular that many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith. After the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals. For example, Smith lectured that the cause of increase in national wealth is labor, rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver, which is the basis for mercantilism, the economic theory that dominated Western European economic policies at the time.
A drawing of a man sitting down
François Quesnay, one of the leaders of the Physiocratic school of thought
In 1762, the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). At the end of 1763, he obtained an offer from Charles Townshend—who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume—to tutor his stepson, Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch. Smith then resigned from his professorship to take the tutoring position, and he subsequently attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students because he resigned in the middle of the term, but his students refused.
Tutoring and travel
Smith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Scott while teaching him subjects including proper Polish. He was paid £300 per year plus expenses along with £300 per year pension, which was roughly twice his former income as a teacher. Smith first traveled as a tutor to Toulouse, France, where he stayed for a year and a half. According to accounts, he found Toulouse to be very boring, and he wrote to Hume that he "had begun to write a book to pass away the time". After touring the south of France, the group moved to Geneva, where Smith met with the philosopher Voltaire.
After staying in Geneva, the party went to Paris, where Smith came to know intellectual leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, Turgot, Jean D'Alembert, André Morellet, Helvétius and, in particular, Francois Quesnay, the head of the Physiocratic school, whose ideas impressed him so that he considered dedicating Quesnay his The Wealth of Nations had he not died earlier. The physiocrats opposed mercantilism, the dominating economic theory at the time, by taking up the motto Laissez faire et laissez passer, le monde va de lui même! (Let do and let pass, the world goes on by itself!). They also declared that only agriculture produced wealth, and that merchants and manufacturers did not. But this and their praising nature and a natural style of life was a necessary smoke screen, because criticising openly the consumption pattern of nobility and church – the only clients merchants and manufacturers had after Louis XIV and Louis XV ruined France by lost wars, help to the American insurgents against the British, and above all the excessive consumption of unproductive labour – labour which does not contribute to economic reproduction – would have been lethal. And if nobility and church are disposable for economic reproduction including those who work for them, in feudal France agriculture was the only sector important to maintain the society. As English distribution of income differed sharply from French, this was not fully understood by Adam Smith who concluded that their teachings are "with all its imperfections [perhaps] the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy". The distinction of productive versus unproductive labour – the physiocratic classe steril – became the central issue to the development approach of classical economics.
Later year
In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter. Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next ten years to his magnum opus. There he befriended Henry Moyes, a young blind man who showed precocious aptitude. As well as teaching Moyes himself, Smith secured the patronage of David Hume and Thomas Reid in the young man's education. In May 1773, Smith was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London, and was elected a member of the Literary Club in 1775. The Wealth of Nations was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out the first edition in only six months.
In 1778, Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Panmure House in Edinburgh's Canongate. Five years later, he became one of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and from 1787 to 1789 he occupied the honorary position of Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow. He died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness and was buried in the Canongate Kirkyard. On his death bed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more.
Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, and the pioneering geologist James Hutton. Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication. He mentioned an early unpublished History of Astronomy as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as Essays on Philosophical Subjects.
Smith's library went by his will to David Douglas, Lord Reston (son of his cousin Colonel Robert Douglas of Strathendry, Fife), who lived with Smith. It was eventually divided between his two surviving children, Cecilia Margaret (Mrs. Cunningham) and David Anne (Mrs. Bannerman). On the death of her husband, the Rev. W. B. Cunningham of Prestonpans in 1878, Mrs. Cunningham sold some of the books. The remainder passed to her son, Professor Robert Oliver Cunningham of Queen's College, Belfast, who presented a part to the library of Queen's College. After his death the remaining books were sold. On the death of Mrs. Bannerman in 1879 her portion of the library went intact to the New College (of the Free Church), Edinburgh.
Personality and belief
Character
An enamel paste medallion, depicting a man's head facing the right
James Tassie's enamel paste medallion of Smith provided the model for many engravings and portraits which remain today.
Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published articles. His personal papers were destroyed after his death at his request. He never married, and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before his own death.
Smith, who is often described as a prototypical absent-minded professor, is considered by historians to have been an eccentric but benevolent intellectual, comically absent-minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait, and a smile of "inexpressible benignity". He was known to talk to himself, a habit that began during his childhood when he would speak to himself and smile in rapt conversation with invisible companions. He also had occasional spells of imaginary illness, and he is reported to have had books and papers placed in tall stacks in his study.
Various anecdotes have discussed his absent-minded nature. In one story, Smith took Charles Townshend on a tour of a tanning factory, and while discussing free trade, Smith walked into a huge tanning pit from which he needed help to escape. Another episode records that he put bread and butter into a teapot, drank the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he ever had. In another example, Smith went out walking and daydreaming in his nightgown and ended up 15 miles (24 km) outside town before nearby church bells brought him back to reality.
A drawing of a man standing up, with one hand holding a cane and the other pointing at a book
Portrait of Smith by John Kay, 1790
Smith, who is reported to have been an odd-looking fellow, has been described as someone who "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment". Smith is said to have acknowledged his looks at one point, saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books." Smith rarely sat for portraits, so almost all depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory. The best-known portraits of Smith are the profile by James Tassie and two etchings by John Kay. The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th century reprints of The Wealth of Nations were based largely on Tassie's medallion.
Religious view
There has been considerable scholarly debate about the nature of Smith's religious views. Smith's father had a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the Church of Scotland. In addition to the fact that he received the Snell Exhibition, Smith may have also moved to England with the intention of pursuing a career in the Church of England. At Oxford, Smith rejected Christianity and it is generally believed that he returned to Scotland as a deist.
Economist Ronald Coase has challenged the view that Smith was a deist, stating that while Smith may have referred to the "Great Architect of the Universe" in his works, other scholars have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God". He based this on analysis of a remark in The Wealth of Nations where Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature" such as "the generation, the life, growth and dissolution of plants and animals" has led men to "enquire into their causes". Coase also notes Smith's observation that "[s]uperstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods."
Published work
The Theory of Moral Sentiment
Main article: The Theory of Moral Sentiment
In 1759, Smith published his first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He continued making extensive revisions to the book, up until his death.[N 2] Although The Wealth of Nations is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, it is believed that Smith himself considered The Theory of Moral Sentiments to be a superior work.
In the work, Smith critically examines the moral thinking of his time, and suggests that conscience arises from social relationships. His goal in writing the work was to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgements, in spite of man's natural inclinations towards self-interest. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy, in which the act of observing others makes people aware of themselves and the morality of their own behavior.
Scholars have traditionally perceived a conflict between The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations; the former emphasizes sympathy for others, while the latter focuses on the role of self-interest. In recent years, however, most scholars of Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists. They claim that in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathize with them. Rather than viewing The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments as presenting incompatible views of human nature, most Smith scholars regard the works as emphasizing different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. The Wealth of Nations draws on situations where man's morality is likely to play a smaller role, such as the laborer involved in pin-making, whereas The Theory of Moral Sentiments focuses on situations where man's morality is likely to play a dominant role among more personal exchanges.
These views ignore that Smith's visit to France (1764–66) changed radically his former views and that The Wealth of Nations is an inhomogeneous convolute of his former lectures and of what Quesnay taught him. Before his voyage to France in the "Theory of Moral Sentiments" (1759) Adam Smith refers to an "invisible hand" which procures that the gluttony of the rich helps the poor as the stomach of rich is so limited that they have to spend their fortune on servants. After his visit to France, Smith considers in the "Wealth of Nations" (1776) the gluttony of the rich as unproductive labour. The micro-economical/psychological view in the tradition of Aristotle, Puffendorf and Hutcheson, Smith's teacher, – elements compatible with a neoclassical theory – chanced to the macro-economical view of the classical theory Smith learned in France.[clarification needed]
The Wealth of Nation
Main article: The Wealth of Nation
A brown building
Later building on the site where Smith wrote The Wealth of Nation
There is a fundamental dissent between classical and neoclassical economists about the central message of Smith's most influential work: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Neoclassical economists emphasise Smith's invisible hand, a concept mentioned in the middle of his work – book IV, chapter II – and classical economists believe that Smith stated his programme how to promote the "Wealth of Nations" in the first sentences.
Smith used the term "the invisible hand" in "History of Astronomy" referring to "the invisible hand of Jupiter" and twice – each time with a different meaning – the term "an invisible hand": in The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and in The Wealth of Nations (1776). This last statement about "an invisible hand" has been interpreted as "the invisible hand" in numerous ways. It is therefore important to read the original:
As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestick industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestiek to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other eases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the publick good. [emphasis added].
Those who regard that statement as Smith's central message also quote frequently Smith's dictum:
It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.
The first page of a book
The first page of The Wealth of Nations, 1776 London edition
Smith's statement about the benefits of "an invisible hand" is certainly meant to answer Mandeville's contention that "Private Vices … may be turned into Public Benefits". It shows Smith's belief that when an individual pursues his self-interest, he indirectly promotes the good of society. Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and warned of their "conspiracy against the public or in some other contrivance to raise prices." Again and again Smith warned of the collusive nature of business interests, which may form cabals or monopolies, fixing the highest price "which can be squeezed out of the buyers". Smith also warned that a true laissez-faire economy would quickly become a conspiracy of businesses and industry against consumers, with the former scheming to influence politics and legislation. Smith states that the interest of manufacturers and merchants "...in any particular branch of trade or manufactures, is always in some respects different from, and even opposite to, that of the public...The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous, but with the most suspicious attention."
The neoclassical interest in Smith's statement about "an invisible hand" originates in the possibility to see it as a precursor of neoclassical economics and its General Equilibrium concept. Samuelson's "Economics" refers 6 times to Smith's "invisible hand". To emphasize this relation Samuelson quotes Smith's "invisible hand" statement putting "general interest" where Smith wrote "publick interest". Samuelson concluded: "Smith was unable to prove the essence of his invisible-hand doctrine. Indeed, until the 1940s no one knew how to prove, even to state properly, the kernel of truth in this proposition about perfectly competitive market." And it was then when neoclassical economics was revived in Chicago from oblivion and Samuelson entered the scene.
Very differently, classical economists see in Smith's first sentences his programme to promote "The Wealth of Nations". Taking up the physiocratical concept of the economy as a circular process means that to have growth the inputs of period2 must excel the inputs of period1. Therefore the outputs of period1 not used or usable as input of period are regarded as unproductive labor as they do not contribute to growth. This is what Smith had learned in France with Quesnay. To this French insight that unproductive labor should be pushed back to use more labor productively, Smith added his own proposal, that productive labor should be made even more productive by deepening the division of labor. Deepening the division of labor means under competition lower prices and thereby extended markets. Extended markets and increased production lead to a new step of reorganising production and inventing new ways of producing which again lower prices, etc., etc.. Smith's central message is therefore that under dynamic competition a growth machine secures "The Wealth of Nations". It predicted England's evolution as the workshop of the World, underselling all its competitors. The opening sentences of the "Wealth of Nations" summarize this policy:
The annual labor of every nation is the fund which originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniences of life which it annually consumes …. [T]his produce … bears a greater or smaller proportion to the number of those who are to consume it ….[B]ut this proportion must in every nation be regulated by two different circumstances;
* first, by the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which its labor is generally applied; and,
* secondly, by the proportion between the number of those who are employed in useful labour, and that of those who are not so employed [emphasis added].
Smith's "Wealth of Nations" offers many insights other theories disagree. It argues that agriculture offers fewer possibilities to a division of labour, raising its prices compared with industry. [Us-American and European agriculture is therefore subsidised]. To Smith, the genius and the natural talents of men are no natural dispositions which have to be paid for according to comparative advantages. "It is not upon many occasions so much the cause, as the effect of the division of labour." Competition should reduce the prices of these "talents". Smith suspects manufacturers of mischief and trusts landowners and labourers – as consumers – to represent the common good. [Ricardo mistrusts landowners as earners of a monopoly income.]
Other work
A burial
Smith's burial place in Canongate Kirkyard
Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects, a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics, probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. Lectures on Jurisprudence were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of The Wealth of Nations, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Smith. Other works, including some published posthumously, include Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896); A Treatise on Public Opulence (1764) (first published in 1937); and Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795).
Legacy
A statue of a man standing up
A statue of Smith on Edinburgh's Royal Mile built through private donations and organised by the Adam Smith Institute
In economics and moral philosophy
The Wealth of Nations, was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirized by Tory writers in the moralizing tradition of Hogarth and Swift, as a discussion at the University of Winchester suggests.
George Stigler attributes to Smith "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics" and foundation of resource-allocation theory. It is that, under competition, owners of resources (for example labor, land, and capital) will use them most profitably, resulting in an equal rate of return in equilibrium for all uses, adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training, trust, hardship, and unemployment.
Paul Samuelson finds in Smith's pluralist use of supply and demand as applied to wages, rents, profit a valid and valuable anticipation of the general equilibrium modeling of Walras a century later. Smith's allowance for wage increases in the short and intermediate term from capital accumulation and invention added a realism missed later by Malthus, Ricardo, and Marx in their propounding a rigid subsistence-wage theory of labour supply.
On the other hand, Joseph Schumpeter dismissed Smith's contributions as unoriginal, saying "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along."
Classical economists presented competing theories of those of Smith, termed the "labour theory of value". Later Marxian economics descending from classical economics also use Smith's labour theories, in part. The first volume of Karl Marx's major work, Capital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital. The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labor that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern understanding of mainstream economics, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing.
A brown building
The Adam Smith Theatre in Kirkcaldy
The body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" or "marginalism" formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term "economics" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier, broader term "political economy" used by Smith. This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences. Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the labour theory of value of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.
The bicentennial anniversary of the publication of The Wealth of Nations was celebrated in 1976, resulting in increased interest for The Theory of Moral Sentiments and his other works throughout academia. After 1976, Smith was more likely to be represented as the author of both The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and thereby as the founder of a moral philosophy and the science of economics. His homo economicus or "economic man" was also more often represented as a moral person. Additionally, his opposition to slavery, colonialism, and empire[clarification needed] was emphasized, as were his statements about high wages for the poor, and his views that a common street porter was not intellectually inferior to a philosopher.
A bank note depicting a man's head facing to the right
This £20 note was issued by the Bank of England and features Smith.
Portraits, monuments, and banknote
Smith has been commemorated in the UK on banknotes printed by two different banks; his portrait has appeared since 1981 on the £50 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank in Scotland, and in March 2007 Smith's image also appeared on the new series of £20 notes issued by the Bank of England, making him the first Scotsman to feature on an English banknote.
A large-scale memorial of Smith by Alexander Stoddart was unveiled on 4 July 2008 in Edinburgh. It is a 10 feet (3.0 m)-tall bronze sculpture and it stands above the Royal Mile outside St Giles' Cathedral in Parliament Square, near the Mercat cross. 20th century sculptor Jim Sanborn (best known for the Kryptos sculpture at the United States Central Intelligence Agency) has created multiple pieces which feature Smith's work. At Central Connecticut State University is Circulating Capital, a tall cylinder which features an extract from The Wealth of Nations on the lower half, and on the upper half, some of the same text but represented in binary code. At the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, outside the Belk College of Business Administration, is Adam Smith's Spinning Top. Another Smith sculpture is at Cleveland State University.
As a symbol of free market economic
A sculpture of an upside down cone
Adam Smith's Spinning Top, sculpture by Jim Sanborn at Cleveland State University
Smith has been celebrated by advocates of free market policies as the founder of free market economics, a view reflected in the naming of bodies such as the Adam Smith Institute, Adam Smith Society and the Australian Adam Smith Club, and in terms such as the Adam Smith necktie.
Alan Greenspan argues that, while Smith did not coin the term laissez-faire, "it was left to Adam Smith to identify the more-general set of principles that brought conceptual clarity to the seeming chaos of market transactions". Greenspan continues that The Wealth of Nations was "one of the great achievements in human intellectual history". P. J. O'Rourke describes Smith as the "founder of free market economics".
However, other writers have argued that Smith's support for laissez-faire (which in French means leave alone) has been overstated. Herbert Stein wrote that the people who "wear an Adam Smith necktie" do it to "make a statement of their devotion to the idea of free markets and limited government", and that this misrepresents Smith's ideas. Stein writes that Smith "was not pure or doctrinaire about this idea. He viewed government intervention in the market with great skepticism... yet he was prepared to accept or propose qualifications to that policy in the specific cases where he judged that their net effect would be beneficial and would not undermine the basically free character of the system. He did not wear the Adam Smith necktie." In Stein's reading, The Wealth of Nations could justify the Food and Drug Administration, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, mandatory employer health benefits, environmentalism, and "discriminatory taxation to deter improper or luxurious behavior".
Similarly, Vivienne Brown stated in The Economic Journal that in the 20th century United States, Reaganomics supporters, The Wall Street Journal, and other similar sources have spread among the general public a partial and misleading vision of Smith, portraying him as an "extreme dogmatic defender of laissez-faire capitalism and supply-side economics". In fact, The Wealth of Nations includes the following statement on the payment of taxes:
"The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state."
Moreover, in this passage Smith goes on to specify progressive, not flat, taxation:
"The rich should contribute to the public expense, not only in proportion to their revenue, but something more than in that proportion"
Smith even specifically named taxes that he thought should be required by the state among them luxury goods taxes and tax on rent. He believed that tax laws should be as transparent as possible and that each individual should pay a "certain amount, and not arbitrary," in addition to paying this tax at the time "most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it". Smith goes on to state that:
"Every tax, however, is, to the person who pays it, a badge, not of slavery, but of liberty."
Additionally, Smith outlined the proper expenses of the government in The Wealth of Nations, Book V, Ch. I. Included in his requirements of a government is to enforce contracts and provide justice system, grant patents and copy rights, provide public goods such as infrastructure, provide national defense and regulate banking. It was the role of the government to provide goods "of such a nature that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual" such as roads, bridges, canals, and harbours. He also encouraged invention and new ideas through his patent enforcement and support of infant industry monopolies. he supported public education and religious institutions as providing general benefit to the society. Finally he outlined how the government should support the dignity of the monarch or chief magistrate, such that they are equal or above the public in fashion. He even states that monarchs should be provided for in a greater fashion than magistrates of a republic because "we naturally expect more splendor in the court of a king than in the mansion-house of a doge." In addition, he was in favor of retaliatory tariffs and believed that they would eventually bring down the price of goods. He even stated in Wealth of Nations:
"The recovery of a great foreign market will generally more than compensate the transitory inconvenience of paying dearer during a short time for some sorts of goods."
Noam Chomsky has argued[N 3] that several aspects of Smith's thought have been misrepresented and falsified by contemporary ideology, including Smith's reasons for supporting markets and Smith's views on corporations. Chomsky argues that Smith supported markets in the belief that they would lead to equality, and that Smith opposed wage labor and corporations. Economic historians such as Jacob Viner regard Smith as a strong advocate of free markets and limited government (what Smith called "natural liberty") but not as a dogmatic supporter of laissez-faire.
Economist Daniel Klein believes using the term "free market economics" or "free market economist" to identify the ideas of Smith is too general and slightly misleading. Klein offers six characteristics central to the identity of Smith's economic thought and argues that a new name is needed to give a more accurate depiction of the "Smithian" identity. Economist David Ricardo set straight some of the misunderstandings about Smith's thoughts on free market. Most people still fall victim to the thinking that Smith was a free market economist without exception, though he was not. Ricardo pointed out that Smith was in support of helping infant industries. Smith believed that the government should subsidise newly formed industry, but he did fear that when the infant industry grew into adulthood it would be unwilling to surrender the government help. Smith also supported tariffs on imported goods to counteract an internal tax on the same good. Smith also fell to pressure in supporting some tariffs in support for national defense.