yīng guó zuòzhělièbiǎo
bèi 'ào Beowulfqiáo sǒu Geoffrey Chaucerāi méng · bīn sài Edmund Spenser
wēi lián · suō shì William Shakespeareqióng sēn Ben Jonson 'ěr dùn John Milton
duō 'ēn John Donne wéi 'ěr Andrew Marvell léi Thomas Gray
lāi William Blakehuá huá William Wordsworth miù 'ěr · zhì Samuel Coleridge
Sir Walter Scottbài lún George Gordon Byronxuě lāi Percy Bysshe Shelley
John Keatsài · lǎng Emily Bronte lǎng níng rén Elizabeth Barret Browning
ài huá · fěi jié Edward Fitzgeralddīng shēng Alfred Tennysonluó · lǎng níng Robert Browning
ā nuò Matthew Arnold dài Thomas Hardyài lüè Thomas Stearns Eliot
láo lún David Herbert Lawrence lán · tuō Dylan Thomasmài kǎi Norman Maccaig
mài lín Somhairle Mac Gill-Eainxiū Ted Hughes jīn Philip Larkin
· qióng Peter Jonescuī ruì Denis Twitchettā nuò · tānɡ yīn Arnold Joseph Toynbee
yuē hàn · láo 'āi John Lloydyuē hàn · sēn 约翰米奇森bǎo luó · 'ěr Paul Collier
dāng · Adam Smithdài wéi · D.W.Millerduō · lāi xīn Doris Lessing
qiáo sēn · wēi Jonathan Swiftqiáo sēn · léi Jonathan Pryceqiáo sēn Jonathan
yuē hàn · màn John Man · luò Nikolas Kozloff ruì · hàn Graham Hancock
wéi 'ēn · Wayne Rooneydài wéi - shǐ David - Smithshǐ fēn · bèi Stephen Bayley
dài méng · Desmond Morrisqiáo zhì · ào wēi 'ěr George Orwellxīn . liè nóng Cynthia Lennon
shān · shǐ wēi Alexander Stillwelltáng A. mài kěn Donald Alexander Mackenzie lún · 'ěr Allen Carr
· jié Mary Jaksch dāng · jié xùn Adam J. Jacksonluó · dài wéi sēn Rosemary Davidson
· yīn Sarah Vinekǎi · cuī E.Kay Trimbergerwéi duō · bèi hàn Victoria Beckham
dāng · Adam Smith
yīng guó hàn nuò wēi wáng cháo  (1723niánliùyuè5rì1790niánqīyuè17rì)
jíguàn: lán

yuèdòu dāng · Adam Smithzài百家争鸣dezuòpǐn!!!
亚当·斯密
  chū shēng nián yuè lán  lán jùn
   shì shì:17 niányuè17 lán lán 'ài dīng bǎo
   xué pài liú pài diǎn jīng xué
   zhù yào lǐng zhèng zhì zhé xuélún xuéjīng xué
   zhù míng xiǎng diǎn jīng xuéxiàn dài yóu shì chǎngláo dòng fēn gōng
   shòu yǐng xiǎng shì duō huò luò sēnxiū mèng jiū
   shī yǐng xiǎng 'ěr jiā 'ěrkǎi 'ēn ēn měi guó kāi guó xiān
   dāng · (1723 1790) shì jīng xué de zhù yào chuàng zhě。1723 nián dāng chū shēng zài lán jùn( CountyFife) de kòu ( Kirkcaldy)。 dāng · de qīn jiào dāng · shì shī shì lán de jūn guān kòu de hǎi guān jiān zài dāng chū shēng qián yuè shì qīn ( Margaret) shì jùn sēn ( Strathendry) zhù yuē hàn · dào ( JohnDouglas) de 'ér dāng shēng qīn xiāng wéi mìngzhōng shēn wèi
   dāng cháng xiǎng shì qíng xiǎng chū shén háo shòu wài gān rǎoyòu shí yīn shēng qiǔ shì dāng dān rèn hǎi guān zhuān yuán shíyòu yīn chū shén jiāng gōng wén shàng de qiān míng jué xiě chéng qián qiān míng zhě de míng dāng zài shēng huán jìng biǎo wén zhāng huò yǎn shuō shígāng kāi shǐ huì yīn hài xiū pín pín kǒu chī dàn shú hòu biàn huī biàn cái 'ài de shìkǎn kǎn 'ér tánér qiě dāng duì 'ài de xué wèn yán jiū lái xiāng dāng zhuān zhù qíngshèn zhì fèi qǐn wàng shí
  1723~17 nián jiān dāng · zài jiā xiāng lán qiú xuézài xué( UniversityofGlasgow) shí dāng · wán chéng dīng shù xué lún xué děng chéng;1740~1746 nián jiān niú jīn xué( CollegesatOxford) qiú xuédàn zài niú jīn bìng wèi huò liáng hǎo de jiào wéi shōu huò shì liàng yuè duō xué quē de shū 。1750 nián hòu dāng · zài xué jǐn dān rèn guò luó ji xué dào zhé xué jiào shòuhái jiān xué xiào xíng zhèng shì zhí dào1764 nián kāi wéi zhǐzhè shí zhōng dāng · 1759 nián chū bǎn dedào qíng cāo lùnhuò xué shù jiè gāo píng jiàér hòu 176 nián kāi shǐ zhuóshǒu zhù shùguó jiā kāng de xìng zhì yuán yīn de yán jiū》( jiǎn chēngguó lùn》)。1773 nián shí rèn wéiguó lùn běn wán chéngdàn dāng · duō huā sān nián shí jiān rùn shì shū,1776 niányuè shū chū bǎn hòu yǐn zhòng guǎng fàn de tǎo lùnyǐng xiǎng suǒ chú liǎo yīng guó běn lián 'ōu zhōu měi zhōu wéi zhī fēng kuángyīn shì rén zūn chēng dāng · wéi xiàn dài jīng xué zhī yóu de shǒu shén”。
  1778~1790 nián jiān dāng · qīn 'ā zài 'ài dīng bǎo dìng ,1787 nián bèi xuǎn wéi xué róng xiào cháng bèi rèn mìng wéi lán de hǎi guān yán shuì zhuān yuán。1784 nián chū xué xiào cháng rèn mìng shìyīn dāng zhī 1754 niányuè shì suǒ chí wèi shàng rènzhí dào1787 nián cái dān rèn xiào cháng zhí wèi zhì1789 nián dāng zài shì qián jiāng de shǒu gǎo quán shù xiāo huǐ1790 niányuè17 shì cháng xiǎng nián67 suì
   dāng · bìng shì jīng xué shuō de zuì zǎo kāi tuò zhě zuì zhù míng de xiǎng zhōng yòu duō bìng fēi xīn yíng dàn shì shǒu chū liǎo quán miàn tǒng de jīng xué shuōwéi gāi lǐng de zhǎn xià liǎo liáng hǎo de chǔyīn wán quán shuōguó lùnshì xiàn dài zhèng zhì jīng xué yán jiū de diǎn
   gāi shū de wěi chéng jiù zhī shì bìng liǎo duō guò de cuò gài niàn dāng chì liǎo jiù de zhòng shāng zhù xué shuōzhè zhǒng xué shuō piàn miàn qiáng diào guó jiā zhù bèi liàng jīn de zhòng yào xìng fǒu jué liǎo zhòng nóng zhù zhě de shì jià zhí de zhù yào lái yuán de guān diǎn chū liǎo láo dòng de běn zhòng yào xìng dāng · fēn gōng lùnzhòng diǎn qiáng diào láo dòng fēn gōng huì yǐn shēng chǎn de liàng zēngzhǎngpēng liǎo 'ài gōng zhǎn de zhěng tào xiǔ de duàn de zhèng zhì xiàn zhì
  《 guó lùnde zhōng xīn xiǎng shì kàn lái luàn zhāng de yóu shì chǎng shí shàng shì xíng tiáozhěng zhì dòng qīng xiàng shēng chǎn shè huì zuì qiē yào de huò pǐn zhǒng lèi de shù liàng guǒ mǒu zhǒng yào de chǎn pǐn gōng yìng duǎn quē jià rán shàng shēngjià shàng shēng huì shǐ shēng chǎn shāng huò jiào gāo de rùnyóu rùn gāo shēng chǎn shāng xiǎng yào shēng chǎn zhè zhǒng chǎn pǐnshēng chǎn zēng jiā de jiēguǒ huì huǎn yuán lái de gōng yìng duǎn quēér qiě suí zhe shēng chǎn shāng zhī jiān de jìng zhēnggōng yìng zēngzhǎng huì shǐ shāng pǐn de jià jiàng dào rán jià shēng chǎn chéng běnshuídōu shì yòu mùdì tōng guò xiāo chú duǎn quē lái bāng zhù shè huìdàn shì wèn què jiě jué liǎoyòng dāng de huà lái shuōměi rénzhǐ xiǎng dào de ”, dàn shì yòu hǎo xiàngbèi zhǐ xíng de shǒu qiān zhe shí xiàn zhǒng gēn běn yào shí xiàn de mùdì men jìn shè huì de xiào guǒ wǎng wǎng men zhēn zhèng xiǎng yào shí xiàn de hái yào hǎo。”(《 guó lùn》, juàn 'èr zhāng
   dàn shì guǒ yóu jìng zhēng shòu dào zhàng zhǐ xíng de shǒujiù huì gōng zuò zuòde qià dào hǎo chùyīn 'ér dāng xiāng xìn yóu mào wéi jiān jué fǎn duì gāo guān shuì 'ér shēn biànshì shí shàng jiān jué fǎn duì zhèng duì shāng yóu shì chǎng de gān shè shēng yán zhè yàng de gān shè jīhū zǒng yào jiàng jīng xiàolǜzuì zhōng shǐ gōng zhòng chū jiào gāo de dài jià dāng suī rán méi yòu míngfàng rèn zhèng zhè shù dàn shì wéi jiàn zhè gài niàn suǒ zuò de gōng zuò rèn réndōu duō
   yòu xiē rén rèn wéi dāng · zhǐ guò shì wèi shāng de biàn shìdàn shì zhè zhǒng kàn shì zhèng què de jīng cháng fǎn yòng zuì qiáng liè de yán tòng chì lǒng duàn shāng de huó dòngjiān jué yào qiú jiāng xiāo miè dāng duì xiàn shí de shāng huó dòng de rèn shí bìng fēi tiān zhēn yòu zhì。《 guó lùnzhōng yòu zhè yàng diǎn xíng guān chá:“ tóng xíng rén hěn shǎo huìdàn shì men huì tán shì huá chū duì gōng zhòng de yīn móu jiù shì páozhì chū yǎn rén 'ěr gāo jià de jìhuà。”
   dāng · de jīng xiǎng jié gòu yán lùn zhèng yòu shǐ jīng xiǎng xué pài zài shí nián nèi jiù bèi pāo liǎoshí shàng dāng · men suǒ yòu de yōu diǎn jìn liǎo de tóng shí tǒng liǎo men de quē diǎn dāng de jiē bān rénbāo kuò xiàng tuō · 'ěr wèi · jiā zhè yàng zhù míng de jīng xué jiā duì de jìn xíng liǎo jīng xīn de chōng shí xiū zhèngméi yòu gǎi biàn běn gāng yào), jīn tiān bèi chēng wéi jīng diǎn jīng xué suī rán xiàn dài jīng xué shuō yòu zēng jiā liǎo xīn de gài niàn fāng dàn zhè xiē shuō lái shì jīng diǎn jīng xué de rán chǎn zài dìng shàng lái shuōshèn zhì 'ěr · de jīng xué shuō rán shì de zhèng zhì xué shuōdōukě kàn zuò shì jīng diǎn jīng xué shuō de
   zàiguó lùnzhōng dāng zài dìng chéng shàng jiàn dào liǎo 'ěr rén kǒu guò shèng de guān diǎnsuī rán jiā 'ěr · jiān chí rèn wéi rén kǒu dān huì 'ài gōng gāo chū wéi chí shēng de shuǐ píngsuǒ wèi degōng gāng tiě dìng ”), dàn shì dāng zhǐ chū zài zēng jiā shēng chǎn de qíng kuàng xià gōng jiù huì zēngzhǎngshì shí jīng shí fēn qīng chǔ biǎo míng dāng zài zhè diǎn shàng zhèng quèér jiā shì cuò de
   chú liǎo dāng · guān diǎn de zhèng què xìng duì hòu lái lùn jiā de yǐng xiǎng zhī wài jiù shì duì zhèng zhèng de yǐng xiǎng。《 guó lùn shū qiǎo gāo chāowén qīng yōng yòu guǎng fàn de zhě dāng fǎn duì zhèng gān shè shāng shāng shì zàn chéng guān shuì yóu mào de guān diǎn zài zhěng shí jiǔ shì duì zhèng zhèng dōuyòu jué dìng xìng de yǐng xiǎngshì shí shàng duì zhè xiē zhèng de yǐng xiǎng jīn tiān rén men réng néng gǎn jué chū lái
   cóng dāng lái jīng xué yòu liǎo fēi měng jìn de zhǎn zhì de xiē xiǎng bèi zhì biānyīn 'ér rén men róng de zhòng yào xìngdàn shí shàng shì shǐ jīng xué shuō chéng wéi mén tǒng xué de zhù yào chuàng rényīn 'ér shì rén lèi xiǎng shǐ shàng de zhù yào rén
   shí dài bèi jǐng
  1723 nián dāng chū shēng zài lán jùn( CountyFife) de kòu ( Kirkcaldy)。 dāng shí de yīng guó shuō shì 'ōu zhōu de xiān jìn běn zhù guó jiā jǐn shì shì jiè mào de zhōng xīn guóshàng qiě shì lǐng xiān guó jiā de gōng guó。18 shì qián 'ōu de guó de guóshàng tíng liú zài yòu zhì de fēng jiàn de jiā nèi gōng huò shǒu gōng de jiē duànréng rán zhè zhǒng fāng shì lái zhī pèi shēng chǎndàn yīng guó què rán jīng zǒu běn zhù chū jiē duànsuǒ wèi gōng chǎng shǒu gōng zài guó nèi shì zhù xià gēn
   zhōng shì de jiā nèi gōng huò shǒu gōng gōng rén shì fēn sàn zài jiā rén zài quán zuò guò chéng zhōng guò shì de láo dòng zhěgōng chǎng zhì shǒu gōng què shì duō de gōng rén zài gōng chǎng láo dòngzài běn jiā de zhǐ huī mìng lìng xiàshǐ yòng jiǎn dān de gōng cóng shì fēn gōng de zuò zhí dào1760 nián jiàng shēng liǎo chǎn mìngshǐ yòng xiè de gōng chū xiàn wéi zhǐzài chǎn mìng qián yīng guó guó suǒ shí xíng deréng rán shì zhè zhǒng běn zhù qián de gōng chǎng zhì shǒu gōng
   zhè wèi shì wén míng de diǎn pài jīng xué de jiàng dāng shēng dāng gōng chǎng zhì shǒu gōng xiè zhì gōng de guò shí de gōng jiù shì dāng shí líng xīng piàn duàn de jīng xué xué shuōjīng guò yòu de zhěng shǐ zhī chéng wéi mén fēn mén bié lèi zhé xué de xué wèn
   yǐng xiǎng rén
   tuō · huò ( ThomasHobbes, 1588 héng 1697)
   huò rèn wéichǔyú rán zhuàng tài zhōng de rén menyóu de běn xìng shǐzài shè huì shēng huó zhōng rán yào shēng shàng de chōng 。“ zài méi yòu gòng tóng quán shǐ jiā shè de shí hòurén men biàn chù zài suǒ wèi de zhàn zhēng zhuàng tài zhōngzhè zhǒng zhàn zhēng shì měi rén duì měi rén de zhàn zhēngwèile zhì zhè zhǒng zhàn zhēng zhuàng tài de shēngshè huì jiù yào chāo shè huì zhī shàng de liàngér guó jiā jiù shì zhè zhǒng liàng de huà shēn
   yuē hàn · luò ( JohnLocke, 1632.8.29-1704.10.28)
   zhù zhāng gōng mín zài zhèng qiān dìng yuē shíbìng méi yòu fàng quán de rán quán zhǐ shì fēn quán chū ràng gěi zhèng bǎo chí zhe xiē zhèng néng gān shè de quán gōng mín jiāo chū de fèn quán tǒng jiāo gěi yóu xiē rén chéng de huìjiàn huì zhì de zhèng shí xíng xíng zhèng liǎng zhí néngfēn de zhìxíng zhèng cóng huìgōng mín yòu kòng zhì huì de zhōng quán yào shígōng mín shōu huí jiāo chū de fèn quán jiě sàn huìzài quán jiāo gěi lìng xiē rén jiàn xīn de huì
   sēn
   zài yuē 14 suì shí jìn liǎo xuézàiyǒng héng de”( chēng sēn de jiào dǎo xià yán dào zhé xué zài zhè shí zhǎn chū duì yóu xìng yán lùn yóu de qíng
   xiǎng bèi jǐng
   . zhé xué jiā
  1 màn fèi 'ěr( Mandeville,Bernardde,1670-1731)
  2 shēng( Hutcheson,Francis,1694-1746)
  3 xiū ( Hume,David1711-1776)
   èr . jīng xué jiā
  1 fán lín( VanderlintJ. shēng nián míng líng nián
  2 léi( Berkeley,George1685-1753)
   zhù yào lùn
   fēn gōng lùn
   dāng rèn wéifēn gōng de yuán shì yóu rén de cái néng yòu rán chā shì yīn rén lèi yòu de jiāo huàn huò qīng xiàngjiāo huàn huò shǔ xíng wéi jué dìng fēn gōngjiǎ dìng rén zhuān huà gāo shēng chǎn jīng yóu shèng chǎn pǐn zhī jiāo huàn xíng wéi shǐ rén zēng jiā cái děng guò chéng jiāng kuò shè huì shēng chǎn jìn shè huì fán róngbìng gōng zhī tiáohé
   liè zhì zhēn lái shuō míng。“ guǒ men gōng zuò zhuān zhǒng shū me men lùn shì shuíjué duì néng zhì zào 'èr shí méi zhēnshuō dìng tiān lián méi zhì zào chū lái men dàn néng zhì chū jīn yóu shìdàng fēn gōng zuò 'ér zhì chéng de shù liàng de 'èr bǎi shí fēn zhī jiù lián zhè shù liàng de qiān bǎi fēn zhī kǒng zhì zào chū lái。”
   fēn gōng jìn láo dòng shēng chǎn de yuán yīn yòu sān láo dòng zhě de qiǎo yīn zhuān 'ér jìn 'èryóu zhǒng gōng zuò zhuǎn dào lìng zhǒng gōng zuòtōng cháng sǔn shī shǎo shí jiānyòu liǎo fēn gōngjiù miǎn chú zhè zhǒng sǔn shī sān duō jiǎn huà láo dòng suō jiǎn láo dòng de xiè míngzhǐ yòu zài fēn gōng de chǔ shàng fāng cái néng
   èrhuò lùn
   huò de shǒu yào gōng néng shì liú tōng shǒu duànchí yòu rén chí yòu huò shì wéi liǎo gòu mǎi pǐndāng jiāo huàn zhǎn dào huò wéi méi jiè de jiāo huàn hòushāng pǐn de jià zhí jiù yòng huò lái héng liàngzhè shíbiàn chǎn shēng liǎo huò de lìng gōng néng jià zhí chǐ dāng tán dào huò de chǔ cáng gōng néngzhī gōng néngdàn shì bié qiáng diào huò de liú tōng gōng néng
   sānjià zhí lùn
   jià zhí wèn dāng zhǐ chūjià zhí hán gài shǐ yòng jià zhí jiāo huàn jià zhíqián zhě biǎo shì dìng cái huò zhī xiào yònghòu zhě biǎo shì yōng yòu cái huò lìng cái huò de gòu mǎi jìn zhǐ chū yòu zuì shǐ yòng jià zhí zhī cái huòwǎng wǎng jiāo huàn jià zhíshuǐ zuàn shí shì zhù míng de guò shuǐ zuàn shí jià zhí zhī jiào shì bǎi nián zhī hòu biān xiào yòng xué pài cái yuán mǎn jiě jué wèn
   fēn pèi lùn
   dāng de fēn pèi lùnshì láo dòng gōng běn rùn rán shuài zhī jué dìng lùn
   dāng zhǐ chūjìn guǎn zhù yōng yòu gōng de liànggōng réng yòu zuì shuǐ píng zuì shuǐ píng shì láo dòng zhě néng gòu wéi chí běn shēng huójiǎ dìng shè huì gōng rén qiú zēng jiā huò gōng jīn gāogōng jiāng gāo zuì shuǐ píngjiù lìng jiǎo yán zhī guó guó běn huò suǒ zēng jiājiāng shǐ gōng shàng zhǎnggōng shàng zhǎng jìn rén kǒu zēng jiā
   běn rùn zhī gāo tóng láo dòng gōng jué dìng shè huì cái zhī zēng jiǎn běn zēng jiā shǐ gōng shàng zhǎngquè shǐ rùn wéi zhī xià jiàng dāng zhǐ chūjiǎ dìng shāng rén tóu tóng shì yīn wéi xiāng jìng zhēng rán zhì shǐ rùn shuài jiàng
   zhǐ duì shǐ yòng suǒ zhī de jià dāng rèn wéi gāo féi chéng shì chǎng yuǎn jìn yòu guān
   běn lěi lùn
   běn lěi shì liàng jìn xíng fēn gōng bèi de lìng yào fēn gōng de kuò zhāng shēng chǎn xiàolǜ de gāo gēn běn de zǒng 'é chéng zhèng běn de lěi zài fēn gōng zhī qián jìn xíngyīn wéi fēn gōng yào shǐ yòng duō shū de shè bèi xiè liàozài zài yào běn lái gòu fēn gōng gōng de yào duō běn xiǎn zhòng yàotòu guò fēn gōng guò chéng zēng jiā láo dòng shēng chǎn liàng gāo guó mín suǒ zēng qiáng guó mín chǔ yuàn néng
   liù shuì lùn
   dāng chū shuì yuán gōng píngquè dìngbiàn jīng
   gōng píng guó guó mín yìng jìn néng 'àn néng zhī chí zhèng guó mín yìng 'àn zài zhèng bǎo xià suǒ xiǎng yòu de shuì
   què dìng guó mín yīngdāng jiǎo de shuì juān què dìng bìng suí biàngēngjiǎo shí jiǎo fāng yìng shuì 'é yìng duì shuì rén qīng chǔ xuān shì
   biàn qiē shuì juān yìng zài zuì shì shuì rén de shí jiān fāng shōu zhī
   jīng měi shuì juān yìng shàn jiā shè shǐ gōng mín jiǎo guó wàizài de cái shàng shòu dào zuì shǎo néng de dòng
   xué shuō jīng huá
   guó lùn zhōng de zhé xué chǔ shuō míng yào huò xié zhù néng zhǐ lài rén de tóng qíng xīn huò zhù hái yào kào rén de xīn lái shí xiàn。“ qǐng gěi suǒ yào de dōng tóng shí huò suǒ yào de dōng 。” huàn yán zhīzài jīng shēng huó zhōng qiē xíng wéi de yuán dòng zhù yào shì xīn 'ér shì tóng qíng xīn huò zhù
   zuò wéi jīng yuán dòng de xīntóng shí shì jīng jiāo huàn de chǔyào cóng bié rén huò suǒ yào de dōng gěi bié rén suǒ yào de dōng shìjiù yòu fēn gōngyòu jiāo huànyòu jià zhíyòu huò děng děng xiàn xiàng chǎn shēngrén men zài xīn de zhī pèi xià zuò zhǒng láo dòngcóng 'ér gòu chéng liǎo rén cái shè huì cái de yuán quánjiāng xīn kàn zuò rén de běn xìngjiāng jīng huó dòng kàn zuò xīn zuò yòng de jiēguǒshí shàng fǎn yìng liǎo qiē jīng xiàn xiàng shì guān de shòu mǒu zhǒng rán guī de zhī pèi
   rán xīn shì rén de tiān xìngshì rán dezhuī qiú rén jiù chéng liǎo rán zhī duì zhuī qiú rén de huó dòng jiù yìng xiàn zhì dāng rèn wéi gōng yóu zhǐ kàn jiàn de shǒusuǒ yǐn dǎo xiàng xié jūn héng nǎi rán zhì de běn zhì
   yǐng xiǎng
  《 guó lùn shū chéng wèile běn shì chǎn shù 'ōu zhōu chǎn zēng cháng shāng zhǎn shǐ de zhù zuò chéng wéi liǎo kāi zhǎn xiàn dài jīng xué de xiān gōng liǎo běn zhù yóu mào zuì wéi zhòng yào de lùn shù chǔ zhī de yǐng xiǎng liǎo hòu dài de jīng xué jiā
  《 guó lùn shū de yuán shǐ bǎn běn cún zài xiē zhēng xiē rén zhù zhāng shū zhōng de nèi róng céng bèi cuàn gǎi de jiào wéi wēn dāng shí mǒu xiē xiǎng jiā xiū mèng jiū de dìng lùndíquè duō de lùn zhǐ jiǎn dān miáo shù shǐ de zǒu xiàng jiāng huì yuǎn zhòng shāng zhù bìng cháo xiàng yóu mào ér dāng shí zhè zhǒng zǒu xiàng zǎo zhǎn liǎo shù shí niánbìng qiě duì zhèng zhèng yòu yǐng xiǎng lùn de zuò pǐn guǎng fàn zhì liǎo men de lùnyīn zhì jīn réng shì jīng xué jiè zuì wéi zhòng yào 'ér zuì yǐng xiǎng de shū zhī
   jié lùn
   cóng dāng de jīng xiǎng xiàn qián xué zhě duō yán jiū jīng xiàn xiàngsuǒ chēng jīng xué guò shì dìng shí dài dìng chǎng suǒ de jīng zhèng dāng rén xìngwéi chū diǎn biàn xìng dài liǎo jīng xué de lǐng shǐ zhī chéng wéi shè huì xué
   qián xué zhě zēng jiā rén mín cái zuò wéi guó jiā de shǒu duàn dāng què gǎi shàn rén mín shēng huó wéi zhù de jīng xué guān niànjiāngguó de biāo zhǔnyóu shēng chǎn dehuò jǐn shēng chǎnchún chǎn de nóng yǐn guó mín měi nián láo dòng shēng chǎn pǐnzǒng liàng de zēng jiā guó jiā suǒ yōng yòu quán jiāo huàn jià zhí zǒng 'é de zēng jiā wéi biāo zhǔn
   dāng chàng dǎo yóu fàng rèn pái chú zhèng gān jīng shì jìn yīng guó yóu mào zhèng de shí xiàn liù nián 1860 nián,“ tiáo ”( duì jìn kǒu zhēng zhòng shuì de ,1436 nián shí shī,1846 nián yīng guó shǒuxiàng luó · 'ěr fèi chúbǎo guān shuì xiāng bèi fèi chú
   zuò wéi wèijīng yóu zhù de chàng dǎo zhě dāng duì gōng shāng zhě de gōng zuò shèn wéi zàn shǎngdàn duì men de dòng huái
   píng zhì zào mào zhě bào yòu zhuān de bìng wèi cóng wèi gōng gòng de xié diào…… .. tōng cháng dōuzài piàn bìng gōng zhòng。”“ rèn yóu gōng shāng zhě suǒ jiàn de xīn huò zhě xīn de guī zhāng yìng duì zhī bié xiǎo xīndōubù yīnggāi jīng guò cháng deshèn de kǎo 'ér cǎi yòng。” tóng shí dāng duì zhè qún rén zǒng xiǎng lián lái miǎn jiān zhī jìng zhēng de cóng wèi wàng huái céng shuō:“ tóng xíng tóng de rén shì shì hěn shǎo huì zài deshèn zhì jiù shì wèile men hěn shǎo huì zhè yàng zuòdàn shìzhǐ yào men zài tán zuì hòu chǎn shēng de shì zhǒng duì zhòng de yīn móuhuò shì zhǒng hòngtái jià de gòu dāng。”
   duì nóng gōng zhòng de wéi guān huáitóng qíng gōng rénrèn wéi gōng duì zhàn shè huì duō shù de gōng rén shì yào de。“…… zhǒng lèi tóng de gōng rénzài zhěng zhèng zhì shè huì zhōng zhàn duō shù…… fán gǎi shàn duō shù rén zhī shēng huóbiàn yǒng yuǎn néng shì wéi yòu hài shè huì quán 。…… dāng shè huì zuì fēn de fènzǐ qióng shè huì duàn rán néng chāng shèng 'ér 'ān shì fán gēngzhòng yǎng rénféng zhì rén jiàn zhù fáng rén zhěyìng shǐ men běn shēn zài men de gōng zuò nèi huò yòu fēn de chǎn pǐn miǎn yǎng jìng shì zuì gōng dào guò de shì。”
  “ zhèng gān shèduì dāng 'ér yán guò shì tōng de yuán ér shì tiáo jué duì de yuán chú zhèng sān rèn wàigǒng guó fáng fáng zhǐ wài de qīn fànèrjiàn zhì wéi chí shè huì zhì 'ān gōng dàosānchuàng shè gōng gòng gōng chéng zhì jiù rén zhī 。), hái zàn chéng zhèng guǎn yóu zhèng xiàn zhì lìlǜguó mín jiào qiē yóu huò xìn yòng de zhí zhào kǎo shì děng tóng yòng gōng gòng guī zhāng bǎo zhàng guó mín zhī yòu xíng 'ān quánxiàng shì cǎi wèi shēng cuò shī fáng chuán rǎn bìng de màn yán
   dāng xīn zhōng de zhèng shì wéi de xīn zhōng de yóu shì tiáo jiàn de céng míng bái biǎo shì:“ ruò xiǎo fēn rén qīn fàn tiān de yóu quán,…… . shǐ shè huì quán yòu méng shòu wēi xiǎn zhī bìng qiě yìng yòng zhèng lái jiā zhìzhè zhèng zhī wéi yóu zhèng huò zhuān zhì zhèng guān。”
   zhù yào zhù zuò
   dào qíng cāo lùn(1759)
   zài dāng shēng huó de shí dài,“ dào qíng cāozhè duǎn shì yòng lái shuō míng rénbèi shè xiǎng wéi zài běn néng shàng shì de dòng de lìng rén nán jiě de néng néng pàn duàn zhì de néng yīn dāng jié yào zhèng míng de shì yòu zhù běn xìng de rén zhù yào shì zhuī zhú rùn de běn jiā shì zài běn zhù shēng chǎn guān shè huì guān zhōng kòng zhì de gǎn qíng xíng wéiyóu shì de gǎn qíng xíng wéicóng wèi 'ér jiàn yòu yào què xíng wéi zhǔn de shè huì 'ér yòu guī de huó dòng dāng zàiguó lùnzhōng suǒ jiàn de jīng lùn jiù shì zàidào qíng cāo lùnde zhè xiē lùn shù wéi qián de
  《 dào qíng cāo lùnguó lùn jǐn shì dāng jìn xíng jiāo chuàng zuòxiū dìng zài bǎn de liǎng zhù zuòér qiě shì zhěng xiě zuò jìhuà xué shù xiǎng de liǎng yòu chéng fēn。《 dào qíng cāo lùnsuǒ chǎn shù de zhù yào shì lún dào wèn ,《 guó lùnsuǒ chǎn shù de zhù yào shì jīng zhǎn wèn cóng xiàn zài de guān diǎn kàn láizhè shì liǎng mén tóng de xué qián zhě shǔ lún xuéhòu zhě shǔ jīng xué dāng guó lùnkàn zuò shì zàidào qíng cāo lùnlùn shù de xiǎng de huī。《 dào qíng cāo lùnguó lùnzhè liǎng zhù zuòzài lùn shù de lùn fàn wéi de kuān zhǎi mùdì zhì dìng zhuózhòng diǎn shàng suī yòu tóng duì zhù xíng wéi de kòng zhì shàng,《 dào qíng cāo lùn zhòng tuō tóng qíng xīn zhèng gǎnér zàiguó lùnzhōng wàng jìng zhēng zhìdàn duì xíng wéi dòng de lùn shùzài běn zhì shàng què shì zhì dezàidào qíng cāo lùnzhōng dāng shì tóng qíngzuò wéi pàn duàn xīn deér zuò wéi xíng wéi de dòng wán quán shì lìng huí shì
   èrguó lùn(1776)
  《 guó lùn jīng xué dāng · de zhù
   piān lùn láo dòng shēng chǎn gǎi shàn de yuán yīn shēng chǎn zài jiē de rén men jiān zhī rán de fēn pèi shùn
   piān kāi shǐ shuō míng zhǒng shēng chǎn de zuì gǎi shàn yīn fēn gōngyòu fēn gōngcái yòu huò yīn wéiyòu liǎo fēn gōng yòu jiāo huànyòu liǎo jiāo huànjiù yào huò suǒ huò shì zhùzhǎng fēn gōng suǒ dezhè yàng de lùn rán jìn zhǎn dào jiāo huàn de tiáo jiàn jiù shì jià zhí lùn jià lùnguān jià de yán jiūwèi jià bèi fēn wéi gōng rùn yīn wèile shuō míng jià jué gōng rùn de bǐlǜ zhè shì shí jiǎng dào zhè xiē bǐlǜ de biàn dòng
   'èr piān lùn chǎn de xìng zhì yòng 'èr piān yòu lùn diǎn
   lùn chǎn de xìng zhì fēn lèi
   èr lùn shè huì zǒng chǎn zhōng de zhǒng bié mén huò yínháng de zhǒng cāo zuò jié yuē huò de fāng
   sān lùn běn de shēng chǎn shēng chǎn de láo dòng
   lùn de shēng jiàng
   lùn běn de zhǒng yòng bìng jiào
   sān piān lùn guó jìn de tóng sān piān shuō míngguó de rán jìn běn shì zuì chū yòng nóng ér hòu yòng zhǒng zhì zào zuì hòu yòng guó wài mào
   piān lùn jīng zhèng jīng xué shuō zhī zhū shāng nóng
   piān lùn yuán shǒu huò guó jiā de shōu bìng shuō míng xià liè sān diǎn
   xiē shì jūn zhù huò zhèng de yào fèi yòngzài zhè xiē fèi yòng dāng zhōng xiē gāi yóu shè huì bān rén mín de fèng xiàn lái zhī yìng xiē gāi yóu bié de shè huì tuán huò rén lái chéng dān
   èryòu xiē tóng de fāng ràng bān shè huì chéng yuán wéi zhěng shè huì yīnggāi chéng dān de fèi yòng zuò chū fèng xiànzhè xiē fāng fēn bié yòu xiē zhòng yào de yōu quē diǎn
   sānzuì hòu diǎn shuō míngjiū jìng shì shénme yóushǐ jīhū suǒ yòu xiàn dài zhèng zhài ér zhǒng zhài duì zhěng shè huì de zhēn shí cái duì zhěng shè huì láo dòng měi nián de chǎn chūhuì zào chéng shénme yǐng xiǎng
  《 guó lùnzhōng yòu xià liè zhòng yào zhù zhāng
  1 rén zhù jīng zhì zhī jiàn gòuyìng bǎo zhàng rén zhī shēng cún zhǎn wéi yuán yīn wéi měi rén ruò néng chōng fēn zhǎn shè huì zhěng jiāng huò jìn
  2 cái chǎn yòu zhìjiù shì zhù zhāng rén yòu quán yōng yòu zhī pèi de cái yīn wéi cái néng shǐ rén chōng fēn zhǎntóng shí jìn wén míng de zhǎn
  3 zhuī qiú rùn yòu zhèng dāng xìng jiā tóu gōng shāng suī rán wèile zhuī qiú rùndàn shì zài guò chéng zhōng wǎng wǎng chǎn shēng rén qúngòng xiàn shè huì de xiào guǒ jìn shè huì jìn
  4 jīng yóuzhù zhāng zhèng zhì zhōng suí biàn gān jīng huó dòngshǐ měi rén 'àn zhào de zhì yóu jìn xíng jīng huó dòng cái néng yòu xiàolǜ
  5 jià néngshāng pǐn de jià yóu shì chǎng lái jué dìng jià rán huì tiáozhěng qiàdàngér qiě yuán huì pèi zhì dāngjiēguǒ jiāng shǐ shè huì xiào dào zuì jiā de zhuàng tài
   rèn wéi rén lèi yòu de tiān xìngyīn zhuī qiú bìng fēi dào zhī shìcháng ruò fàng rèn rén yóu jìng zhēngrén rén zài jìng zhēng de huán jìng zhōng dàn huì píng zhe xìng pàn duànzhuī qiú rén zuì de tóng shí yòu zhǐkàn jiàn de shǒuzhǐ shì chǎng)” shǐ shè huì yuán fēn pèi dào zuì jiā zhuàng tài


  Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. It earned him an enormous reputation and would become one of the most influential works on economics ever published. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics and capitalism.
  
  Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and the University of Oxford. After graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith returned home and spent the next ten years writing The Wealth of Nations, publishing it in 1776. He died in 1790.
  
  Biography
  
   Early life
  
  Smith was born to Margaret Douglas at Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland. His father, also named Adam Smith, was a lawyer, civil servant, and widower who married Margaret Douglas in 1720 and died two months before Smith was born. Although the exact date of Smith's birth is unknown, his baptism was recorded on 5 June 1723 at Kirkcaldy. Though few events in Smith's early childhood is cracked, Scottish journalist and Smith's biographer John Rae recorded that Smith was abducted by gypsies at the age of four and released when others went to rescue him.[N 1] Smith was close to his mother, who likely encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period"—from 1729 to 1737. While there, Smith studied Latin, mathematics, history, and writing.
  A plaque of Smith
  A commemorative plaque for Smith is located at Smith's home town of Kirkcaldy.
  
   Formal education
  
  Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, and free speech. In 1740, Smith was awarded the Snell exhibition and left to attend Balliol College, Oxford.
  
  Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow far superior to that at Oxford, which he found intellectually stifling. In Book V, Chapter II of The Wealth of Nations, Smith wrote: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once discovered him reading a copy of David Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it. According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework." Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Oxford library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters. Near the end of his time at Oxford, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown. He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.
  
  In Book V of The Wealth of Nations, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at English universities, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished men of letters could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the Church of England.
  
   Teaching career
  
  Smith began delivering public lectures in 1748 at Edinburgh under the patronage of Lord Kames. His lecture topics included rhetoric and belles-lettres, and later the subject of "the progress of opulence". On this latter topic he first expounded his economic philosophy of "the obvious and simple system of natural liberty". While Smith was not adept at public speaking, his lectures met with success.
  A man posing for a painting
  David Hume was a friend and contemporary of Smith.
  
  In 1750, he met the philosopher David Hume, who was his senior by more than a decade. In their writings covering history, politics, philosophy, economics, and religion, Smith and Hume shared closer intellectual and personal bonds than with other important figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.
  
  In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses. When the head of Moral Philosophy died the next year, Smith took over the position. He worked as an academic for the next thirteen years, which he characterized as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honorable period [of his life]".
  
  Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human morality depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. Smith defined "sympathy" as the feeling of moral sentiments. He bases his explanation not on a special "moral sense", as the third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, nor on utility as Hume did, but on sympathy. Following the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith became so popular that many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith. After the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals. For example, Smith lectured that the cause of increase in national wealth is labor, rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver, which is the basis for mercantilism, the economic theory that dominated Western European economic policies at the time.
  A drawing of a man sitting down
  François Quesnay, one of the leaders of the Physiocratic school of thought
  
  In 1762, the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). At the end of 1763, he obtained an offer from Charles Townshend—who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume—to tutor his stepson, Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch. Smith then resigned from his professorship to take the tutoring position, and he subsequently attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students because he resigned in the middle of the term, but his students refused.
  
   Tutoring and travel
  
  Smith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Scott while teaching him subjects including proper Polish. He was paid £300 per year plus expenses along with £300 per year pension, which was roughly twice his former income as a teacher. Smith first traveled as a tutor to Toulouse, France, where he stayed for a year and a half. According to accounts, he found Toulouse to be very boring, and he wrote to Hume that he "had begun to write a book to pass away the time". After touring the south of France, the group moved to Geneva, where Smith met with the philosopher Voltaire.
  
  After staying in Geneva, the party went to Paris, where Smith came to know intellectual leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, Turgot, Jean D'Alembert, André Morellet, Helvétius and, in particular, Francois Quesnay, the head of the Physiocratic school, whose ideas impressed him so that he considered dedicating Quesnay his The Wealth of Nations had he not died earlier. The physiocrats opposed mercantilism, the dominating economic theory at the time, by taking up the motto Laissez faire et laissez passer, le monde va de lui même! (Let do and let pass, the world goes on by itself!). They also declared that only agriculture produced wealth, and that merchants and manufacturers did not. But this and their praising nature and a natural style of life was a necessary smoke screen, because criticising openly the consumption pattern of nobility and church – the only clients merchants and manufacturers had after Louis XIV and Louis XV ruined France by lost wars, help to the American insurgents against the British, and above all the excessive consumption of unproductive labour – labour which does not contribute to economic reproduction – would have been lethal. And if nobility and church are disposable for economic reproduction including those who work for them, in feudal France agriculture was the only sector important to maintain the society. As English distribution of income differed sharply from French, this was not fully understood by Adam Smith who concluded that their teachings are "with all its imperfections [perhaps] the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy". The distinction of productive versus unproductive labour – the physiocratic classe steril – became the central issue to the development approach of classical economics.
  
   Later year
  
  In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter. Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next ten years to his magnum opus. There he befriended Henry Moyes, a young blind man who showed precocious aptitude. As well as teaching Moyes himself, Smith secured the patronage of David Hume and Thomas Reid in the young man's education. In May 1773, Smith was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London, and was elected a member of the Literary Club in 1775. The Wealth of Nations was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out the first edition in only six months.
  
  In 1778, Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Panmure House in Edinburgh's Canongate. Five years later, he became one of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and from 1787 to 1789 he occupied the honorary position of Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow. He died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness and was buried in the Canongate Kirkyard. On his death bed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more.
  
  Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, and the pioneering geologist James Hutton. Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication. He mentioned an early unpublished History of Astronomy as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as Essays on Philosophical Subjects.
  
  Smith's library went by his will to David Douglas, Lord Reston (son of his cousin Colonel Robert Douglas of Strathendry, Fife), who lived with Smith. It was eventually divided between his two surviving children, Cecilia Margaret (Mrs. Cunningham) and David Anne (Mrs. Bannerman). On the death of her husband, the Rev. W. B. Cunningham of Prestonpans in 1878, Mrs. Cunningham sold some of the books. The remainder passed to her son, Professor Robert Oliver Cunningham of Queen's College, Belfast, who presented a part to the library of Queen's College. After his death the remaining books were sold. On the death of Mrs. Bannerman in 1879 her portion of the library went intact to the New College (of the Free Church), Edinburgh.
  
   Personality and belief
  
   Character
  An enamel paste medallion, depicting a man's head facing the right
  James Tassie's enamel paste medallion of Smith provided the model for many engravings and portraits which remain today.
  
  Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published articles. His personal papers were destroyed after his death at his request. He never married, and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before his own death.
  
  Smith, who is often described as a prototypical absent-minded professor, is considered by historians to have been an eccentric but benevolent intellectual, comically absent-minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait, and a smile of "inexpressible benignity". He was known to talk to himself, a habit that began during his childhood when he would speak to himself and smile in rapt conversation with invisible companions. He also had occasional spells of imaginary illness, and he is reported to have had books and papers placed in tall stacks in his study.
  
  Various anecdotes have discussed his absent-minded nature. In one story, Smith took Charles Townshend on a tour of a tanning factory, and while discussing free trade, Smith walked into a huge tanning pit from which he needed help to escape. Another episode records that he put bread and butter into a teapot, drank the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he ever had. In another example, Smith went out walking and daydreaming in his nightgown and ended up 15 miles (24 km) outside town before nearby church bells brought him back to reality.
  A drawing of a man standing up, with one hand holding a cane and the other pointing at a book
  Portrait of Smith by John Kay, 1790
  
  Smith, who is reported to have been an odd-looking fellow, has been described as someone who "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment". Smith is said to have acknowledged his looks at one point, saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books." Smith rarely sat for portraits, so almost all depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory. The best-known portraits of Smith are the profile by James Tassie and two etchings by John Kay. The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th century reprints of The Wealth of Nations were based largely on Tassie's medallion.
  
   Religious view
  
  There has been considerable scholarly debate about the nature of Smith's religious views. Smith's father had a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the Church of Scotland. In addition to the fact that he received the Snell Exhibition, Smith may have also moved to England with the intention of pursuing a career in the Church of England. At Oxford, Smith rejected Christianity and it is generally believed that he returned to Scotland as a deist.
  
  Economist Ronald Coase has challenged the view that Smith was a deist, stating that while Smith may have referred to the "Great Architect of the Universe" in his works, other scholars have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God". He based this on analysis of a remark in The Wealth of Nations where Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature" such as "the generation, the life, growth and dissolution of plants and animals" has led men to "enquire into their causes". Coase also notes Smith's observation that "[s]uperstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods."
  
   Published work
  
   The Theory of Moral Sentiment
  Main article: The Theory of Moral Sentiment
  
  In 1759, Smith published his first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He continued making extensive revisions to the book, up until his death.[N 2] Although The Wealth of Nations is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, it is believed that Smith himself considered The Theory of Moral Sentiments to be a superior work.
  
  In the work, Smith critically examines the moral thinking of his time, and suggests that conscience arises from social relationships. His goal in writing the work was to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgements, in spite of man's natural inclinations towards self-interest. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy, in which the act of observing others makes people aware of themselves and the morality of their own behavior.
  
  Scholars have traditionally perceived a conflict between The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations; the former emphasizes sympathy for others, while the latter focuses on the role of self-interest. In recent years, however, most scholars of Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists. They claim that in The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals seek the approval of the "impartial spectator" as a result of a natural desire to have outside observers sympathize with them. Rather than viewing The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments as presenting incompatible views of human nature, most Smith scholars regard the works as emphasizing different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. The Wealth of Nations draws on situations where man's morality is likely to play a smaller role, such as the laborer involved in pin-making, whereas The Theory of Moral Sentiments focuses on situations where man's morality is likely to play a dominant role among more personal exchanges.
  
  
  These views ignore that Smith's visit to France (1764–66) changed radically his former views and that The Wealth of Nations is an inhomogeneous convolute of his former lectures and of what Quesnay taught him. Before his voyage to France in the "Theory of Moral Sentiments" (1759) Adam Smith refers to an "invisible hand" which procures that the gluttony of the rich helps the poor as the stomach of rich is so limited that they have to spend their fortune on servants. After his visit to France, Smith considers in the "Wealth of Nations" (1776) the gluttony of the rich as unproductive labour. The micro-economical/psychological view in the tradition of Aristotle, Puffendorf and Hutcheson, Smith's teacher, – elements compatible with a neoclassical theory – chanced to the macro-economical view of the classical theory Smith learned in France.[clarification needed]
  
   The Wealth of Nation
  Main article: The Wealth of Nation
  A brown building
  Later building on the site where Smith wrote The Wealth of Nation
  
  There is a fundamental dissent between classical and neoclassical economists about the central message of Smith's most influential work: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Neoclassical economists emphasise Smith's invisible hand, a concept mentioned in the middle of his work – book IV, chapter II – and classical economists believe that Smith stated his programme how to promote the "Wealth of Nations" in the first sentences.
  
  Smith used the term "the invisible hand" in "History of Astronomy" referring to "the invisible hand of Jupiter" and twice – each time with a different meaning – the term "an invisible hand": in The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and in The Wealth of Nations (1776). This last statement about "an invisible hand" has been interpreted as "the invisible hand" in numerous ways. It is therefore important to read the original:
  
   As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestick industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestiek to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other eases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the publick good. [emphasis added].
  
  Those who regard that statement as Smith's central message also quote frequently Smith's dictum:
  
   It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.
  
  The first page of a book
  The first page of The Wealth of Nations, 1776 London edition
  
  Smith's statement about the benefits of "an invisible hand" is certainly meant to answer Mandeville's contention that "Private Vices … may be turned into Public Benefits". It shows Smith's belief that when an individual pursues his self-interest, he indirectly promotes the good of society. Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and warned of their "conspiracy against the public or in some other contrivance to raise prices." Again and again Smith warned of the collusive nature of business interests, which may form cabals or monopolies, fixing the highest price "which can be squeezed out of the buyers". Smith also warned that a true laissez-faire economy would quickly become a conspiracy of businesses and industry against consumers, with the former scheming to influence politics and legislation. Smith states that the interest of manufacturers and merchants "...in any particular branch of trade or manufactures, is always in some respects different from, and even opposite to, that of the public...The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous, but with the most suspicious attention."
  
  The neoclassical interest in Smith's statement about "an invisible hand" originates in the possibility to see it as a precursor of neoclassical economics and its General Equilibrium concept. Samuelson's "Economics" refers 6 times to Smith's "invisible hand". To emphasize this relation Samuelson quotes Smith's "invisible hand" statement putting "general interest" where Smith wrote "publick interest". Samuelson concluded: "Smith was unable to prove the essence of his invisible-hand doctrine. Indeed, until the 1940s no one knew how to prove, even to state properly, the kernel of truth in this proposition about perfectly competitive market." And it was then when neoclassical economics was revived in Chicago from oblivion and Samuelson entered the scene.
  
  Very differently, classical economists see in Smith's first sentences his programme to promote "The Wealth of Nations". Taking up the physiocratical concept of the economy as a circular process means that to have growth the inputs of period2 must excel the inputs of period1. Therefore the outputs of period1 not used or usable as input of period are regarded as unproductive labor as they do not contribute to growth. This is what Smith had learned in France with Quesnay. To this French insight that unproductive labor should be pushed back to use more labor productively, Smith added his own proposal, that productive labor should be made even more productive by deepening the division of labor. Deepening the division of labor means under competition lower prices and thereby extended markets. Extended markets and increased production lead to a new step of reorganising production and inventing new ways of producing which again lower prices, etc., etc.. Smith's central message is therefore that under dynamic competition a growth machine secures "The Wealth of Nations". It predicted England's evolution as the workshop of the World, underselling all its competitors. The opening sentences of the "Wealth of Nations" summarize this policy:
  
   The annual labor of every nation is the fund which originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniences of life which it annually consumes …. [T]his produce … bears a greater or smaller proportion to the number of those who are to consume it ….[B]ut this proportion must in every nation be regulated by two different circumstances;
  
   * first, by the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which its labor is generally applied; and,
   * secondly, by the proportion between the number of those who are employed in useful labour, and that of those who are not so employed [emphasis added].
  
  Smith's "Wealth of Nations" offers many insights other theories disagree. It argues that agriculture offers fewer possibilities to a division of labour, raising its prices compared with industry. [Us-American and European agriculture is therefore subsidised]. To Smith, the genius and the natural talents of men are no natural dispositions which have to be paid for according to comparative advantages. "It is not upon many occasions so much the cause, as the effect of the division of labour." Competition should reduce the prices of these "talents". Smith suspects manufacturers of mischief and trusts landowners and labourers – as consumers – to represent the common good. [Ricardo mistrusts landowners as earners of a monopoly income.]
  
   Other work
  A burial
  Smith's burial place in Canongate Kirkyard
  
  Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects, a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics, probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. Lectures on Jurisprudence were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of The Wealth of Nations, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Smith. Other works, including some published posthumously, include Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896); A Treatise on Public Opulence (1764) (first published in 1937); and Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795).
  
   Legacy
  A statue of a man standing up
  A statue of Smith on Edinburgh's Royal Mile built through private donations and organised by the Adam Smith Institute
  
   In economics and moral philosophy
  
  The Wealth of Nations, was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirized by Tory writers in the moralizing tradition of Hogarth and Swift, as a discussion at the University of Winchester suggests.
  
  George Stigler attributes to Smith "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics" and foundation of resource-allocation theory. It is that, under competition, owners of resources (for example labor, land, and capital) will use them most profitably, resulting in an equal rate of return in equilibrium for all uses, adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training, trust, hardship, and unemployment.
  
  Paul Samuelson finds in Smith's pluralist use of supply and demand as applied to wages, rents, profit a valid and valuable anticipation of the general equilibrium modeling of Walras a century later. Smith's allowance for wage increases in the short and intermediate term from capital accumulation and invention added a realism missed later by Malthus, Ricardo, and Marx in their propounding a rigid subsistence-wage theory of labour supply.
  
  On the other hand, Joseph Schumpeter dismissed Smith's contributions as unoriginal, saying "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along."
  
  Classical economists presented competing theories of those of Smith, termed the "labour theory of value". Later Marxian economics descending from classical economics also use Smith's labour theories, in part. The first volume of Karl Marx's major work, Capital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital. The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labor that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern understanding of mainstream economics, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing.
  A brown building
  The Adam Smith Theatre in Kirkcaldy
  
  The body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" or "marginalism" formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term "economics" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier, broader term "political economy" used by Smith. This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences. Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the labour theory of value of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.
  
  The bicentennial anniversary of the publication of The Wealth of Nations was celebrated in 1976, resulting in increased interest for The Theory of Moral Sentiments and his other works throughout academia. After 1976, Smith was more likely to be represented as the author of both The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and thereby as the founder of a moral philosophy and the science of economics. His homo economicus or "economic man" was also more often represented as a moral person. Additionally, his opposition to slavery, colonialism, and empire[clarification needed] was emphasized, as were his statements about high wages for the poor, and his views that a common street porter was not intellectually inferior to a philosopher.
  A bank note depicting a man's head facing to the right
  This £20 note was issued by the Bank of England and features Smith.
  
   Portraits, monuments, and banknote
  
  Smith has been commemorated in the UK on banknotes printed by two different banks; his portrait has appeared since 1981 on the £50 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank in Scotland, and in March 2007 Smith's image also appeared on the new series of £20 notes issued by the Bank of England, making him the first Scotsman to feature on an English banknote.
  
  A large-scale memorial of Smith by Alexander Stoddart was unveiled on 4 July 2008 in Edinburgh. It is a 10 feet (3.0 m)-tall bronze sculpture and it stands above the Royal Mile outside St Giles' Cathedral in Parliament Square, near the Mercat cross. 20th century sculptor Jim Sanborn (best known for the Kryptos sculpture at the United States Central Intelligence Agency) has created multiple pieces which feature Smith's work. At Central Connecticut State University is Circulating Capital, a tall cylinder which features an extract from The Wealth of Nations on the lower half, and on the upper half, some of the same text but represented in binary code. At the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, outside the Belk College of Business Administration, is Adam Smith's Spinning Top. Another Smith sculpture is at Cleveland State University.
  
   As a symbol of free market economic
  A sculpture of an upside down cone
  Adam Smith's Spinning Top, sculpture by Jim Sanborn at Cleveland State University
  
  Smith has been celebrated by advocates of free market policies as the founder of free market economics, a view reflected in the naming of bodies such as the Adam Smith Institute, Adam Smith Society and the Australian Adam Smith Club, and in terms such as the Adam Smith necktie.
  
  Alan Greenspan argues that, while Smith did not coin the term laissez-faire, "it was left to Adam Smith to identify the more-general set of principles that brought conceptual clarity to the seeming chaos of market transactions". Greenspan continues that The Wealth of Nations was "one of the great achievements in human intellectual history". P. J. O'Rourke describes Smith as the "founder of free market economics".
  
  However, other writers have argued that Smith's support for laissez-faire (which in French means leave alone) has been overstated. Herbert Stein wrote that the people who "wear an Adam Smith necktie" do it to "make a statement of their devotion to the idea of free markets and limited government", and that this misrepresents Smith's ideas. Stein writes that Smith "was not pure or doctrinaire about this idea. He viewed government intervention in the market with great skepticism... yet he was prepared to accept or propose qualifications to that policy in the specific cases where he judged that their net effect would be beneficial and would not undermine the basically free character of the system. He did not wear the Adam Smith necktie." In Stein's reading, The Wealth of Nations could justify the Food and Drug Administration, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, mandatory employer health benefits, environmentalism, and "discriminatory taxation to deter improper or luxurious behavior".
  
  Similarly, Vivienne Brown stated in The Economic Journal that in the 20th century United States, Reaganomics supporters, The Wall Street Journal, and other similar sources have spread among the general public a partial and misleading vision of Smith, portraying him as an "extreme dogmatic defender of laissez-faire capitalism and supply-side economics". In fact, The Wealth of Nations includes the following statement on the payment of taxes:
  
   "The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state."
  
  Moreover, in this passage Smith goes on to specify progressive, not flat, taxation:
  
   "The rich should contribute to the public expense, not only in proportion to their revenue, but something more than in that proportion"
  
  Smith even specifically named taxes that he thought should be required by the state among them luxury goods taxes and tax on rent. He believed that tax laws should be as transparent as possible and that each individual should pay a "certain amount, and not arbitrary," in addition to paying this tax at the time "most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it". Smith goes on to state that:
  
   "Every tax, however, is, to the person who pays it, a badge, not of slavery, but of liberty."
  
  Additionally, Smith outlined the proper expenses of the government in The Wealth of Nations, Book V, Ch. I. Included in his requirements of a government is to enforce contracts and provide justice system, grant patents and copy rights, provide public goods such as infrastructure, provide national defense and regulate banking. It was the role of the government to provide goods "of such a nature that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual" such as roads, bridges, canals, and harbours. He also encouraged invention and new ideas through his patent enforcement and support of infant industry monopolies. he supported public education and religious institutions as providing general benefit to the society. Finally he outlined how the government should support the dignity of the monarch or chief magistrate, such that they are equal or above the public in fashion. He even states that monarchs should be provided for in a greater fashion than magistrates of a republic because "we naturally expect more splendor in the court of a king than in the mansion-house of a doge." In addition, he was in favor of retaliatory tariffs and believed that they would eventually bring down the price of goods. He even stated in Wealth of Nations:
  
   "The recovery of a great foreign market will generally more than compensate the transitory inconvenience of paying dearer during a short time for some sorts of goods."
  
  Noam Chomsky has argued[N 3] that several aspects of Smith's thought have been misrepresented and falsified by contemporary ideology, including Smith's reasons for supporting markets and Smith's views on corporations. Chomsky argues that Smith supported markets in the belief that they would lead to equality, and that Smith opposed wage labor and corporations. Economic historians such as Jacob Viner regard Smith as a strong advocate of free markets and limited government (what Smith called "natural liberty") but not as a dogmatic supporter of laissez-faire.
  
  Economist Daniel Klein believes using the term "free market economics" or "free market economist" to identify the ideas of Smith is too general and slightly misleading. Klein offers six characteristics central to the identity of Smith's economic thought and argues that a new name is needed to give a more accurate depiction of the "Smithian" identity. Economist David Ricardo set straight some of the misunderstandings about Smith's thoughts on free market. Most people still fall victim to the thinking that Smith was a free market economist without exception, though he was not. Ricardo pointed out that Smith was in support of helping infant industries. Smith believed that the government should subsidise newly formed industry, but he did fear that when the infant industry grew into adulthood it would be unwilling to surrender the government help. Smith also supported tariffs on imported goods to counteract an internal tax on the same good. Smith also fell to pressure in supporting some tariffs in support for national defense.
    

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