| Charles Robert Darwin | |||
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Charles Robert Darwin查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文 FRS FRGS FLS FZS（英语：Charles Robert Darwin，1809年2月12日－1882年4月19日）又译达尔温，英国博物学家、地质学家和生物学家，其最著名的研究成果是天择演化，解释了适应的来源，并指出他认为所有物种都是从少数共同祖先演化而来的。到了19世纪30年代，达尔文的理论成为对演化机制的主要诠释，并成为现代演化思想的基础，在科学上可对生物多样性进行一致且合理的解释，是现今生物学的基石。
达尔文并不是第一个提出演化思想的人，在达尔文出生之前许久，就已有人有生物会演变的想法了，例如在古希腊时代，前苏格拉底哲学家阿那克西曼德及恩培多克勒就已认为一种生物可以源于另一种生物，一些古代神话中也有人起源于动物的说法，像是西藏一些地区的神话传说中，就有猕猴逐渐变成人类、人类起源自猕猴的说法；然而达尔文关于物种演化的理论是现代演化思想的基础。
在爱丁堡大学研读医学期间，达尔文对自然史逐渐产生兴趣。而他后来又到剑桥大学学习神学。达尔文在参与贝格尔号的五年航行后，成为一位地质学家。他进行观察并提出理论来支持查尔斯·莱尔的均变思想。回英国后所出版的《贝格尔号航行之旅》，使其成为著名作家。由于在航行期间对所见生物与化石的地理分布感到困惑，达尔文开始对物种转变进行研究，并且在1838年得出了他的自然选择理论。由于这类思想在当时被视为异端，因此达尔文刚开始只对亲近的朋友透露这些想法，并持续进行进一步的研究，以应付可能遭遇的反对。到了1858年，华莱士寄给他一篇含有相似理论的论文，促使达尔文决定与其共同发表这项理论。
1859年出版的《物种起源》，使起源于共同祖先的演化，成为对自然界多样性的一项重要科学解释。之后达尔文《人类与动物的情感表达》以及《人类由来与性择》中，阐释人类的演化与性择演化的作用。他也针对植物研究发表了一系列的书籍，在最后一本著作中，达尔文讨论了蚯蚓对土壤的影响。为了表彰他杰出成就，达尔文死后安葬于牛顿与约翰·赫歇尔的墓旁，地点就在英国伦敦的威斯敏斯特教堂。
目前达尔文的进化论已经获得压倒性的事实做支持，而演化的真实性，及其作为物种起源和人类起源解释的科学性，也成了学界共识，目前对于进化论的真确性，存在有强烈的科学共识，演化以外任何关于物种起源或人类起源的学说，目前都不获支持。绝大多数的科学社群和学术团体，都认为进化论是唯一能完全满足在生物学、古生物学、分子生物学、遗传学、人类学及其他各领域中所观察到的现象的理论。一项在1991年所作的盖洛普民调显示，只有大约5%的科学家（包括生物学领域以外的其他科学家）认为自己是创造论者。截至目前为止，没有任何反对进化论且经过科学方面同行审查的论文，名列科学与医学期刊搜索引擎PubMed当中；尽管演化在学术界中获得了强烈的支持，作为现代进化论开山鼻祖的达尔文，经常受到反对进化论的团体及宗教人士的攻击。。
但达尔文从小就热爱大自然，尤其喜欢打猎、采集矿物和动植物标本。进到医学院后，他仍然经常到野外采集动植物标本。父亲认为他“游手好闲”、“不务正业”，一怒之下，于1828年又送他到剑桥大学，改学神学，希望他将来成为一个“尊贵的牧师”。达尔文对神学院的神创论等谬说十分厌烦，他仍然把大部分时间用在听自然科学讲座，自学大量的自然科学书籍。热心于收集甲虫等动植物标本，对神秘的大自然充满了浓厚的兴趣。
1828年的一天，在伦敦郊外的一片树林里，一位大学生围着一棵老树转悠。突然，他发现在将要脱落的树皮下，有虫子在里边蠕动，便急忙剥开树皮，发现两只奇特的甲虫，正急速地向前爬去。这位大学生马上左右开弓抓在手里，兴奋地观看起来。正在这时，树皮里又跳出一只甲虫，大学生措手不及，迅即把手里的甲虫藏到嘴里，伸手又把第三只甲虫抓到。看着这些奇怪的甲虫，大学生真有点爱不释手，只顾得意地欣赏手中的甲虫，早把嘴里的哪只给忘记了。嘴里的那只甲虫憋得受不了啦，便放出一股辛辣的毒汁，把这大学生的舌头蜇得又麻又痛。他这才想起口中的甲虫，张口把它吐到手里。然后，不顾口中的疼痛，得意洋洋地向市内的剑桥大学走去。这个大学生就是查理·达尔文。后来，人们为了纪念他首先发现的这种甲虫，就把它命为“达尔文”。
1831年，达尔文从剑桥大学毕业。他放弃了待遇丰厚的牧师职业，依然热衷于自己的自然科学研究。这年12月，英国政府组织了“贝格尔号”军舰的环球考察，达尔文经人推荐，以“博物学家”的身份，自费搭船，开始了漫长而又艰苦的环球考察活动。
达尔文每到一地总要进行认真的考察研究，采访当地的居民，有时请他们当向导，爬山涉水，采集矿物和动植物标本，挖掘生物化石，发现了许多没有记载的新物种。他白天收集谷类岩石标本、动物化石，晚上又忙着记录收集经过。1832年1月，“贝格尔”号停泊在大西洋中佛得角群岛的圣地亚哥岛。水兵们都去考察海水的流向。达尔文和他的助手背起背包，拿着地质锤，爬到山上去收集岩石标本。
在考察过程中，达尔文根据物种的变化，整日思考着一个问题：自然界的奇花异树，人类万物究意是怎么产生的？他们为什么会千变万化？彼此之间有什么联系？这些问题在脑海里越来越深刻，逐渐使他对神创论和物种不变论产生了怀疑。
1832年2月底，“贝格尔”号到达巴西，达尔文上岸考察，向船长提出要攀登南美洲的安第斯山。当他们爬到海拔4000多米的高山上时，达尔文意外地在山顶上发现了贝壳化石。达尔文非常吃惊，他心中想到：“海底的贝壳怎么会跑到高山上了呢？”经过反复思索，他终于明白了地壳升降的道理。达尔文脑海中一阵翻腾，对自己的猜想有了更进一步的认识：“物种不是一成不变的，而是随着客观条件的不同而相应变异！”
后来，达尔文又随船横渡太平洋，经过澳大利亚，越过印度洋，绕过好望角，于1836年10月回到英国。在历时五年的环球考察中，达尔文积累了大量的资料。回国之后，他一面整理这些资料，一面又深入实践，同时，查阅大量书籍，为他的生物进化理论寻找根据。1842年，他第一次写出《物种起源》的简要提纲。1859年11月达尔文经过20多年研究而写成的科学巨著《物种起源》终于出版了。在这部书里，达尔文旗帜鲜明地提出了“进化论”的思想，说明物种是在不断的变化之中，是由低级到高级、由简单到复杂的演变过程。
这部著作的问世，第一次把生物学建立在完全科学的基础上，以全新的生物进化思想，推翻了“神创论”和物种不变的理论。《物种起源》是达尔文进化论的代表作，标志着进化论的正式确立。
《物种起源》的出版，在欧洲乃至整个世界都引起轰动。它沉重地打击了神权统治的根基，从反动教会到封建御用文人都狂怒了。他们群起攻之，诬蔑达尔文的学说“亵渎圣灵”，触犯“君权神授天理，”有失人类尊严。
与此相反，以赫胥黎为代表的进步学者，积极宣传和捍卫达尔文主义。指出：进化论轰开了人们的思想禁锢，启发和教育人们从宗教迷信的束缚下解放出来。
紧接着，达尔文又开始他的第二部巨著《动物和植物在家养下的变异》的写作，以不可争辩的事实和严谨的科学论断，进一步阐述他的进化论观点，提出物种的变异和遗传、生物的生存斗争和自然选择的重要论点，并很快出版这部巨著。晚年的达尔文，尽管体弱多病，但他以惊人的毅力，顽强地坚持进行科学研究和写作，连续出版了《人类的由来》等很多著作。达尔文本人认为“他一生中主要的乐趣和唯一的事业”,是他的科学著作。还有一些在旅行中直接考察得到的最重要的科学成果，如：达尔文本人所写的著名的《考察日记》和《贝格尔号地质学》、《贝格尔号的动物学》等。在他的著作中，具有特别重大历史意义的是《物种起源》，表明达尔文的进化论思想和自然选择理论的逐步发展过程。《物种起源》的出版是一件具有世界意义的大事，因为《物种起源》的出版标志着十九世纪绝大多数有学问的人对生物界和人类在生物界中的地位的看法发生了深刻的变化。《物种起源》的出版，引起造化论者和具有目的论情绪的科学家们（而这些人却是占绝大多数）对达尔文学说的猛烈攻击，也引起维护达尔文主义的相应斗争，积极参加这一斗争的除达尔文本人外还有进步的博物学家；他们到处都成为达尔文学说的热烈拥护者。
1882年4月19日，这位伟大的科学家因病逝世，人们把他的遗体安葬在牛顿的墓旁，以表达对这位科学家的敬仰。
But Darwin's early love of nature, in particular, like hunting, collecting minerals and plant and animal specimens. Into the School of Medicine, he is still often to animal and plant specimens collected in the field. Father that he was "idle", "duties," a moment of anger, in 1828, they sent him to Cambridge University, switched to theology, hope he will become a "noble priest." Darwin on God, creationism, etc. School of absurdities, very tired, he still spent most of the time to listen to Natural lectures, self-learning a lot of science books. Interested in collecting beetles and other plant and animal specimens, on the mysterious nature is full of interest.
One day in 1828, in London on the outskirts of a forest, a university student was wandering around the old tree. Suddenly, he found that the bark will fall off, there is bugs crawling in the inside, then quickly peeling bark, found that two exotic beetles, are rapidly crawled forward. The students immediately footed grasp in his hand, excitedly watching them. Just then, out of a bark beetle in it, college students by surprise, soon the hand of the beetles hid his mouth, reaching the third of the beetles caught again. Looking at these strange beetles, students really have not put it down, only to admire the proud hands of beetles, put his mouth only to forget which. Mouth bug Biede not endure, they emit an acrid the venom, these students have another tongue sting Ma pains. Then he remembered the mouth of the beetle, mouth spit it into his hand. Then, despite the pain in the mouth, proudly walked to the city of Cambridge. This is the Charles Darwin University Students. Later, he first discovered it in honor of this beetle out of it, life is "Darwin."
In 1831, Darwin graduated from Cambridge University. He gave up a lucrative career pastor, is still keen on its Science Research. This in December, the British government organized a "Beagle," warship global study, Darwin recommended by people with "naturalists" status, at their own expense boat and began a long and difficult global inspection activities.
Darwin arrived at a place always careful investigation and study, interviews with local residents, and sometimes ask them when the guide, climbing wading, collecting minerals and plant and animal specimens, digging fossils, discovered many new species not recorded. Rock samples collected during the day his cereal, animal fossils, the evening has been busy collecting records. January 1832, "Beagle" is berthed in the Atlantic island of Santiago in Cape Verde Islands. Sailors who are to study the flow of water. Darwin and his assistant putting on his backpack, holding a geological hammer, climb the mountain to collect rock samples.
During the inspection tour, Darwin changes according to species, all day on one theme: the natural world of exotic flowers and trees, all provision is how the human being? Why would changing? What is the connection between each other? These issues more deeply in the mind and gradually makes his creationism, and cast doubts on the same species.
By the end of February 1832, "Beagle" was to reach Brazil, Darwin shore visits made to the captain to climb the Andes in South America. When they climbed mountains over 4000 meters above sea level when, Darwin accidentally discovered in the top shell fossils. Darwin was surprised, his mind was: "how the sea shell on the mountain will go to it?" After much thought, he finally understood the truth of crustal movements. Darwin's mind churned their own understanding of the conjecture has been further: "species is not static, but with the different objective conditions of the corresponding variation!"
The advent of this work, the first time the establishment of a fully scientific biology based on biological evolution to new ideas, to overthrow the "creationism" and the species of the same theory. "Origin of Species" Darwin's theory of evolution is a masterpiece, marking the formal establishment of evolution.
"Origin of Species," the publication, in Europe and caused a sensation throughout the world. It dealt a heavy blow to the foundation of theocratic rule, from the reactionary feudal ordained church to have furious. They rallied together to attack, slander Darwin's theory of "blasphemy against the Holy Ghost," committed "Divine Justice," any errors of human dignity.
In contrast, the progress represented by Huxley scholars, actively promote and defend Darwinism. Said: Evolution blew open people's minds detention, inspire and educate people from the shackles of religious superstition, liberating.
Then, Darwin began his second masterpiece, "in domesticated animals and plants under the variation of" writing to indisputable facts and rigorous scientific thesis, and further elaborated his theories of evolution, proposed species and genetic variation, creatures in the struggle and the important points of natural selection, and quickly publish this masterpiece. Darwin in his later years, though frail, but his amazing perseverance, tenacity to adhere to scientific research and writing, published a row, "the origin of mankind," and many other works. Darwin himself that "his life and the only major cause of the fun" is his scientific writings. Some get to travel directly examine the most important scientific achievements, such as: Darwin himself wrote the famous "Study Diary" and "Beagle, geology," "zoological Beagle" and other. In his writings, has a special historic significance is the "Origin of Species" that Darwin's theory of evolution and natural selection theory of the gradual process of development. "Origin of Species" was published in a major event of world significance, because the "Origin of Species," most of the nineteenth century marked the publication of learned people in the biology and status of human beings in the biological world view has undergone a profound changes. "Origin of Species," the publication, cause good luck and with the purpose of the scientists on the emotional (and these people are the majority) of the Darwin theory of violent attacks, also caused a corresponding Darwinian struggle to maintain an active part in the In addition to the struggle outside Darwin there is progress, I am a naturalist; them everywhere have become enthusiastic supporters of Darwin's theory.
April 19, 1882, the great scientist died of illness, people buried his body next to Newton's tomb, to express admiration for the scientists.