| Charles Robert Darwin | |||
| 查爾斯·羅伯特·達爾文 | |||
| 達爾溫 | |||
閱讀達爾文 Charles Darwin在百家争鸣的作品!!! | |||
Charles Robert Darwin查爾斯·羅伯特·達爾文 FRS FRGS FLS FZS（英語：Charles Robert Darwin，1809年2月12日－1882年4月19日）又譯達爾溫，英國博物學家、地質學家和生物學家，其最著名的研究成果是天擇演化，解釋了適應的來源，並指出他認為所有物種都是從少數共同祖先演化而來的。到了19世紀30年代，達爾文的理論成為對演化機製的主要詮釋，並成為現代演化思想的基礎，在科學上可對生物多樣性進行一致且合理的解釋，是現今生物學的基石。
達爾文並不是第一個提出演化思想的人，在達爾文出生之前許久，就已有人有生物會演變的想法了，例如在古希臘時代，前蘇格拉底哲學家阿那剋西曼德及恩培多剋勒就已認為一種生物可以源於另一種生物，一些古代神話中也有人起源於動物的說法，像是西藏一些地區的神話傳說中，就有獼猴逐漸變成人類、人類起源自獼猴的說法；然而達爾文關於物種演化的理論是現代演化思想的基礎。
在愛丁堡大學研讀醫學期間，達爾文對自然史逐漸産生興趣。而他後來又到劍橋大學學習神學。達爾文在參與貝格爾號的五年航行後，成為一位地質學家。他進行觀察並提出理論來支持查爾斯·萊爾的均變思想。回英國後所出版的《貝格爾號航行之旅》，使其成為著名作傢。由於在航行期間對所見生物與化石的地理分佈感到睏惑，達爾文開始對物種轉變進行研究，並且在1838年得出了他的自然選擇理論。由於這類思想在當時被視為異端，因此達爾文剛開始衹對親近的朋友透露這些想法，並持續進行進一步的研究，以應付可能遭遇的反對。到了1858年，華萊士寄給他一篇含有相似理論的論文，促使達爾文决定與其共同發表這項理論。
1859年出版的《物種起源》，使起源於共同祖先的演化，成為對自然界多樣性的一項重要科學解釋。之後達爾文《人類與動物的情感表達》以及《人類由來與性擇》中，闡釋人類的演化與性擇演化的作用。他也針對植物研究發表了一係列的書籍，在最後一本著作中，達爾文討論了蚯蚓對土壤的影響。為了表彰他傑出成就，達爾文死後安葬於牛頓與約翰·赫歇爾的墓旁，地點就在英國倫敦的威斯敏斯特教堂。
目前達爾文的進化論已經獲得壓倒性的事實做支持，而演化的真實性，及其作為物種起源和人類起源解釋的科學性，也成了學界共識，目前對於進化論的真確性，存在有強烈的科學共識，演化以外任何關於物種起源或人類起源的學說，目前都不獲支持。絶大多數的科學社群和學術團體，都認為進化論是唯一能完全滿足在生物學、古生物學、分子生物學、遺傳學、人類學及其他各領域中所觀察到的現象的理論。一項在1991年所作的蓋洛普民調顯示，衹有大約5%的科學家（包括生物學領域以外的其他科學家）認為自己是創造論者。截至目前為止，沒有任何反對進化論且經過科學方面同行審查的論文，名列科學與醫學期刊搜索引擎PubMed當中；儘管演化在學術界中獲得了強烈的支持，作為現代進化論開山鼻祖的達爾文，經常受到反對進化論的團體及宗教人士的攻擊。。
但達爾文從小就熱愛大自然，尤其喜歡打獵、採集礦物和動植物標本。進到醫學院後，他仍然經常到野外採集動植物標本。父親認為他“遊手好閑”、“不務正業”，一怒之下，於1828年又送他到劍橋大學，改學神學，希望他將來成為一個“尊貴的牧師”。達爾文對神學院的神創論等謬說十分厭煩，他仍然把大部分時間用在聽自然科學講座，自學大量的自然科學書籍。熱心於收集甲蟲等動植物標本，對神秘的大自然充滿了濃厚的興趣。
1828年的一天，在倫敦郊外的一片樹林裏，一位大學生圍着一棵老樹轉悠。突然，他發現在將要脫落的樹皮下，有蟲子在裏邊蠕動，便急忙剝開樹皮，發現兩衹奇特的甲蟲，正急速地嚮前爬去。這位大學生馬上左右開弓抓在手裏，興奮地觀看起來。正在這時，樹皮裏又跳出一隻甲蟲，大學生措手不及，迅即把手裏的甲蟲藏到嘴裏，伸手又把第三衹甲蟲抓到。看着這些奇怪的甲蟲，大學生真有點愛不釋手，衹顧得意地欣賞手中的甲蟲，早把嘴裏的哪衹給忘記了。嘴裏的那衹甲蟲憋得受不了啦，便放出一股辛辣的毒汁，把這大學生的舌頭蜇得又麻又痛。他這纔想起口中的甲蟲，張口把它吐到手裏。然後，不顧口中的疼痛，得意洋洋地嚮市內的劍橋大學走去。這個大學生就是查理·達爾文。後來，人們為了紀念他首先發現的這種甲蟲，就把它命為“達爾文”。
1831年，達爾文從劍橋大學畢業。他放棄了待遇豐厚的牧師職業，依然熱衷於自己的自然科學研究。這年12月，英國政府組織了“貝格爾號”軍艦的環球考察，達爾文經人推薦，以“博物學家”的身份，自費搭船，開始了漫長而又艱苦的環球考察活動。
達爾文每到一地總要進行認真的考察研究，采訪當地的居民，有時請他們當嚮導，爬山涉水，採集礦物和動植物標本，挖掘生物化石，發現了許多沒有記載的新物種。他白天收集𠔌類岩石標本、動物化石，晚上又忙着記錄收集經過。1832年1月，“貝格爾”號停泊在大西洋中佛得角群島的聖地亞哥島。水兵們都去考察海水的流嚮。達爾文和他的助手背起背包，拿着地質錘，爬到山上去收集岩石標本。
在考察過程中，達爾文根據物種的變化，整日思考着一個問題：自然界的奇花異樹，人類萬物究意是怎麽産生的？他們為什麽會千變萬化？彼此之間有什麽聯繫？這些問題在腦海裏越來越深刻，逐漸使他對神創論和物種不變論産生了懷疑。
1832年2月底，“貝格爾”號到達巴西，達爾文上岸考察，嚮船長提出要攀登南美洲的安第斯山。當他們爬到海拔4000多米的高山上時，達爾文意外地在山頂上發現了貝殼化石。達爾文非常吃驚，他心中想到：“海底的貝殼怎麽會跑到高山上了呢？”經過反復思索，他終於明白了地殼升降的道理。達爾文腦海中一陣翻騰，對自己的猜想有了更進一步的認識：“物種不是一成不變的，而是隨着客觀條件的不同而相應變異！”
後來，達爾文又隨船橫渡太平洋，經過澳大利亞，越過印度洋，繞過好望角，於1836年10月回到英國。在歷時五年的環球考察中，達爾文積纍了大量的資料。回國之後，他一面整理這些資料，一面又深入實踐，同時，查閱大量書籍，為他的生物進化理論尋找根據。1842年，他第一次寫出《物種起源》的簡要提綱。1859年11月達爾文經過20多年研究而寫成的科學巨著《物種起源》終於出版了。在這部書裏，達爾文旗幟鮮明地提出了“進化論”的思想，說明物種是在不斷的變化之中，是由低級到高級、由簡單到復雜的演變過程。
這部著作的問世，第一次把生物學建立在完全科學的基礎上，以全新的生物進化思想，推翻了“神創論”和物種不變的理論。《物種起源》是達爾文進化論的代表作，標志着進化論的正式確立。
《物種起源》的出版，在歐洲乃至整個世界都引起轟動。它沉重地打擊了神權統治的根基，從反動教會到封建御用文人都狂怒了。他們群起攻之，誣衊達爾文的學說“褻瀆聖靈”，觸犯“君權神授天理，”有失人類尊嚴。
與此相反，以赫胥黎為代表的進步學者，積極宣傳和捍衛達爾文主義。指出：進化論轟開了人們的思想禁錮，啓發和教育人們從宗教迷信的束縛下解放出來。
緊接着，達爾文又開始他的第二部巨著《動物和植物在傢養下的變異》的寫作，以不可爭辯的事實和嚴謹的科學論斷，進一步闡述他的進化論觀點，提出物種的變異和遺傳、生物的生存鬥爭和自然選擇的重要論點，並很快出版這部巨著。晚年的達爾文，儘管體弱多病，但他以驚人的毅力，頑強地堅持進行科學研究和寫作，連續出版了《人類的由來》等很多著作。達爾文本人認為“他一生中主要的樂趣和唯一的事業”,是他的科學著作。還有一些在旅行中直接考察得到的最重要的科學成果，如：達爾文本人所寫的著名的《考察日記》和《貝格爾號地質學》、《貝格爾號的動物學》等。在他的著作中，具有特別重大歷史意義的是《物種起源》，表明達爾文的進化論思想和自然選擇理論的逐步發展過程。《物種起源》的出版是一件具有世界意義的大事，因為《物種起源》的出版標志着十九世紀絶大多數有學問的人對生物界和人類在生物界中的地位的看法發生了深刻的變化。《物種起源》的出版，引起造化論者和具有目的論情緒的科學家們（而這些人卻是占絶大多數）對達爾文學說的猛烈攻擊，也引起維護達爾文主義的相應鬥爭，積極參加這一鬥爭的除達爾文本人外還有進步的博物學家；他們到處都成為達爾文學說的熱烈擁護者。
1882年4月19日，這位偉大的科學家因病逝世，人們把他的遺體安葬在牛頓的墓旁，以表達對這位科學家的敬仰。
But Darwin's early love of nature, in particular, like hunting, collecting minerals and plant and animal specimens. Into the School of Medicine, he is still often to animal and plant specimens collected in the field. Father that he was "idle", "duties," a moment of anger, in 1828, they sent him to Cambridge University, switched to theology, hope he will become a "noble priest." Darwin on God, creationism, etc. School of absurdities, very tired, he still spent most of the time to listen to Natural lectures, self-learning a lot of science books. Interested in collecting beetles and other plant and animal specimens, on the mysterious nature is full of interest.
One day in 1828, in London on the outskirts of a forest, a university student was wandering around the old tree. Suddenly, he found that the bark will fall off, there is bugs crawling in the inside, then quickly peeling bark, found that two exotic beetles, are rapidly crawled forward. The students immediately footed grasp in his hand, excitedly watching them. Just then, out of a bark beetle in it, college students by surprise, soon the hand of the beetles hid his mouth, reaching the third of the beetles caught again. Looking at these strange beetles, students really have not put it down, only to admire the proud hands of beetles, put his mouth only to forget which. Mouth bug Biede not endure, they emit an acrid the venom, these students have another tongue sting Ma pains. Then he remembered the mouth of the beetle, mouth spit it into his hand. Then, despite the pain in the mouth, proudly walked to the city of Cambridge. This is the Charles Darwin University Students. Later, he first discovered it in honor of this beetle out of it, life is "Darwin."
In 1831, Darwin graduated from Cambridge University. He gave up a lucrative career pastor, is still keen on its Science Research. This in December, the British government organized a "Beagle," warship global study, Darwin recommended by people with "naturalists" status, at their own expense boat and began a long and difficult global inspection activities.
Darwin arrived at a place always careful investigation and study, interviews with local residents, and sometimes ask them when the guide, climbing wading, collecting minerals and plant and animal specimens, digging fossils, discovered many new species not recorded. Rock samples collected during the day his cereal, animal fossils, the evening has been busy collecting records. January 1832, "Beagle" is berthed in the Atlantic island of Santiago in Cape Verde Islands. Sailors who are to study the flow of water. Darwin and his assistant putting on his backpack, holding a geological hammer, climb the mountain to collect rock samples.
During the inspection tour, Darwin changes according to species, all day on one theme: the natural world of exotic flowers and trees, all provision is how the human being? Why would changing? What is the connection between each other? These issues more deeply in the mind and gradually makes his creationism, and cast doubts on the same species.
By the end of February 1832, "Beagle" was to reach Brazil, Darwin shore visits made to the captain to climb the Andes in South America. When they climbed mountains over 4000 meters above sea level when, Darwin accidentally discovered in the top shell fossils. Darwin was surprised, his mind was: "how the sea shell on the mountain will go to it?" After much thought, he finally understood the truth of crustal movements. Darwin's mind churned their own understanding of the conjecture has been further: "species is not static, but with the different objective conditions of the corresponding variation!"
The advent of this work, the first time the establishment of a fully scientific biology based on biological evolution to new ideas, to overthrow the "creationism" and the species of the same theory. "Origin of Species" Darwin's theory of evolution is a masterpiece, marking the formal establishment of evolution.
"Origin of Species," the publication, in Europe and caused a sensation throughout the world. It dealt a heavy blow to the foundation of theocratic rule, from the reactionary feudal ordained church to have furious. They rallied together to attack, slander Darwin's theory of "blasphemy against the Holy Ghost," committed "Divine Justice," any errors of human dignity.
In contrast, the progress represented by Huxley scholars, actively promote and defend Darwinism. Said: Evolution blew open people's minds detention, inspire and educate people from the shackles of religious superstition, liberating.
Then, Darwin began his second masterpiece, "in domesticated animals and plants under the variation of" writing to indisputable facts and rigorous scientific thesis, and further elaborated his theories of evolution, proposed species and genetic variation, creatures in the struggle and the important points of natural selection, and quickly publish this masterpiece. Darwin in his later years, though frail, but his amazing perseverance, tenacity to adhere to scientific research and writing, published a row, "the origin of mankind," and many other works. Darwin himself that "his life and the only major cause of the fun" is his scientific writings. Some get to travel directly examine the most important scientific achievements, such as: Darwin himself wrote the famous "Study Diary" and "Beagle, geology," "zoological Beagle" and other. In his writings, has a special historic significance is the "Origin of Species" that Darwin's theory of evolution and natural selection theory of the gradual process of development. "Origin of Species" was published in a major event of world significance, because the "Origin of Species," most of the nineteenth century marked the publication of learned people in the biology and status of human beings in the biological world view has undergone a profound changes. "Origin of Species," the publication, cause good luck and with the purpose of the scientists on the emotional (and these people are the majority) of the Darwin theory of violent attacks, also caused a corresponding Darwinian struggle to maintain an active part in the In addition to the struggle outside Darwin there is progress, I am a naturalist; them everywhere have become enthusiastic supporters of Darwin's theory.
April 19, 1882, the great scientist died of illness, people buried his body next to Newton's tomb, to express admiration for the scientists.