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罗兰《罗兰之歌》是法国中世纪英雄史诗“武功歌”的代表作品。中世纪在民间口头流传的“武功歌”很多，行吟诗人弹奏着简单的乐器，在热闹的集市上卖唱，有时也到封建郡主的邸宅中去卖唱。到11世纪末叶，这类歌谣才逐渐用文字记录下来。
《罗兰之歌》流传着许多抄本，其中以牛津大学收藏的抄本最为完善。全诗长4,002行，分291节，是用当时民间语言罗曼语写成。诗的结构大致可分为3个部分：第1部分写加奈隆投敌叛卖，是序幕；第2部分写骑士罗兰率领的两万骑兵遇上敌人伏击，全军覆没，是全诗的高潮；第3部分写对叛徒加奈隆的惩罚，是尾声。这首史诗以描写查理大帝的胜利开始。查理大帝率大军在西班牙转战7年，无往而不胜。只有信奉伊斯兰教的马席勒国王尚未被征服，他面临查理大帝的大军压境，一面遣使求和，一面阴谋袭击敌军。查理大帝召集众将商议，他的外甥罗兰骑士主战。另一骑士加奈隆受了敌人的贿赂，主张议和。罗兰建议派加奈隆去敌营探听虚实。这是一个有生命危险的使命。加奈隆怀恨罗兰，阴谋报复。到了敌营，加奈隆叛变。他与敌人合谋，设重兵在山谷中伏击罗兰率领的两万骑兵。罗兰仓卒应战，终于全军覆没，自已也战死沙场。查理大帝闻讯回兵支援罗兰，已无法挽回败局。查理大帝回到法国，严惩叛徒加奈隆，处以四马分尸的极刑。
《罗兰之歌》具有很大的传说成分。作品在很大程度上反映了人民的观点和愿望。查理大帝是贯穿全诗的中心人物。历史上查理大帝当政年代在768至814年之间。他经过了长期的征战，建立了庞大的帝国。在后世人民的心目中，这是封建王国统一和强盛时期，人民可以得到生息繁荣的机会。因此诗歌中的查理大帝是人民理想的君主形象。罗兰忠君爱国，为了保卫疆土与人民的生命财产，不惜战斗到流尽最后一滴血，他是理想的封建骑士的形象。整首《罗兰之歌》反映了人民对上升中的封建集权势力的期待，要求法兰西王国既无外侮，又无内乱，建成一个使人民能安居乐业的封建等级制的君主专制国家。
与中世纪的一般文学作品一样，《罗兰之歌》也具有浓厚的宗教色彩。这是由于当时教会是文化的唯一掌握者，人民的文化修养离不开教会的影响，一切武功歌（包括《罗兰之歌》在内）的最早手抄本也是修道院中的僧侣完成的，他们在传抄的过程中不断地给作品加上宗教色彩，并认为这样加工是他们的神圣职责。
《罗兰之歌》 - 版本的考证
《罗兰之歌》原稿
法国欧洲中世纪历史学家约瑟夫•贝蒂埃（1864—1938）说：“提到《罗兰之歌》，就像提到平达的《特尔斐皮西亚颂歌》或亚里士多德的《诗论》，即使有了第一千零一版，也会再发行第一千零二版，自有文人才子读了觉得，若不是第一版，也是第九百九十版更为可取。”
罗兰的传奇在吟游诗人口中吟唱了一百多年。在十一世纪出现了最初的抄本。现存主要的有法兰西、英格兰、意大利、尼德兰、日耳曼、威尔士、斯堪的纳维亚等文字写成的八种版本。历代评论家一致认为牛津收藏的一种抄本，其价格超过其他各版的总和。牛津抄本用盎格鲁-诺曼语写成，共4002行，包括学者根据其他抄本校订后补上的四行。每行句子十个音节，每一节内句数不等，同一节内每句句尾用半谐音一韵到底。根据安德莱•布尔日的研究，成书年代约在一〇八七年到一〇九五年之间。各个抄本原来都没有名称，在十九世纪后先后付梓，毫无例外都用《罗兰之歌》这个书名。
牛津抄本在一八三七年由法朗西斯克•米歇尔（1830或1833—1905）第一次出版。后经历代专家勘误匡正，渐趋完善。汉译本多是根据牛津版校订本译成的。
《罗兰之歌》 - 作者的考证
《罗兰之歌》
《罗兰之歌》创作年代不确，故事内容与史实颇不一致，所以作者的身份也很难弄清楚。牛津抄本的最后一句是：“杜洛杜斯叙述的故事到此为止。”一般认为杜洛杜斯不是《罗兰之歌》的编撰者，便是抄录者。至于谁是杜洛杜斯历来没有一个肯定的、具有说服力的、为大家所接受的说法。在那个时期的法国历史上，可以与杜洛杜斯这个名字沾边的有古龙勃的杜洛杜斯、安韦尔默的杜洛杜斯、费康的杜洛杜斯。由于《罗兰之歌》最初流传于法国北方诺曼底地区，费康的杜洛杜斯被认为最有可能是那位杜洛杜斯。他是征服者威廉的侄子，起先在费康的三圣寺当修士，随同威廉国王参加过一〇六六年的黑斯廷斯战役，后来又在彼得博罗当本堂神甫，所以也称彼得博罗的杜洛杜斯。不管是哪个杜洛杜斯，从他在《罗兰之歌》中留下的印记来看，显然是一位受过良好拉丁教育的僧侣，既潜心教义，也崇尚武道。查理曼的英武神威，奥里维的睿智明理，罗兰的勇敢慷慨，都是他崇尚景仰的品质。
《罗兰之歌》 - 作品背景
查理一世（742—814），或称查理大帝、查理曼，是法兰克国王矮子丕平（三世）的儿子。从七六八年继承王位，后来通过征略逐渐成为伦巴德人、托斯卡纳人、萨克森人的国王。八〇〇年受罗马教皇利奥三世加冕，当上西方皇帝，统治疆域包括除不列颠和斯堪的纳维亚以外的全部欧洲，是罗马帝国后的又一大帝国。查理曼是中世纪一位雄才大略的君主，主张与罗马教廷合作，促进教会改革，奠定基督教统一的基础。
在帝国扩张的过程中，以查理皇帝为代表的基督教国家与阿拉伯伊斯兰国家不时发生战争。七七八年，查理曼攻下西班牙潘普洛纳，撒拉逊（中世纪西方人对阿拉伯人、伊斯兰教徒的称呼。）人要求讲和，献上几名人质。查理曼随后南下进攻萨拉戈萨。萨拉戈萨深沟高垒，固守不降。查理曼围困了两个多月，毫无进展，又听到后方萨克森人叛乱，带了军队和人质撤退。其实这是查理曼远征中的一次挫折，在他生前法国纪年史缄口不谈这件事。
只是到了八二九年，《皇家纪事》提到查理曼那次在七七八年带领他的大队人马抵达比利牛斯山，为了抄近路借道位于海拔一千五百公尺的龙塞沃。八月十五日，经过山石峥嵘的峡谷时遭到伏击。山区的加斯科涅武装人员从山坡直冲而下，朝着他们猛扑过去。法兰克人长途跋涉，又带了笨重的战利品，行动非常迟钝，只有招架之功。加斯科涅人掠夺了大量财物后呼啸而去。查理曼也不知道他们的身份和行踪，没有也不可能报复。他们或许就是一股盗匪，其中可能有作为内线的法兰克人，但是肯定没有撒拉逊人。显然这是一次没有政治目的的抢劫行为，因为在这事以后加斯科涅人没有反叛事件，阿基坦人继续效忠查理，萨克森人的叛乱也不见蔓延。查理曼在这次袭击中死了几位重要人物，其中有御厨总监艾吉哈尔德、宫廷伯爵安塞姆、布列塔尼边区总督罗兰。
从九世纪开始流传查理大帝和他的勇将罗兰的事迹。口头文学不断随着时代的变迁而变化。那时候封建社会的发展与等级制度的确立，基督教与伊斯兰教在地中海一带争夺加剧，民间传说掺入了当时的政治社会内容和宗教神秘色彩。罗兰的故事逐渐变成基督教与伊斯兰教大规模长期圣战中的一个重要篇章。后世人确实常用神奇的语言，把一则平凡的轶事，渲染成了一篇辉煌的传奇。
《罗兰之歌》 - 作品影响
《罗兰之歌》
说《罗兰之歌》是开卷之作，并不是说在此以前法国文学史上没有出现过作品。在九至十一世纪之间有《圣女欧拉丽的颂歌》、《耶稣受难》、《圣勒日》、《圣阿莱克西》等，从题目便可看出这是一些表彰基督教圣徒的道德圣行的作品，语言贫乏，牵强附会，虽然写的是韵文，但是通篇说教，谈不上文学价值。
在牛津抄本产生之时，法国通俗语言有了很大发展，其结构、形式和词汇已经能够承受长篇叙事的分量。在《罗兰之歌》中可以看到大量并列句，简单的形象和隐喻，人物的心理和意图描写，还有民歌中常见的复叠和夸张。随着各地区文化的传播，宗教斗争激发的宗教热忱，这部叙述七七八年龙塞沃悲剧的纪功歌，更多反映的却是十一、十二世纪的时代精神和特征。今天读到的《罗兰之歌》包含了三个层次的冲突：
1、两个世界、两种文明、两种宗教的冲突。基督教代表善、正义和天意，而伊斯兰教代表恶、不义和邪道。
2、领主与藩臣的冲突。领主供养和保护藩臣，藩臣向领主效忠，以死相保。一名藩臣可以同时效忠几名领主；也可既是一名领主的藩臣，又是另外藩臣的领主。
3、藩臣与藩臣之间的冲突。好藩臣忠诚、英勇、磊落；坏藩臣不忠、怯懦、阴险。这些道德行为的准则当时是明确的，对待上帝诚惶诚恐的基督徒心灵中容不得半点怀疑。
《罗兰之歌》是欧洲中世纪的一部伟大史诗，浑厚质朴。有人赞誉说它有荷马宽阔流动的优美，但丁豪放有力的笔致。这毕竟是一千多年以前的作品，有中世纪的种种特点。若用历史观点阅读，今天的读者依然会认为这是一部卓越不凡的大作。
关于两教圣战的历史，基督教有基督教的写法，伊斯兰教有伊斯兰教的写法，水火不相容。《罗兰之歌》属于基督教的写法。当西方国家接受了基督信仰以后，一切其他信仰在他们眼中都是异端邪说，一切抱其他信仰的人都是异教徒，里面不仅是阿拉伯人，还包括斯拉夫人、匈牙利人、鞑靼人等。圣战中要勇往直前，把异教徒赶尽杀绝是基督徒的天职，杀敌可以作为补赎，信仰上帝的人战无不胜，为教而殉死者灵魂升入天堂。当作者怀着一片虔诚刻意描写这些价值观的同时，也暴露了基督教狂热、偏执和残忍的一面。
《罗兰之歌》
法国史学家保尔•彭古尔有一部著作，书名很有意思：《纪功歌是不是种族主义作品？》。以《罗兰之歌》来说，似乎还不能算，但是从中也可看出一切以宗教划线，区分敌我的是宗教，还不是种族和肤色。撒拉逊人一旦改宗，皈依了基督教，就拥有基督徒的一切权利。
其实，作者对伊斯兰教口诛笔伐，却对它的教义和仪式表现了相当的无知。完全以基督教的模式来想象：顺服唯一的神安拉的伊斯兰教同样有三位一体：穆罕默德、泰瓦干、阿卜林；从不供奉神像的撒拉逊人同样在地室进行偶像崇拜；政教合一的教权政体同样也有十二员大将，以此与查理曼的十二太保相对应；军队中同样的武装、同样的战斗方阵；甚至撒拉逊王在狠狠诅咒查理曼时，同样用“ｄｏｕｃｅＦｒａｎｃｅ”（ｄｏｕｃｅ有“可爱”、“气候温和”的意思，考虑其含义，本书中译为“富饶的法兰西”，显然这词只用在褒义上）。
自古以来，各个民族的发展决不是平衡的，同一个民族的演变也不是直线状的。可是只是到了近代，人才慢慢明白了这个事实，发现世界是多极的，立体的，不该囿于自己精神与行动上的束缚，处处以自我为中心，用扁平的目光看事物。实际上大千世界万象纷纭，同中有异，异中有同，这恐怕是事物发展中的永恒存在。
There exists only one historical mention of a French Roland, found in the section of Vita Karoli Magni on Roncevaux Pass, written by Charlemagne's courtier and biographer Einhard. Here is the relevant passage, in the 9th of 33 chapters (plus a lengthy postscript):
While he was vigorously pursuing the Saxon war, almost without a break, and after he had placed garrisons at __select__ed points along the border, [Charles] marched into Spain [in 778] with as large a force as he could mount. His army passed through the Pyrenees and [Charles] received the surrender of all the towns and fortified places he encountered. He was returning [to Francia] with his army safe and intact, but high in the Pyrenees on that return trip he briefly experienced the Basques. That place is so thoroughly covered with thick forest that it is the perfect spot for an ambush. [Charles's] army was forced by the narrow terrain to proceed in a long line and [it was at that spot], high on the mountain, that the Basques set their ambush. [...] The Basques had the advantage in this skirmish because of the lightness of their weapons and the nature of the terrain, whereas the Franks were disadvantaged by the heaviness of their arms and the unevenness of the land. Eggihard, the overseer of the king's table, Anselm, the count of the palace, and Roland, the lord of the Breton March, along with many others died in that skirmish. But this deed could not be avenged at that time, because the enemy had so dispersed after the attack that there was no indication as to where they could be found.
Dutton, Paul Edward, ed. and trans. Charlemagne's Courtier: The Complete Einhard, pp. 21-22. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada: Broadview Press, 1998.)
The original Latin text refers to "Hruodlandus Brittannici limitis praefectus". The battle took place on 15 August, AD 778.
Roland was the first official appointed to direct Frankish policy in Breton affairs, as local Franks under the Merovingian dynasty did not pursue any specific relationship beforehand, more passive-aggressive than anything. What is now divided between Normandy and Brittany, their frontier castle districts (e.g. Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine) south of Mont Saint-Michel, was the source of present-day Gallo language and culture that emerged in the likeness of those such as Roland. Roland's successor in Brittania Nova was Guy of the Breton March, who like Roland, was unable to exert French expansion over Brittany and merely sustained a Breton presence in the Carolingian-era Holy Roman Empire.
Legend
Roland, Bremen 53°4′33.15″N 8°48′26.30″E / 53.075875, 8.8073056Roland was a popular legendary figure in medieval Europe. Over the next several centuries, Roland became a "pop icon" in medieval minstrel culture. According to many legends, he was a nephew of Charlemagne (whether or not this was true we do not know), turned his life into an epic tale of the noble Christian killed by Islamic forces, which forms part of the medieval Matter of France. Roland's tale is retold in the eleventh century poem The Song of Roland, where he is equipped with the Olifant (a signalling horn) and an unbreakable sword, enchanted by various Christian relics, named Durendal. The first story written about him was Orlando Innamorato by Matteo Maria Boiardo. After his death, the epic was continued as Orlando furioso by Ludovico Ariosto (See below for his later history in Italian verse). In the Divine Comedy Dante sees Roland's spirit in the Heaven of Mars together with others who fought for the faith.
In Germany, Roland gradually became a symbol of the independence of the growing cities from the local nobility. In the late Middle Ages many cities sported the display of a defiant Roland statue on their marketplace. The Roland in Wedel was erected in 1450 as symbol of market justice, and the Roland statue in front of the town hall of Bremen (1404) is listed together with the town hall on the List of World Heritage Site from the UNESCO since 2004.
In Catalonia Roland (or Rotllà, as it is rendered in Catalan) became a legendary giant. Numerous places in Catalonia (both North and South) have a name related to Rotllà. In step with the trace left by the character in the whole Pyrenean area, Basque Errolan turns up in numerous legends and place-names associated with a mighty giant, usually a heathen, capable of launching huge stones. Interestingly, Basque word erraldoi ('giant') stems from Errolan.
More recently Roland's tale has been exploited by historians exploring the development of the early-modern Christian understanding of Islamic culture. In 1972 P. M. Holt used Roland's words to begins an essay about Henry Stubbe: Paien ont tort e crestiien ont dreit - 'Pagans are wrong and Christians are right.'
Orlando
Illustratation to Orlando Furioso: Orlando saving OlimpiaOrlando is the Italian equivalent of the French Roland (but also the variation Rolando does exist). The name Orlando/Roland goes back to a Germanic origin, and is said to mean "One who is famous throughout the land". It is also said to be derived from hroth, meaning glory and nantha, meaning audacity.
Italian Renaissance romance
He appeared as a central character in a sequence of verse romances from the fifteenth century onwards, including Morgante by Luigi Pulci, Orlando Innamorato by Matteo Maria Boiardo, and Orlando furioso by Ludovico Ariosto. The Orlandino of Pietro Aretino then waxed satirical about the 'cult of personality' of Orlando the hero.
The Orlando narrative inspired several composers, amongst whom were Claudio Monteverdi, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Antonio Vivaldi and George Frideric Handel, who composed an Italian opera with Orlando in the title role, see: Orlando.
Later work
Orlando: A Biography was written in 1928 by Virginia Woolf, and could at first sight be seen as adding yet some more episodes to the adventures of the (by now imaginary) Orlando character, but Woolf's story takes a completely different turn, and is set in a time different from that of the Renaissance Orlandos.
In the Michael Moorcock work, Roland is one of the incarnations of the Eternal Champion and meets Elric of Melniboné in the novel Stormbringer.
In the 2008 film 'Jumper', the main character (who has the ability to teleport instantly to any location on Earth) is pursued by hunters known as Paladins, who are lead by the headhunter Roland, played by Samuel L. Jackson,