非洲:
埃塞俄比亚 Ethiopia 埃及 Egypt 突尼斯 Tunisia 阿尔及利亚 Algeria 尼日利亚 Nigeria 塞内加尔 Senegal 南非 South Africa 安哥拉 Angola 贝宁 Benin 布基纳法索 Burkina Faso 布隆迪 Republic of Burundi 博茨瓦纳 Republic of Botswana 赤道几内亚 Equatorial Guinea 多哥 Togo 厄立特里亚 Eritrea 佛得角 Republic of Cape Verde 冈比亚 Gambia 刚果 Republic of the Congo 刚果民主共和国 Democratic Republic of Congo 吉布提 Djibouti 几内亚 Guinea 几内亚比绍 Guinea-Bissau 加纳 Republic of Ghana 加蓬 Gabon 津巴布韦 Zimbabwe 喀麦隆 Republic of Cameroon 科摩罗 Comoros 科特迪瓦 Ivory Coast 肯尼亚 Republic of Kenya 莱索托 Kingdom of Lesotho 利比亚 Libya 利比里亚 Republic of Liberia 卢旺达 Republic of Rwanda 马达加斯加 Madagascar 马拉维 Malawi 马里 Republic of Mali 毛里塔尼亚 Mauritania 毛里求斯 Republic of Mauritius 摩洛哥 Kingdom of Morocco 莫桑比克 the Republic of Mozambique 纳米比亚 The Republic of Namibia 尼日尔 Niger 塞拉利昂 the Republic of Sierra Leone 塞舌尔 Seychelles 斯威士兰 Swaziland 苏丹 Sudan 索马里 Somalia 圣多美和普林西比 Sao Tome and Principe 坦桑尼亚 Tanzania 乌干达 The Republic of Uganda 赞比亚 The Republic of Zambia 乍得 the Republic of Chad 中非共和国 The Central African Republic |
| 尼日利亞 Nigeria 首都:拉各斯 國家代碼: ng |
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尼日利亞聯邦共和國 （The Federal Republic of Nigeria）
獨立日：１０月１日（１９６０年） 國慶日：１０月１日（１９６０年） 同北京時差： -7.00 國際電話碼： 234 語言： 英語為官方用語，豪薩語為交際語。 貨幣： 奈拉 國旗：呈橫長方形，長與寬之比為２∶１。自左至右由緑，白，緑3個相等的垂直長方形組成。緑色象徵農業，白色象徵和平與統一。1959年尼日利亞全國國旗設計比賽中獲選。1960年10月1日獨立，並采用上述國旗。 國徽：中心圖案為盾徽。黑色盾面上繪有白色的“Ｙ”型圖案，黑色象徵尼日利亞肥沃的土地，“Ｙ”型圖案象徵流經該國的最大的河流尼日爾河及其支流貝努埃河。盾徽上端為舒展雙翼的雄鷹，兩側各有一匹白色駿馬，鷹和馬象徵尊嚴和力量。盾徽和白馬立在鮮花點綴的草地上，下面的綬帶上用英文寫着“團结與信心，和平與進步”。 【自然地理】 領土面積９２３７６８平方公裏。尼位於西非東南部，南瀕大西洋幾內亞灣。西同貝寧接壤，北與尼日爾交界，東北隔乍得湖與乍得相望，東和東南與喀麥隆毗連。海岸綫長８００公裏。地勢北高南低。沿海為寬約８０公裏的帶狀平原；南部低山丘陵，大部地區海拔２００－５００米；中部為尼日爾—貝努埃河𠔌地；北部豪薩蘭高地超過全國面積面積１／４，平均海拔９００米；東部邊境為山地，西北和東北分別為索科托盆地和乍得湖湖西盆地。河流衆多，尼日爾河及其支流貝努埃河為主要河流，尼日爾河在境內長１４００公裏。屬熱帶季風氣候，全年分為旱季和雨季，年平均氣溫為２６～２７℃。 【人口】 １．２２億（２００２年４月）。有２５０多個部族，其中最大的是北部的豪薩－富拉尼族(占全國人口２９％)、西部的約魯巴族(占２１％)和東部的伊博族(占１８％)。官方語言為英語，主要民族語言有豪薩語、約魯巴語和伊博語。居民中信奉伊斯蘭教占５０％，基督教占４０％，其他占１０％。 【首都】 拉各斯（Lagos）。人口約４０萬（２００１年）。原為國傢錫礦開採地、中部公路網中心和農畜産品集散地。為加強聯邦政府與各地區、各民族之間聯繫，並解决拉各斯規模過分膨脹所帶來的問題，1975年，穆罕默德軍政府提出了興建新首都的建議。1979年10月，沙加裏文官政府正式批準新首都阿布賈的設計藍圖，並開始第一期建設工程。1991年12月正式從拉各斯遷入。約至1996年，各大部門的搬遷工作纔漸漸收尾。市區分兩部分。中心區為政府機關、文教區，居民區有商店、娛樂場所。有機場和通往各州首府的高速公路。 【國傢政要】 總統奧盧塞貢·奧巴桑喬(olusegun obasanjo) ，１９９９年２月當選總統，２００３年４月蟬聯。 【簡史】 尼日利亞是非洲古國。早在兩千多年前就有了比較發達的文化。著名的諾剋、伊費和貝寧文化使尼享有“黑非文化搖籃”的美譽。公元８世紀紮格哈瓦(Zaghawa)遊牧部落在乍得湖周圍建立了卡奈姆－博爾努(Kanem-Bornu)帝國。１４至１６世紀，桑海帝國盛極一時。１４７２年葡萄牙入侵。１６世紀中葉英國入侵。１９１４年淪為英國殖民地，稱“尼日利亞殖民地和保護國”。１９４７年英國批準尼日利亞新憲法，成立聯邦政府。１９５４年尼日利亞聯邦取得內部自治權。１９６０年１０月１日宣佈獨立，並成為英聯邦成員國。１９６３年１０月１日成立尼日利亞聯邦共和國。獨立後多次發生軍事政變，長期由軍人執政。１９９３年１１月以阿巴查為首的軍政府接管政權，組成臨時領導委員會和聯邦執行委員會行使國傢權力。１９９８年６月８日阿巴查猝死，９日國防參謀長阿布巴卡爾接任國傢元首兼武裝部隊總司令，確定１９９９年５月２９日嚮民選政府交權。在１９９９年２月舉行的總統選舉中，人民民主黨候選人、前國傢元首奧巴桑喬當選第四共和國總統，並於５月２９日就職。 【行政區劃】 實行聯邦製。設聯邦、州和地方三級政府。１９９６年１０月重新劃分行政區域，全國劃分為１個聯邦首都區、３６個州以及７７４個地方政府。３６個州是: 阿比亞州、阿誇·伊博姆州、阿達瑪瓦州、阿南布拉州、包奇州、貝努埃州、博爾諾州、十字河流州、三角州、埃多州、埃努古州、伊莫州、吉加瓦州、卡杜納州、卡諾州、卡齊納州、凱比州、科吉州、誇拉州、拉各斯州、尼日爾州、奧貢州、翁多州、奧遜州、沃約州、高原州、河流州、索科托州、塔拉巴州、約比州、貢貝州、納薩拉瓦州、贊法拉州、埃邦伊州、埃基提州、巴耶爾薩州。 【政治】 現行憲法於１９９９年５月５日公佈，同年５月２９日起正式實施。該憲法以尼１９７９年憲法為基礎修訂而成。主要內容包括：尼是不可分割的主權國傢，實行聯邦製；實行三權分立的政治體製，總統為最高行政長官，領導內閣治理國傢；國民議會分參、衆兩院，是國傢最高立法機構，議員由直接選舉産生，任期４年；最高法院為最高司法機構；總統、國民議會均由選舉産生，總統任期四年，連任不得超過兩屆。 【經濟】 尼日利亞是非洲最大的石油生産國和世界第六大石油出口國，也是石油輸出國組織（歐佩剋）成員國之一。尼原為農業國。七十年代起成為非洲最大的産油國，農業日漸萎縮。資源豐富。已探明有３０多種礦藏。主要有石油、天然氣、錫、煤、石灰石等。迄今已探明石油儲量２７０億桶，居世界第九位，以目前開採速度可再開採３０年。尼日利亞天然氣資源也很豐富，已探明天然氣儲量達３．４萬億立方米，居世界第五和非洲第一位，目前已開發量僅占總儲量的１２％，為改變本國經濟對石油工業的過多依賴，尼政府已實施天然氣開發戰略，大力開發國內豐富的天然氣資源，以達到推動經濟發展和增加政府收入的目的。煤儲量約２７. ５億噸，為西非唯一産煤國。森林覆蓋率為１７％。石油工業是國民經濟的支柱。八十年代後，隨着國際市場油價下跌，尼經濟陷入睏境。 １９９２年被國際貨幣基金組織列為低收入國傢。１９９５年起政府對經濟進行整頓，取得一定成效。１９９８年由於國際市場油價下跌和國內煉油廠停産，經濟增速減慢。１９９９年奧巴桑喬上臺後，積極推行自由化和私有化改革，實施緊縮的貨幣政策，嚴格限製舉藉新債，大力扶持農業，加強石油、天然氣、礦業等産業的發展和基礎設施建設，積極爭取外資、外援和債務減免。由於國際市場油價持續上揚這一有利的外部因素，尼經濟形勢趨於好轉。主要製造業為紡織、車輛裝配、木材加工、水泥、飲料和食品加工，大多集中在拉各斯及其周圍地區。基礎設施年久失修，技術水平較低，多數工業製品仍依賴進口。農業在國內生産總值中占４０％。全國７０％的勞動力從事農業。農業主要産區集中在北方地區。農業生産方式目前仍以小農經濟為主，糧食不能自給，每年仍需大量進口。 【新聞出版】 新聞和出版事業較發達。全國各種報刊雜志近百種，電臺和電視臺有幾十個。聯邦和各州政府設有主管宣傳事務的新聞部。主要報紙有《笨拙報（英文）、《每日時報》（英文）、《衛報》（英文）、《新尼日利亞人報》（英文和豪薩文）、《民族和睦報》（英文）、《先鋒報》（英文）。尼日利亞通訊社（簡稱NAN）是１９７８年１０月成立的官方通訊社，泛非通訊社西非地區總分社的工作亦由尼通訊社承擔。尼日利亞聯邦廣播公司（簡稱FRCN）的前身是１９５２年成立的尼日利亞聯邦無綫廣播公司，１９７８年６月改為現名。尼日利亞國傢電視臺(簡稱NTA)成立於１９６２年，由聯邦政府新聞與文化部領導，有工作人員５０００多人。全國劃為６個電視區。目前有４５個電視臺，其中１３個為私人有綫電視和衛星轉播站。 【外交】 奉行不結盟、睦鄰友好和“以本國利益為中心”的多元化外交政策。積極維護非洲團结，促進地區合作，推動西非地區經濟一體化進程。積極參與聯合國和非洲地區組織的維和行動，謀求發揮非洲大國作用。 與中國關係：１９7１年２月１０日，尼日利亞與中國建交。２００５年４月，奧巴桑喬總統對中國進行國事訪問，兩國發表聯合公報。2006年1月9日，中國公司中海油以22.68億美元的價格收購尼日利亞130號海上石油開採許可證（OML130）的45％的工作權益，中國將成為另一個該國重要石油貿易夥伴。 【體育】 尼日利亞是非洲人口最多的國傢，令他們引以自豪的是，有200多名尼日利亞的職業球員在世界各國踢球，其中包括歐洲聯賽，中東國傢，亞洲以及美洲。自1994年美國世界杯上首次亮相以來，尼日利亞球員與生俱來的足球天賦就得到了世界足壇的肯定。 尼日利亞隊的陣容也十分強大，奧剋察、伊剋貝巴等人，都將是第三次參加世界杯大賽了，加上球技出神入化的卡努，射門機器阿加裏， 本屆世界杯，他們在球場上更豐富的經驗和信心將帶領尼日利亞隊走得更遠。 在之前兩屆世界杯上，尼日利亞這衹雄鷹被視作是非洲大陸成功的希望與寄托，但是他們最好的成績也衹是通過了首輪的比賽，本屆世界杯，尼日利亞發誓將走的更遠，值得一提的是，在世界杯非洲區預選賽中，尼日利亞的出現徵程可謂是驚險異常，差點沒能步入韓日大門。 主教練阿莫杜被尼日利亞足協承諾，將不會尋找他的替代者，但是他未來的命運將和本屆韓日世界杯緊緊聯繫在一起，屆時尼日利亞隊的表現與戰績將决定他的前途。 歷史知名球員：拉瓦爾、耶齊尼、凱西、阿莫卡齊 The people of Nigeria have an extensive history, and archaeological evidence shows that human habitation of the area dates back to at least 9000 BC. The Benue-Cross River area is thought to be the original homeland of the Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and southern Africa in waves between the 1st millennium BC and the 2nd millennium AD. Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the eighth most populous country in the world with a population of over 140 million. The country is listed among the "Next Eleven" economies, and is one of the fastest growing in the world with the International Monetary Fund projecting growth of 9% in 2008 and 8.3% in 2009. Early History The Nok people in central Nigeria produced terracotta sculptures that have been discovered by archaeologists. A Nok sculpture resident at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, portrays a sitting dignitary wearing a "Shepherds Crook" on the right arm, and a "hinged flail" on the left. These are symbols of authority associated with Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs, and the god Osiris, and suggests that an ancient Egyptian style of social structure, and perhaps religion, existed in the area of modern Nigeria during the late Pharonic period. In the northern part of the country, Kano and Katsina has recorded history which dates back to around AD 999. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa. The Yoruba people date their presence in the area of modern republics of Nigeria, Benin and Togo to about 8500 BC. The kingdoms of Ifẹ and Oyo in the western block of Nigeria became prominent about 700-900 and 1400 respectively. However, the Yoruba mythology believes that Ile-Ife is the source of the human race and that it predates any other civilization. Ifẹ produced the terra cotta and bronze heads, the Ọyọ extended as far as modern Togo. Another prominent kingdom in south western Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well known city of Eko which was named Lagos by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. In the 18th century, the Oyo and the Aro confederacy were responsible for most of the slaves exported from Nigeria. The Colonial Era Following the Napoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885 British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900 the company's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On January 1, 1901 Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time. In 1914 the area was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Administratively Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the middle of the 20th century, the great wave for independence was sweeping across Africa. Post Independence On October 1, 1960, Nigeria gained its independence from the United Kingdom. The new republic incorporated a number of people with aspirations of their own sovereign nations. Newly independent Nigeria's government was a coalition of conservative parties: the Nigerian People's Congress (NPC), a party dominated by Northerners and those of the Islamic faith, and the Igbo and Christian dominated National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) led by Nnamdi Azikiwe, who became Nigeria's maiden Governor-General in 1960. Forming the opposition was the comparatively liberal Action Group (AG), which was largely dominated by Yorubas and led by Obafemi Awolowo. An imbalance was created in the polity by the result of the 1961 plebiscite. Southern Cameroon opted to join the Republic of Cameroon while northern Cameroon chose to remain in Nigeria. The northern part of the country was now far larger than the southern part. The nation parted with its British legacy in 1963 by declaring itself a Federal Republic, with Azikiwe as the first president. When elections came about in 1965, the AG was outmanoeuvred for control of Nigeria's Western Region by the Nigerian National Democratic Party, an amalgamation of conservative Yoruba elements backed heavily by the Federal Government amid dubious electoral circumstances. This left the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG in a weak progressive alliance. Map of Nigeria Military Era This disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led in 1966 to several back-to-back military coups. The first was in January and led by a collection of young leftists under Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna & Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu, it was partially successful - the coupists overthrew the embattled government but could not install their choice, jailed opposition leader Chief Obafemi Awolowo, General Johnson Aguiyi-ironsi, then head of the army was invited by the rump of the Balewa regime to take over the affairs of the country as head of state. This coup was counter-acted by another successful plot, supported primarily by Northern military officers and Northerners who favoured the NPC, it was engineered by Northern officers, which allowed Lt Colonel Yakubu Gowon to become head of state. This sequence of events led to an increase in ethnic tension and violence. The Northern coup, which was mostly motivated by ethnic and religious reasons was a bloodbath of both military officers and civilians, especially those of Igbo extraction. The violence against Igbos increased their desire for autonomy and protection from the military's wrath. By May 1967, the Eastern Region had declared itself an independent state called the Republic of Biafra under the leadership Lt Colonel Emeka Ojukwu in line with the wishes of the people. The Nigerian side attacked Biafra on July 6, 1967 at Garkem signalling the beginning of the 30 month war that ended on January 1970. Following the war, Nigeria became to an extent even more mired in ethnic strife, as the defeated southeast and indeed southern Nigeria was now conquered territory for the federal military regime, which changed heads of state twice as army officers staged a bloodless coup against Gowon and enthroned Murtala Mohammed; Olusegun Obansanjo succeeded the former after an assassination. During the oil boom of the 1970s, Nigeria joined OPEC and billions of dollars generated by production in the oil-rich Niger Delta flowed into the coffers of the Nigerian state. However, increasing corruption and graft at all levels of government squandered most of these earnings. The northern military clique benefited immensely from the oil boom to the detriment of the Nigerian people and economy. As oil revenues fuelled the rise of federal subventions to states and precariously to individuals, the Federal Government soon became the centre of political struggle and the centre became the threshold of power in the country. As oil production and revenue rose, the Nigerian government created a dangerous situation as it became increasingly dependent on oil revenues and the international commodity markets for budgetary and economic concerns eschewing economic stability. That spelled doom to federalism in Nigeria. Beginning in 1979, Nigerians participated in a brief return to democracy when Obasanjo transferred power to the civilian regime of Shehu Shagari. The Shagari government was viewed as corrupt and incompetent by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society, so when the regime was overthrown by the military coup of Mohammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's fraudulent re-election in 1984, it was generally viewed as a positive development by most of the population. Buhari promised major reforms but his government fared little better than its predecessor, and his regime was overthrown by yet another military coup in 1985. The new head of state, Ibrahim Babangida, promptly declared himself President and Commander in chief of the Armed Forces and the ruling Supreme Military Council and also set 1990 as the official deadline for a return to democratic governance. Babangida's tenure was marked by a flurry of political activity: he instituted the International Monetary Fund's Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) to aid in the repayment of the country's crushing international debt, which most federal revenue was dedicated to servicing. He also inflamed religious tensions in the nation and particularly the south by enrolling Nigeria in the Organization of the Islamic Conference, After Babangida survived an abortive coup, he pushed back the promised return to democracy to 1992. When free and fair elections were finally held on the 12th of June, 1993, Babangida declared that the results showing a presidential victory for Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola null and void, sparking mass civilian violence in protest which effectively shut down the country for weeks and forced Babangida to keep his shaky promise to relinquish office to a civilian run government. Babangida's regime is adjudged to be at the apogee of corruption in the history of the nation as it was during his time that corruption became officially diluted in Nigeria. Umaru Yar'Adua of the People's Democratic Party is the current president of NigeriaBabangida's caretaker regime headed by Ernest Shonekan survived only until late 1993 when General Sani Abacha took power in another military coup. Abacha proved to be perhaps Nigeria's most brutal ruler and employed violence on a wide scale to suppress the continuing pandemic of civilian unrest. Money had been found in various western European countries banks traced to him. He avoided coup plots by bribing army generals. Several hundred millions dollars in accounts traced to him were unearthed in 1999. The regime would come to an end in 1998 when the dictator was found dead amid dubious circumstances. Abacha's death yielded an opportunity for return to civilian rule. Recent History Nigeria re-achieved democracy in 1999 when it elected Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba and former military head of state, as the new President ending almost thirty three-years of military rule (between from 1966 until 1999) excluding the short-lived second republic (between 1979-1983) by military dictators who seized power in coups d'état and counter-coups during the Nigerian military juntas of 1966-1979 and 1983-1998. Although the elections which brought Obasanjo to power in 1999 and again in 2003 were condemned as unfree and unfair, Nigeria has shown marked improvements in attempts to tackle government corruption and to hasten development. While Obasanjo showed willingness to fight corruption, he was accused by others of the same.[who?] Umaru Yar'Adua, of the People's Democratic Party, came into power in the general election of 2007 - an election that was witnessed and condemned by the international community as being massively flawed. Ethnic violence over the oil producing Niger Delta region (see Conflict in the Niger Delta), interreligious relations and inadequate infrastructure are current issues in the country. Government and politics Main article: Politics of Nigeria See also: Government of Nigeria See also: Federal Ministries of Nigeria Nigeria is a Federal Republic modelled after the United States, with executive power exercised by the president and with overtones of the Westminster System model in the composition and management of the upper and lower houses of the bicameral legislature. The current president of Nigeria is Umaru Musa Yar'Adua who was elected in 2007. The president presides as both Chief of State and Head of Government and is elected by popular vote to a maximum of two four-year terms. The president's power is checked by a Senate and a House of Representatives, which are combined in a bicameral body called the National Assembly. The Senate is a 109-seat body with three members from each state and one from the capital region of Abuja; members are elected by popular vote to four-year terms. The House contains 360 seats and the number of seats per state is determined by population. Ethnocentricism, tribalism, sectarianism (especially religious), and prebendalism have played a visible role in Nigerian politics both prior and subsequent to independence in 1960. Kin-selective altruism has made its way into Nigerian politics and has spurned various attempts by tribalists to concentrate Federal power to a particular region of their interests. Nationalism has also led to active secessionist movements such as MASSOB, Nationalist movements such as Oodua Peoples Congress, Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta and a civil war. Nigeria's three largest ethnic groups have maintained historical preeminence in Nigerian politics; competition amongst these three groups, the Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo, has fuelled corruption and graft. Due to the above issues, Nigeria's current political parties are pan-national and irreligious in character (though this does not preclude the continuing preeminence of the dominant ethnicities). The major political parties at present include the ruling People's Democratic Party of Nigeria which maintains 223 seats in the House and 76 in the Senate (61.9% and 69.7% respectively) and is led by the current President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua; the opposition All Nigeria People's Party under the leadership of Muhammadu Buhari has 96 House seats and 27 in the Senate (26.6% and 24.7%). There are also about twenty other minor opposition parties registered. The outgoing president, Olusegun Obasanjo, acknowledged fraud and other electoral "lapses" but said the result reflected opinion polls. In a national television address he added that if Nigerians did not like the victory of his handpicked successor they would have an opportunity to vote again in four years. Like in many other African societies, prebendalism and extremely excessive corruption continue to constitute major challenges to Nigeria, as vote rigging and other means of coercion are practised by all major parties in order to remain competitive. In 1983, it was adjudged by the policy institute at Kuru that only the 1959 and 1979 elections witnessed minimal rigging. Law There are four distinct systems of law in Nigeria: English Law which is derived from its colonial past with Britain; common law, a development of its post colonial independence; customary law which is derived from indigenous traditional norms and practice, including the dispute resolution meetings of pre-colonial Yorubaland secret societies; Sharia law, used only in the predominantly Muslim north of the country. It is an Islamic legal system which had been used long before the colonial administration in Nigeria but recently politicised and spearheaded in Zamfara in late 1999 and eleven other states followed suit. These states are Kano, Katsina, Niger, Bauchi, Borno, Kaduna, Gombe, Sokoto, Jigawa, Yobe, and Kebbi. The country has a judicial branch, the highest court of which is the Supreme Court of Nigeria. Foreign relations National Assembly complex in AbujaMain article: Foreign relations of Nigeria Upon gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria made the liberation and restoration of the dignity of Africa the centrepiece of its foreign policy and played a leading role in the fight against the apartheid regime in South Africa. One notable exception to the African focus of Nigeria's foreign policy was the close relationship the country enjoyed with Israel throughout the 1960s, with the latter country sponsoring and overseeing the construction of Nigeria's parliament buildings. Nigeria's foreign policy was soon tested in the 1970s after the country emerged united from its own civil war and quickly committed itself to the liberation struggles going on in the Southern Africa sub-region. Though Nigeria never sent an expeditionary force in that struggle, it offered more than rhetoric to the African National Congress (ANC) by taking a committed tough line with regard to the racist regime and their incursions in southern Africa, in addition to expediting large sums to aid anti-colonial struggles. Nigeria was also a founding member of the Organization for African Unity (now the African Union), and has tremendous influence in West Africa and Africa on the whole. Nigeria has additionally founded regional cooperative efforts in West Africa, functioning as standard-bearer for ECOWAS and ECOMOG, economic and military organizations respectively. With this African-centred stance, Nigeria readily sent troops to the Congo at the behest of the United Nations shortly after independence (and has maintained membership since that time); Nigeria also supported several Pan African and pro-self government causes in the 1970s, including garnering support for Angola's MPLA, SWAPO in Namibia, and aiding anti-colonial struggles in Mozambique, and Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia) military and economically. Nigeria retains membership in the Non-Aligned Movement, and in late November 2006 organized an Africa-South America Summit in Abuja to promote what some attendees termed "South-South" linkages on a variety of fronts. Nigeria is also a member of the International Criminal Court, and the Commonwealth of Nations, from which it was temporarily expelled in 1995 under the Abacha regime. Nigeria has remained a key player in the international oil industry since the 1970s, and maintains membership in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC which it joined in July, 1971. Its status as a major petroleum producer figures prominently in its sometimes vicissitudinous international relations with both developed countries, notably the United States and more recently China and developing countries, notably Ghana, Jamaica and Kenya. Millions of Nigerians have emigrated at times of economic hardship to Europe, North America and Australia among others. It is estimated that over a million Nigerians have emigrated to the United States and constitute the Nigerian American populace. Of such Diasporic communities include the "Egbe Omo Yoruba" society. Military of Nigeria Nigerian troopsThe military in Nigeria have played a major role in the country's history since independence. Various juntas have seized control of the country and ruled it through most of its history. Its last period of rule ended in 1999 following the sudden death of dictator Sani Abacha in 1998. Taking advantage of its role of sub-Saharan Africa's most populated country, Nigeria has repositioned its military as an African peacekeeping force. Since 1995, the Nigerian military through ECOMOG mandates have been deployed as peacekeepers in Liberia (1997), Ivory Coast (1997-1999), Sierra Leone 1997-1999, and presently in Sudan's Darfur region under an African Union mandate. Active duty personnel in the three Nigerian armed services total approximately 115,000. The Nigerian Army, the largest of the services, has about 99,000 personnel deployed in two mechanized infantry divisions, one armoured division, one composite division (airborne and amphibious), the Lagos Garrison Command (a division size unit), the Abuja-based Brigade of Guards and other regimental size units (e.g. artillery brigade). It has demonstrated its capability to mobilize, deploy, and sustain battalions in support of peacekeeping operations in Liberia, former Yugoslavia, Angola, Rwanda, Somalia, and Sierra Leone. The Nigerian Navy (7,000 members) is equipped with frigates, fast attack craft, corvettes, and coastal patrol boats. The Nigerian Air Force (9,000 members) flies transport, trainer, helicopter, and fighter aircraft, many of which are currently non-operational, but there is an ongoing policy of reorganization, and the provision of a very professional armed forces with high capability. Nigeria also has pursued a policy of developing domestic training and military production capabilities. Nigeria has continued a strict policy of diversification in military procurement from various countries. After the imposition of sanctions by many Western nations, Nigeria turned to the People's Republic of China, Russia, North Korea, and India for the purchase of military equipment and training. Geography Satellite image of Nigeria, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library Map of vegetation in NigeriaNigeria is located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and has a total area of 923,768 km² (356,669 mi²), making it the world's 32nd-largest country (after Tanzania). It is comparable in size to Venezuela, and is about twice the size of California. It shares a 4047 km (2515-mile) border with Benin (773 km), Niger (1497 km), Chad (87 km), Cameroon (1690 km), and has a coastline of at least 853 km. The highest point in Nigeria is Chappal Waddi at 2,419 m (7,936 feet). Nigeria has a varied landscape. From the Obudu Hills in the southeast through the beaches in the south, the rainforest, the Lagos estuary and savannah in the middle and southwest of the country and the Sahel to the encroaching Sahara in the extreme north. Nigeria's main rivers are the Niger and the Benue which converge and empty into the Niger Delta, the world's largest river deltas. Nigeria is also an important centre for biodiversity. It is widely believed that the areas surrounding Calabar, Cross River State, contain the world's largest diversity of butterflies. The drill monkey is only found in the wild in Southeast Nigeria and neighboring Cameroon. States and local government areas States of NigeriaMain articles: States of Nigeria and Local Government Areas of Nigeria Nigeria is divided into thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory, which are further sub-divided into 774 Local Government Areas (LGAs). The plethora of states, of which there were only three at independence, reflect the country's tumultuous history and the difficulties of managing such a heterogeneous national entity at all levels of government. Nigeria has six cities with a population of over 1 million people (from largest to smallest: Lagos, Kano, Ibadan, Kaduna, Port Harcourt, and Benin City). Lagos is the largest city in sub-Saharan Africa, with a population of over 10 million in its urban area alone. Population of Nigeria's cities over 1,000,000 City Population Lagos 7,937,932 Kano 3,848,885 Ibadan 3,078,400 Kaduna 1,652,844 Port Harcourt 1,320,214 Benin City 1,051,600 Maiduguri 1,044,497 Zaria 1,018,827 Environment Environmental degradation Nigeria's Delta region, home of the large oil industry, experiences serious oil spills and other environmental problems. See Environmental issues in the Niger Delta for more details, and Conflict in the Niger Delta about strife which has arisen in connection with those issues. Waste management including sewage treatment, the linked processes of deforestation and soil degradation, and climate change or global warming are the major environmental problems in Nigeria. Waste management presents problems in a mega city like Lagos and other major Nigerian cities which are linked with economic development, population growth and the inability of municipal councils to manage the resulting rise in industrial and domestic waste. Haphazard industrial planning, increased urbanization, poverty and lack of competence of the municipal government are seen as the major reasons for high levels of waste pollution in major Nigerian cities. Some of the 'solutions' have been disastrous to the environment, resulting in untreated waste being dumped in places where it can pollute waterways and groundwater. In terms of global warming, Africans contribute only about one metric ton of carbon dioxide per person per year. It is perceived by many climate change experts that food production and security in the northern sahel region of the country will suffer as semi-arid areas will have more dry periods in the future. Economy The currency unit of Nigeria is the Nigerian Naira. Years of military rule, corruption, and mismanagement have hampered economic activity and output in Nigeria and continue to do so, despite the restoration of democracy and subsequent economic reform. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit and the World Bank, Nigerian GDP at purchasing power parity was only at $170.7 billion as of FY 2005. The GDP per head is at $692. Petroleum plays a large role in the Nigerian economy, accounting for 40% of the GDP. It is the 12th largest producer of petroleum in the world and the 8th largest exporter, and has the 10th largest proven reserves and the country was also a founding member of OPEC. However, due to crumbling infrastructure, corruption, and ongoing civil strife in the Niger Delta, its main oil producing region, oil production and export is not at 100% capacity. Mineral resources that are present in Nigeria but not yet fully exploited are coal and tin. Other natural resources in the country include iron ore, limestone, niobium, lead, zinc, and arable land. Despite huge deposits of these natural resources, the mining industry in Nigeria is almost non-existent. About 60% of Nigerians are employed in the agricultural sector. Agriculture used to be the principal foreign exchange earner of Nigeria. Perhaps, one of the most daunting ramifications of the discovery of oil was the decline of agricultural sector. So tragic was this neglect that Nigeria, which in the 1960s grew 98% of his own food and was a net food exporter, now must import much of the same cash crops it was formerly famous for as the biggest exporter. Agricultural products include groundnuts, palm oil, cocoa, coconut, citrus fruits, maize, pearl millet, cassava, yams and sugar cane. It also has a booming leather and textile industry, with industries located in Kano, Abeokuta, Onitsha, and Lagos. Like many Third World nations, Nigeria accumulated a significant foreign debt. Many of the projects financed by these debts were inefficient, bedeviled by corruption or failed to live up to expectations. Eventually, Nigeria defaulted on its principal debt repayments as arrears and penalty interest accumulated and increased the size of the debt. However, after a long campaign by the Nigeria authorities, in October 2005 Nigeria and its Paris Club creditors reached an agreement that reduced Nigeria's debt by approximately 60%. Nigeria used part of its oil windfall to pay the residual 40%, freeing up at least $1.15 billion annually for poverty reduction programmes. As of April 2006, Nigeria became the first African Country to fully pay off her debt (estimated $30billion) owed to the Paris Club. Nigeria also has significant production and manufacturing facilities such as factories for the French car manufacturer Peugeot, the English truck manufacturer Bedford, now a subsidiary of General Motors. Nigeria also manufactures t-shirts and processed food. Nigeria has a National Space Research and Development Agency. Demographics Population density in NigeriaNigeria is the most populous country in Africa but exactly how populous is a subject of speculation. The United Nations estimates that the population in 2004 was at 131,530,000 , with the population distributed as 48.3% Urban and 51.7% rural and population density at 139 people per square km. National census results in the past few decades have been disputed. The results of the most recent census by the Government of Nigeria have been released 29 December 2006. The census gave a population of 140.003.542. The only breakdown available was Total: 140.003.542 Men: 71.709.859 Women: 68.293.083 According to the United Nations, Nigeria has been undergoing explosive population growth and one of the highest growth and fertility rates in the world. By their projections, Nigeria will be one of the countries in the world that will account for most of the world's total population increase by 2050. According to current data, one out of every four Africans is Nigerian. Presently, Nigeria is the eighth most populous country in the world, and even conservative estimates conclude that more than 20% of the world's black population lives in Nigeria. 2006 estimates claim 42.3% of the population is between 0-14 years of age, while 54.6% is between 15-65; the birth rate is significantly higher than the death rate, at 40.4 and 16.9 per 1000 people respectively. Health, health care, and general living conditions in Nigeria are poor. Life expectancy is 47 years (average male/female) and just over half the population has access to potable water and appropriate sanitation; the percentage is of children under five has gone up rather than down between 1990 and 2003 and infant mortality is 97.1 deaths per 1000 live births. HIV/AIDS rate in Nigeria is much lower compared to the other African nations such as Kenya or South Africa whose prevalence (percentage) rates are in the double digits. Nigeria, like many developing countries, also suffers from a polio crisis as well as periodic outbreaks of cholera, malaria, and sleeping sickness. As of 2004, there has been a vaccination drive, spearheaded by the W.H.O., to combat polio and malaria that has been met with controversy in some regions. Education is also in a state of neglect, though after the oil boom on the oil price in the early 1970s, tertiary education was improved so it would reach every subregion of Nigeria. Education is provided free by the government, but the attendance rate for secondary education is only 29% (average male 32%/female 27%). The education system has been described as "dysfunctional" largely due to decaying institutional infrastructure. 68% of the population is literate, and the rate for men (75.7%) is higher than that for women (60.6%). Ethno-linguistic groups Linguistic map of Nigeria, Cameroon, and BeninNigeria has more than 250 ethnic groups, with varying languages and customs, creating a country of rich ethnic diversity. The largest ethnic groups are the Fulani/Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, accounting for 68% of population, while the Edo, Ijaw (10%), Kanuri, Ibibio, Ebira Nupe and Tiv comprise 27%; other minorities make up the remaining 7 percent. The middle belt of Nigeria is known for its diversity of ethnic groups, including the Pyem, Goemai, and Kofyar. There are small minorities of British, Americans, East Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Syrian, Lebanese and refugees and immigrants from other West African or East African nations. These minorities mostly reside in major cities such as Lagos and Abuja, or in the Niger Delta as employees for the major oil companies. A number of Cubans settled Nigeria as political refugees following the Cuban Revolution. A number of them include Afro-Cubans and mixed-raced Cubans. In the middle of the nineteenth century, a number of ex-slaves of Afro-Cuban and Afro-Brazilian descent and emigrants from Sierra Leone established communities in Lagos, Ibadan and other regions of Nigeria. Many ex-slaves came to Nigeria following the emancipation of slaves in Latin America. Many of the immigrants, sometimes called Saros (immigrants from Sierra Leone) and Amaro (ex-slaves from Brazil) later became prominent merchants and missionaries in Lagos and Abeokuta. Language The number of languages currently estimated and catalogued in Nigeria is 521. This number includes 510 living languages, two second languages without native speakers and 9 extinct languages. In some areas of Nigeria, ethnic groups speak more than one language. The official language of Nigeria, English, was chosen to facilitate the cultural and linguistic unity of the country. The choice of English as the official language was partially related to the fact that a part of Nigerian population spoke English as a result of British colonization that ended in 1960. The major languages spoken in Nigeria represent three major families of African languages - the majority are Niger-Congo languages, such as Yoruba, Ibo, the Hausa language is Afro-Asiatic; and Kanuri, spoken in the northeast, primarily Borno State, is a member of the Nilo-Saharan family. Even though most ethnic groups prefer to communicate in their own languages, English, being the official language, is widely used for education, business transactions and for official purposes. English as a first language, however, remains an exclusive preserve of a small minority of the country's urban elite, and is not spoken at all in some rural areas. With the majority of Nigeria's populace in the rural areas, the major languages of communication in the country remain indigenous languages. Some of the largest of these, notably Yoruba and Ibo, have derived standardized languages from a number of different dialects and are widely spoken by those ethnic groups. Hausa is a lingua franca throughout much of West Africa, and serves this function in Northern Nigeria as well, particularly amongst the Muslim population. Nigerian Pidgin English, often known simply as 'Pidgin' or 'Broken' (Broken English), is also as a popular lingua franca, though with varying regional influences on dialect and slang.The pidgin English or Nigerian English is widely spoken within the Niger Delta Regions, predominately in Warri,Sapele, Port-Harcourt, Agenebode, Benin City etc. The Yoruba language has the most varied forms and dialects. This variation is usually based on the different towns or as it were Kingdoms that existed before the advent of Europeans. They are as diverse as the number of city states that there are. Examples are Awori, Ondo/Ekiti, Egba/Yewa, Oyo/Ibadan, Ijebu, Ijesa/Ife, Ilorin, Kabba/Okun. Culture Literature Nigeria has a rich literary history, and Nigerians have authored many influential works of post-colonial literature in the English language. Nigeria's best-known writers are Wole Soyinka, the first African Nobel Laureate in Literature and Chinua Achebe, the legendary writer best known for the novel, Things Fall Apart and his controversial critique of Joseph Conrad. Other Nigerian writers and poets who are well known on the international stage include John Pepper Clark, Ben Okri, Buchi Emecheta, Helon Habila, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, and Ken Saro Wiwa who was executed in 1995 by the military regime. Nigeria has the second largest newspaper market in Africa (after Egypt) with an estimated circulation of several million copies daily in 2003, Music and film Femi Kuti, son of Fela Kuti, is one of the major performers of modern Afrobeat musicSee also: Music of Nigeria and Cinema of Nigeria Nigeria (naija) has been called "the heart of African music" because of its role in the development of West African highlife and palm-wine music, which fuses native rhythms with techniques imported from the Congo, Brazil, Cuba and elsewhere. Nigerian music includes many kinds of folk and popular music, some of which are known worldwide. Styles of folk music are related to the multitudes of ethnic groups in the country, each with their own techniques, instruments and songs. As a result, there are many different types of music that come from Nigeria. Many late 20th century musicians such as Fela Kuti have famously fused cultural elements of various indigenous music with American Jazz and Soul to form Afrobeat music. JuJu music which is percussion music fused with traditional music from the Yoruba nation and made famous by King Sunny Adé, is also from Nigeria. There is also fuji music, a Yoruba percussion style, created and popularized by the one and only Mr. Fuji, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister. There is a budding hip hop movement in Nigeria. Kennis Music, the self proclaimed "No 1 Record Label in Africa" and one of Nigeria's biggest record labels, has a roster almost entirely dominated by hip hop artists. Some famous musicians that come from Nigeria are Fela Kuti, Adewale Ayuba, Ezebuiro Obinna, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister, King Sunny Adé, Ebenezer Obey, Femi Kuti, Lagbaja, Dr. Alban, Sade Aduand Tuface Idibia. The Nigerian film industry is known as Nollywood. Many of the film studios are based in Lagos and Abuja and the industry is now a very lucrative income for these cities. Religion Abuja National MosqueMain article: Religion in Nigeria Nigeria has a variety of religions which tend to vary regionally. This situation accentuates regional and ethnic distinctions and has often been seen as a source of sectarian conflict amongst the population. The four main religions are Islam (see also Islam in Nigeria), Christianity, Orisha, and Animism. Animist religious practices include traditional religious belief systems such as Igbo mythology. Christianity is concentrated in the southeast portion of the country while Islam dominates in the north of the country. The majority of Nigerian Muslims are Sunni, but a significant Shia minority exists (see Shia in Nigeria).Some northern states have incorporated Sharia law into their previously secular legal systems, provoking controversy.Kano state of Nigeria has sought to make Sharia law superior to the constitution. Across Yorubaland (western Nigeria, Benin, Togo), many people are adherents to Yorubo/Irunmole spirituality with its philosophy of divine destiny that all can become Orisha (ori, spiritual head; sha, is chosen: to be one with Olodumare (oni odu, the God source of all energy; ma re, enlighthens / triumphs). Other minority religious and spiritual groups in Nigeria include Hinduism, Judaism, The Bahá’í Faith, and Chrislam (a syncretic faith melding elements of Christianity and Islam). Further, Nigeria has become an African hub for the Grail Movement, the Rosicrucian order (AMORC), and the Hare Krishnas. Sport Like many nations, football is Nigeria's national sport. There is also a local Premier League of football. Nigeria's national football team, known as the Super Eagles, has made the World Cup on three occasions 1994, 1998, and 2002, won the African Cup of Nations in 1980 and 1994, and also hosted the Junior World Cup. They won the gold medal for football in the 1996 Summer Olympics (in which they beat Argentina) and have reached the finals of the U-20 World Championship in 2005. In September 2007, Nigeria won the U-17 World cup for the third time, becoming the only African nation to have achieved that feat and the second nation (after Brazil) to do so. Nigeria had previously won the very first U-17 tournament in 1985 (China '85), 1993 (Japan '93) and in 2007 (Korea '07). The nation's cadet team to Japan '93, produced some of the world's finest players notably Nwankwo Kanu, a two-time African Footballer of the year who won the European Champions League with Ajax Amsterdam and later played with Inter Milan (Italy), Arsenal FC (London, UK), West Brom (UK) and Portsmouth F.C. (UK). Other players that graduated from the Junior teams are Celestine Babayaro (of Newcastle United, UK), Wilson Oruma (of Marseille, France). According to the official September 2007 FIFA World Rankings, Nigeria is currently First-ranked football nation in Africa and the 19th highest in the world. Nigeria is also involved in other sports such as basketball and track and field. Boxing is also an important sport in Nigeria; currently, Samuel Peter is the World Heavyweight Champion. Cuisine Nigerian cuisine, like West African cuisine in general, is known for its richness and variety. Many different spices, herbs and flavourings are used in conjunction with palm oil or groundnut oil to create deeply-flavoured sauces and soups often made very hot with chilli peppers. Nigerian feasts are colourful and lavish, while aromatic market and roadside snacks cooked on barbecues or fried in oil are plentiful and varied. Crime A type of advance fee fraud known as "419" and the "Nigerian scam" is a form of confidence trick practiced by organized crime that is commonly associated with Nigeria, though it is now used in other places. The confidence man persuades the target to advance relatively small sums of money (the advance fee) in the hope of realizing a much larger gain (usually touted as millions). In 2003, the Nigerian Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (or EFCC) was created to combat this and other forms of organized financial crime. It has succeeded in bringing several "419" crime bosses to justice and in some cases has been able to return the stolen money to victims. Societal issues Despite its vast government revenue from the mining of petroleum, Nigeria is beset by a number of societal problems due primarily to a history of inept governance. Some of these problems are listed below. Human rights In its 2005 report on human rights practices around the world, the U.S. Department of State found that Nigeria's human rights record was "poor." According to the report, Nigerian government officials and police were responsible for "serious abuses," including politically motivated killings; the use of lethal force against suspected criminals and hostage-seizing militants in the Niger Delta; beatings and even torture of suspects, detainees, and convicts; and extortion of civilians. Other abuses included violence, discrimination, and genital mutilation directed against women, child labor and prostitution, and human trafficking. Compounding these abuses was the application of Islamic law (sharia) in 12 northern states. Sentences imposed under sharia included amputations, stonings, and canings, but no death sentences were carried out. In addition, the U.S. Department of State noted restrictions on the freedoms of speech, press, assembly, religion, movement, and privacy. Homosexuality is illegal in Nigeria. Strife and sectarian violence Due to its multitude of diverse, sometimes competing ethno-linguistic groups, Nigeria has been beset since prior to independence with sectarian tensions and violence. This is particularly true in the oil-producing Niger Delta region, where both state and civilian forces employ varying methods of coercion in attempts gain control over regional petroleum resources. The civilian population, and especially certain ethnic groups like the Ogoni, have experienced severe environmental degradation due to petroleum extraction, but when these groups have attempted to protest these injustices, they have been met with repressive measures by Nigerian government and military forces. As a result, strife and deterioration in this region continues as of 2006. There are also significant tensions on a national scale, especially between the primarily Muslim, highly conservative northern population and the Christian population from the Southern part of the country. Since the end of the civil war in 1970, ethnic and religious violence has continued. Violence between Muslims and Christians occurred until early 2004. There has subsequently been a period of relative harmony since the Federal Government introduced tough new measures against religious violence in all affected parts of the country. In 2002, organizers of the Miss World Pageant announced that they would move the pageant from the Nigerian capital, Abuja, to London in the wake of violent protests in the Northern part of the country that left more than 100 people dead and over 500 injured. The rioting erupted after a newspaper suggested Muhammad would have approved of the Miss World beauty contest for personal reasons. Muslim rioters in Kaduna killed an estimated 105 men, women, and children with a further 521 injured taken to hospital. Angry mobs in the mainly Muslim city 600 kilometres (375 miles) northeast of Lagos burnt churches and rampaged through the streets, stabbing, bludgeoning, and burning bystanders to death. Health issues Nigeria has been reorganizing its health system since the Bamako Initiative of 1987 formally promoted community-based methods of increasing accessibility of drugs and health care services to the population, in part by implementing user fees. The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-based healthcare reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost. The state of health care in Nigeria has been worsened by a shortage of doctors as a consequence of severe 'brain drain'. Many Nigerian doctors have emigrated to North America and Europe. In 1995, 21,000 Nigerian doctors were practising in the US alone, about the same as the number of doctors then in the Nigerian public service. Retaining these expensively-trained professionals has been identified as an urgent goal. Happiness survey In 2003, Nigerians were reported to be the happiest people in a scientific survey carried out in 65 nations in 1999-2001. The research was reported by one of the world's top science magazines, New Scientist, and was picked up by a number of news outlets. See Nigeria tops happiness survey. The report considered that the country's family life and culture were more important than its problems and material wealth in determining happiness. |
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