| 黎巴嫩 Lebanon 首都:貝魯特 國家代碼: lb |
 黎巴嫩阿拉伯語تصنيف:لبنان 國旗 黎巴嫩國旗為長方形，長寬之比為3：2。旗面上下為紅色，中間為白色。白色部分中央是一棵黎巴嫩雪鬆，它在《聖經》中被稱為植物之王。紅色象徵自我犧牲，白色象徵和平，雪鬆代表挺拔，堅強及純潔，永生。 國徽 黎巴嫩國徽呈盾形。盾面上為斜置的國旗圖案，周圍有白色綬帶，底部的白色飾帶上分別用阿拉伯文和法文寫着“黎巴嫩共和國”。 國歌 黎巴嫩共和國國歌 面積 10452平方公裏 人口 400萬（2006年）。絶大多數為阿拉伯人。阿拉伯語為官方語言，通用法語、英語。居民54%信奉伊斯蘭教，主要是什葉派、遜尼派和德魯茲派；46%信奉基督教，主要有馬竜派、希臘東正教、羅馬天主教和亞美尼亞東正教等。 同北京時差 -6 國際電話碼 961 首都 貝魯特 Beirut，人口約180萬（2006年），7月平均最高氣溫32℃，1月平均最低氣溫11℃。 國傢元首 總統：米歇爾·蘇萊曼，2008年5月25日就任。 重要節日 烈士節（5月6日） 建軍節（8月1日） 獨立日/國慶日（11月22日） 黎教派衆多，各教派重要節日均為國傢法定節日。 國樹 雪鬆 名勝 塞達城堡 世界遺産 安傑爾，巴勒貝剋，比布魯斯，提爾城 新聞出版 黎以中東新聞中心著稱。全國各類報刊有600余家，其中52傢政治性日報。主要日報有《白天報》，發行量約4萬份；《使節報》發行量５萬份；《旗幟報》發行量6.2萬份，其中在黎發行2.95萬份；《傢園報》發行量1.4萬份；《安瓦爾報》發行量5.8萬份。主要刊物有《事件周刊》、《阿拉伯周刊》、《狩獵者》、《雜志周刊》、《黎巴嫩評論》、《星期一早晨》等。 通訊社：黎巴嫩國傢通訊社是唯一官方通訊社，成立於1962年，屬新聞部領導。每日發阿、英、法3種文字的新聞稿，衹報道官方的黎國內消息。中央通訊社為私人通訊社，創立於1982年9月。每日用阿文報道黎國內政治、經濟、商業等方面消息。《中東報道》是私人通訊社，1977年創辦。除周末外，每日發黎國內、外消息英文通訊稿。周末有綜述和新聞分析內容的專刊。在開羅和華盛頓設有分社。 廣播電臺：黎全國現有140多傢廣播電臺，其中大部分是私營娛樂性電臺。其中，黎巴嫩廣播電臺為國傢廣播電臺，屬新聞部領導。其前身是“東方電臺”，始建於1938年。1962年開始增用阿、法、英、西和葡語對外廣播。內戰爆發後，由於經濟睏難，該臺被迫停止對外廣播。“祖國之聲”電臺為黎伊斯蘭教遜尼派慈善基金會於1984年創辦。每天廣播20個小時，除英語新聞節目外，主要用阿語廣播。“人民之聲”電臺為黎巴嫩共産黨於1987年創辦，每天廣播18小時，每隔半小時有一次新聞節目。在開羅、巴黎、倫敦和莫斯科派有常駐記者。 電視臺：黎巴嫩國傢電視臺，成立於1978年。屬黎巴嫩電視公司所有，政府僅有一半資本，但公司的董事長和董事會成員均由政府任命。每天有兩套節目，每套播放10小時，用阿、法和英語播放新聞節目，教育、衛生、文化娛樂等節目則以阿語為主。未來電視臺，創辦於1992年，由已故前總理哈裏裏創建，是黎目前第二大電視臺，2001年5月與沙特的MBC電視臺合併。黎巴嫩廣播公司電視臺成立於1985年，該臺係私營電視臺，有兩套節目，其中一套稱為“Ｃ33”，以法語節目為主，除播放本國編製的新聞節目外，還轉播法國“TV5”電視臺的法語新聞節目。燈塔電視臺，由黎真主黨開辦，創辦於1991年，是該黨的宣傳喉舌，節目的政治性和宗教性很強。 簡況 位於亞洲西南部地中海東岸。東、北部鄰敘利亞，南界巴勒斯坦、以色列，西瀕地中海。海岸綫長220公裏。沿海夏季炎熱潮濕，鼕季溫暖。 公元前2000年為腓尼基的一部分。以後相繼受埃及、亞述、巴比倫、波斯和羅馬統治。7～16世紀初並入阿拉伯帝國。1517年被奧斯曼帝國占領。第一次世界大戰後淪為法國委任統治地。1940年6月，法嚮納粹德國投降後，黎被德、意軸心國控製。1941年6月英軍在自由法國部隊協助下占領黎巴嫩。同年11月自由法國部隊宣佈結束對黎的委任統治。1943年11月22日黎宣佈獨立，成立黎巴嫩共和國。1946年12月英、法軍全部撤離黎巴嫩。1975年4月,黎巴嫩基督教和伊斯蘭教兩派因國傢權力分配産生的矛盾激化，內戰爆發。1989年10月，伊、基兩派議員達成《塔伊夫協議》，重新分配政治權力。1990年，黎內戰結束。 獲奬情況 金牌 銀牌 銅牌 奬牌總數 1 0 2 3 金牌:1 銀牌:0 銅牌:1 奬牌總數:2 12月9日 姓名 項目 備註 金牌 拉巴赫 男子跳高 2米23 銅牌 巴斯布斯 跆拳道女子55公斤級 金牌:0 銀牌:0 銅牌:1 奬牌總數:1 12月3日 姓名 項目 備註 銅牌 黎巴嫩隊 男子多嚮飛碟團體 316中 二、政治 [編輯本段] 1998年拉鬍德總統上臺後，致力於醫治戰爭創傷，努力消弭內戰造成的教派、宗派、黨派隔閡，收到一定成效。但黎教派分權的特殊政治架構决定其中央政府缺乏權威。 2004年9月，黎總統拉鬍德在敘支持下，延長總統任期3年。美、法藉機推動安理會通過1559號决議，要求敘從黎撤軍，黎解除境內民兵武裝，舉行公正、自由的總統選舉。2005年2月，黎前總理哈裏裏遭刺身亡，引發黎政局動蕩。在美、法等支持下，黎反敘派發動針對敘及黎親敘派的“雪鬆革命”，迫敘從黎撤軍。6月，黎舉行議會大選，以“未來陣綫”為首的反敘派贏得近60％議席。7月，前財長西尼烏拉完成組閣，真主黨首次入閣。 2006年3月，黎舉行全國對話會議，各派在哈案調查、謝巴農場歸屬、黎敘關係、解除巴勒斯坦難民營外的巴民兵武裝問題上達成一致，但在拉鬍德總統去留和解除真主黨武裝問題上分歧嚴重。7月，黎真主黨武裝越境襲擊以色列並俘獲兩名以軍士兵，黎以衝突爆發。衝突持續34天，造成黎1200多人死亡，近4000人受傷，逾100萬人流離失所；黎全國的道路、港口、機場及大多數橋梁遭到大規模破壞。 黎以衝突結束後，黎真主黨影響回升，聯合其他反政府力量要求重組政府並擁有內閣三分之一以上部長席位，以掌握對政府重大决策的否决權。11月，黎舉行全國協商會議，議會多數派政黨拒絶真主黨的要求，親真主黨的6名政府部長相繼提出辭職。此後，黎總統、議長同總理在建立前總理哈裏裏遇害案特別法庭問題上産生嚴重分歧。11月21日，黎前總統阿明•傑馬耶勒之子，工業部長皮埃爾•傑馬耶勒在貝魯特遇刺身亡，反敘派隨即發動大規模遊行示威。25日，黎內閣在6名部長缺席的情況下通過了聯合國關於建立哈案特別法庭的提案，引起包括總統拉鬍德在內的親敘派強烈反對。12月1日開始，真主黨聯合其他親敘政黨發動大規模、無限期反政府示威活動。2007年1月，兩派支持者發生暴力衝突。3月，雙方代表議會多數派領袖薩阿德•哈裏裏和議長貝裏舉行多輪對話未果。黎政府表示，如黎內部無法就成立哈案法庭事達成一致，將請求安理會予以強行推動。 憲法 1926年5月23日頒布，後經8次修改。1990年9月修改時增加了前言。憲法規定黎巴嫩是一個獨立、統一和主權完整的國傢，是議會民主共和國，具有阿拉伯屬性，實行自由貿易政策。任何有悖各教派共處原則的權力均屬非法。總統由議會選舉産生，任期6年，不得連選連任。1995年10月19日，議會修改憲法第49條，規定“現任總統在（目前）特殊情況下延任3年，延任衹準一次”。修改憲法必須由總統提議後、經政府嚮議會提出，或10名以上議員提出動議，並獲議會三分之二多數通過。2004年9月2日，議會通過决議，同意拉鬍德總統延任三年。 議會 為一院製。主要職能是製定法律、修改憲法、選舉總統、批準總理和閣員人選及審議國傢財政預算和對外條約及協定。議席按教派間協商後的比例分配，議員由普選産生，任期4年。議會原設99個議席，基督教派和伊斯蘭教派按6∶5分配席位。根據“塔伊夫協議”，黎政府於1991年6月任命基督教和伊斯蘭教各占一半的108名議員。1992年7月議會通過選舉法修正案，議席增至128個。本屆議會於2005年6月選舉産生，基督教和伊斯蘭教議員各占一半，現任議長納比•貝裏（Nabih Barri）於1992年11月當選，1996年10月，2000年10月，2005年6月三次連任。 政府 2005年7月19日，前財長福阿德•西尼烏拉完成組閣。內閣主要成員為：副總理兼國防部長埃利亞斯•米歇爾•穆爾（Ellas Michel Murr）,外長法齊•薩魯赫（Fawzi Salloukh），財政部長傑哈德•艾茲歐爾（Jihad Azour），電信部長馬爾旺•哈馬德（Marwan Hamadeh），司法部長查勒爾•利茲剋（Charles Rizk）等。2006年11月，包括外長在內的5名什葉派部長和親拉鬍德總統的環境部長提出辭職。 行政區劃 全國分八個省：貝魯特省、山區省、北方省、南方省、貝卡省、納巴蒂亞省、阿卡省、巴爾貝剋--赫爾梅勒省。 司法機構 法院分為初審法院、上訴法院、最高法院、行政法院和治安法院。此外還有處理婚喪、遺産繼承等問題的宗教法庭。 政黨 黎黨派林立，但因力量分散，故目前無一黨占絶對優勢。主要政黨有： （1）“未來陣綫”（Future Movement）:由黎前總理哈裏裏創建。2005年2月哈遇刺後，其子薩阿德·哈裏裏接任“未來陣綫”領袖。同年6月，薩領導的競選聯盟在議會選舉中贏得近60％議席，“未來陣綫”躍升為黎政壇和議會第一大黨派。 （2）黎巴嫩長槍黨（The Lebanese Kataeb Party）：1936年11月成立，基督教馬竜派政黨。2001年10月，卡利姆·巴格爾杜尼當選該黨主席。前總統阿明·傑馬耶勒為長槍黨最高主席。 （3）自由國民黨（The National Liberal Party）：1958年9月成立，其成員大部分是基督教徒。主席杜裏·夏蒙（Dory CHAMOUN）。 （4）“阿邁勒”運動（“Amal”Movement）：1974年成立，前身為“被剝奪者運動”。為伊斯蘭教什葉派主要組織，曾擁有民兵約6000人，部分已解散，餘部集中在黎南部。主席納比·貝裏（Nabih BARRI）（現議長）。 （5）社會進步黨（The Progressive Socialist Party）：1949年5月成立，為穆斯林德魯茲派政黨，有黨員約6000人。1980年該黨加入社會黨國際。主席瓦立德·瓊布拉特（Walid JOUMBLATT）。 （6）黎巴嫩共産黨（The Lebanese Communist Party）：1924年成立，1948年被宣佈為非法，1970年取得合法地位。有黨員3000人。總書記赫利德·哈達德。 （7）黎巴嫩共産主義行動組織（Organization of Communist Action Lebanon）：1970年由黎巴嫩社會主義者運動和社會主義黎巴嫩合併而成。主要領導人穆赫辛·易卜拉欣（Mohsen IBRAHIM）。 （8）敘利亞民族社會黨（The National Syrian Social Party）：1932年成立。1987年9月該黨分裂為兩派。 （9）真主黨（The Party of God或Hezbullah）：1982年以色列入侵黎巴嫩期間成立，黎穆斯林什葉派政黨，與伊朗關係密切。該黨擁有民兵約5000人，集中在黎南部地區。1992年2月18日，謝赫·阿巴斯·穆薩維總書記被炸身亡，哈桑·納斯魯拉（Hassan NASRALLAH）當選總書記。 三、重要人物 [編輯本段] 埃米勒·拉鬍德：總統。1936年1月10日生於黎巴嫩山區省麥頓縣巴布達特鎮，出身軍人世傢，其父為黎開國元勳之一。1959年畢業於英國達特茅斯海軍學院，後歷任艦長、總司令副官、後勤處長、人事局長、黎軍總司令辦公室主任、國防部長辦公室主任等職。1984年授海軍准將。1989年11月，被任命為黎軍總司令，晉升中將。1990年奉命重建軍隊。1998年10月15日，黎議會選舉拉為第11任總統，11月24日拉宣誓就職。2004年9月，黎議會通過憲法修正案，將拉任期延長三年。已婚，生有2子1女。能講英、法、亞美尼亞語。 福阿德•西尼烏拉：總理。1943年生於賽達，伊斯蘭教遜尼派，貝魯特美國大學商業管理學士、碩士，長期從事金融、財政工作，有豐富的理論和實踐經驗。1967－1992年擔任花旗銀行、信貸銀行、地中海銀行、黎巴嫩銀行、黎銀監會等金融機構的重要領導職務。1992、1995、1996年三次出任主管財政的國務部長。2000、2003年兩次出任財長。2005年6月30日，被新議會126名議員提名為新總理人選。已婚，有三個子女。 納比•貝裏：議長。1938年生於塞拉利昂,穆斯林什葉派,希望運動主席。畢業於黎巴嫩大學法律係,後在法國進修。1963年任黎全國大學生聯合會主席，並擔任過世界愛國學生聯合會執委會委員。後擔任黎伊斯蘭什葉派最高委員會委員，1980年當選為“希望運動”主席。1984年4月30日，擔任水、電、司法、南方、重建事務國務部長。1989年11月，擔任水、電資源、住房、合作部長。1990年12月至1992年5月，擔任國務部長。1992年10月21日當選為議長，1996年10月，2000年10月，2005年6月三次連任該職。貝曾於2001年4月訪華。有9個孩子。 四、經濟 [編輯本段] 黎實行自由、開放的市場經濟，私營經濟占主導地位。黎內戰前曾享有中近東金融、貿易、交通和旅遊中心的盛名，但16年內戰加之以色列入侵，造成直接和間接經濟損失約1650億美元。1991年中東和平進程啓動後，黎預期經濟利好，大興土木，後由於地區形勢持續動蕩，其經濟復蘇計劃受挫，背上了沉重的債務包袱。九十年代後期，黎經濟形勢漸入睏境，財政赤字居高不下，債務攀升。2006年長達月餘的黎以衝突造成黎大量基礎設施被毀，直接經濟損失達32億美元，間接損失超過70億美元，使黎經濟發展陷入停頓，債務負擔加重，戰後重建任務艱巨。衝突結束後，黎已獲得逾100億美元援助承諾。 2006年主要經濟數字如下： 公共債務：410億美元 外債：192億美元 財政赤字：38億美元 國內生産總值：206億美元 人均GDP: 5150美元 國內生産總值增長率:－6.4％ 通貨膨脹率: 7% 貨幣名稱:黎巴嫩鎊 匯率: 1美元＝1507.5黎鎊 資源 礦産資源少，且開採不多。礦藏主要有鐵、鉛、銅、褐煤和瀝青等。 工業 黎工業基礎相對薄弱，以加工業為主。主要行業有非金屬製造、金屬製造、傢具、服裝、木材加工、紡織等。從業人數約20萬，占黎勞動力的7％。2005年工業投資額為1.04億美元,總産值占國內生産總值的17％,是僅次於商業和非金融服務業的第三大産業。 農業 農業欠發達。2005年農業總産值占國內生産總值的13％。全國可耕地面積247939公頃，其中灌溉面積104009公頃。牧場36萬公頃,林地面積79萬公頃。農産品以水果和蔬菜為主。水果産值占農業産值的51％。果園面積約6萬公頃，主産柑桔、蘋果、葡萄和香蕉，年出口水果約26萬噸。黎糧食生産落後，主要靠進口。國內糧食耕種面積共8萬公頃，其中大麥、小麥種植面積2.5萬公頃。其他農産品有玉米、馬鈴薯等。經濟作物有煙草、甜菜、橄欖等。近年來黎葡萄種植業發展很快,2001年生産葡萄酒500萬瓶,其中40%出口。貝卡𠔌地為黎主要農業種植區，占全黎種植面積35%及𠔌物産量的30%。 旅遊業 黎原為中東旅遊勝地。內戰前，每年入境旅客達200萬人次，旅遊收入占國民收入的20％以上,遊客主要來自海灣地區産油國和歐美國傢。內戰期間，旅遊業一蹶不振，戰後黎政府將振興旅遊業作為重建計劃重要組成部分，通過了發展旅遊業的投資計劃。黎現有各類星級飯店398傢，床位約1.1萬張。主要旅遊點有腓尼基時代興建的畢卜魯斯城、古羅馬時代興建的巴爾貝剋城和十字軍時代興建的賽達城堡。此外，北部的雪山有很多滑雪場，吸引了大量遊客。 交通運輸 黎交通以海、空為主，公路次之。 水運：主要港口有貝魯特港、的黎波裏港、賽達港。貝魯特港為主要貿易港，現有集裝箱及集散貨碼頭14個。2005年吞吐量為471.2萬噸，承擔着黎70%的進出口貨物運輸量。 空運：貝魯特機場是著名航空港，內戰前有70傢航空公司飛機經停貝魯特機場。內戰期間，機場經常被迫關閉。1990年黎政府投資4億美元改造貝魯特機場，將其吞吐量由每年200萬人次提高到600萬人次。目前有35傢航空公司飛經該機場。2005年起降班次30627次,年航空貨物吞吐量為6萬噸。黎以衝突期間，機場的多次遭以軍轟炸，嚴重被毀。 公路：貫穿全境，全長約7100公裏，其中瀝青路3500公裏。高速路約530公裏。公路在內戰期間破壞嚴重，黎政府製定了修復計劃，但因資金無法到位修復工作進展緩慢。黎平均每3人擁有一輛汽車，人均汽車擁有量居世界前列，車輛總數為145萬輛。黎以衝突期間，黎全國公路係統遭到嚴重破壞。 鐵路：全長335公裏，全部為國有，除貝魯特－謝卡（Chekka）段外，其餘尚不能使用。 財政金融 貝魯特曾是中東金融中心，外匯和黃金可自由買賣。至2001年上半年,全國有72傢銀行,其中商業銀行65,各類分行和分支機構多達730個。黎的第一大銀行是黎巴嫩中央銀行，由政府控製，負責貨幣的發行。黎銀行多為私人所有，其中較大的有奧狄銀行、黎巴嫩－法國銀行、畢卜魯斯銀行等。2001年黎銀行業收入占GDP的9%。2006年，黎財政赤字38億美元。截至2006年底，黎外匯儲備為130.4億美元，黃金儲備58.36億美元。 對外貿易 外貿在黎國民經濟中占有重要地位，政府實行對外開放與保護民族經濟相協調的外貿政策，製定配套措施，提供充分保障，開展經濟外交，引進資金。出口商品主要有蔬菜、水果、金屬製品、紡織品、化工産品、玻璃製品和水泥等。主要貿易對象是意大利、美國、法國、沙特阿拉伯、阿聯酋、敘利亞和中國。（資料來源：黎巴嫩報刊） 人民生活 2002年平均預期壽命73.5歲，出生率千分之二十八。至2005年，黎共有醫院161所，床位約9700張，註册醫生約4000人，醫護人員共約2萬人。 五、軍事 [編輯本段] 政府軍由陸、海、空三軍組成。總統為軍隊最高統帥。內戰中軍隊分裂。1984年組成“六人軍事委員會”，與總司令共同掌握領導和指揮軍隊的最高權力。實行義務兵役製與志願兵役製相結合的兵役體製。義務製服役期限為18個月，志願製至少簽3年合同。 總兵力約6.5萬人。由法國和美國負責提供武器和訓練。陸軍 5.2萬人，編成11個旅和4個特種兵旅，裝備坦剋272輛、裝甲運輸車1400輛、火炮328門、反坦剋炮218門，還有反坦剋導彈400枚及各型高炮113門。空軍1700人，編成1個戰鬥機中隊、3個直升機中隊和1個教練救援機中隊。裝備戰鬥機2架和直升機4架。海軍約2000人，裝備7艘巡邏快艇和2艘登陸艇。內部治安軍8000人，裝備有50輛裝甲車、6艘巡邏艇。總司令米什阿勒·蘇萊曼中將。 2006年10月，1.5萬名黎政府軍40年來首次部署到黎以邊境，恢復對該地區的控製。 六、教育 [編輯本段] 黎全國有中小學2535所，在校學生100萬，教師6萬餘名。公立學校約1300所。其它還有私人免費和私人收費學校。綜合大學4所，相當於大學和大學預科的學院20多所。黎巴嫩大學是唯一國立綜合大學，1953年創建。貝魯特阿拉伯大學創辦於1960年，貝魯特美國大學由美國教會創建於1866年，用英語講課。貝魯特聖·約瑟大學1881年建立，用法語講課，設有孔子學院。 七、對外關係 [編輯本段] 黎奉行中立不結盟政策，主張建立公正、合理、平等、均衡的國際政治、經濟新秩序。對外強調其阿拉伯國傢屬性，調整與敘利亞關係，積極發展同埃及、沙特等阿拉伯大國的關係，重視同美國和法國等西方國傢的關係。 對當前重大國際問題的看法 關於伊拉剋問題：黎反對美發動對伊戰爭，認為解决伊拉剋問題應尊重國際法和聯合國决議，美單方面打伊並持續占領嚴重影響了地區局勢的穩定，引發了中東乃至整個伊斯蘭世界的反美浪潮。支持伊維護獨立、主權、領土完整和民族團结，盡快結束暴力，恢復和平與穩定。支持“伊人治伊”，希望伊人民在國傢事務上能獨立行使選舉權，通過自由、公正的選舉確定國傢的未來。主張聯合國在伊問題上發揮主導作用，以幫助伊人民擺脫當前的睏境。 關於反恐問題：認為黎仍在受到以色列國傢恐怖主義的威脅，譴責各種形式的恐怖主義，但強調區分恐怖主義與以解放被占領土為目標的人民抵抗運動。黎對安理會1373號决議（2001年9月28日，安理會通過的要求各國采取切實措施打擊恐怖主義的决議）有保留，認為它為強權干涉弱小國傢主權開了方便之門。 關於聯合國改革問題：黎支持安理會改革和擴大，鼓勵通過充分討論、協商一致而形成公正、合理的改革方案，反對對表决設時限，認為強行推動，施壓促改，不成熟的方案將有礙改革的進行。黎方立場取决於阿拉伯國傢共同協商的結果。黎認為，安理會改革方案應考慮到地區代表性的平衡和發展中國傢的利益，主張21個阿國應有更多代表權，在安理會中至少擁有2個非常任席位，由亞、非阿國各分一席。目前各國在A、B兩方案上存在較大分歧，黎樂見其他建設性的提案。 關於“文明衝突”問題：黎反對“文明衝突”觀點，對“9·11”事件後美等西方國傢領導人有關“十字軍東徵”的言論極為不滿，強調各種文明應進行對話，和平共處，稱黎是各種文明和諧相處的典範。 關於經濟全球化問題：黎申請加入WTO，現正積極與各方進行談判，但對經濟全球化態度消極，認為經濟全球化是強國對弱國的掠奪與控製。 同我國的關係 中、黎1971年11月9日建交，雙邊關係發展平穩。 中國駐黎巴嫩大使：劉志明。 黎巴嫩駐中國大使：蘇萊曼•沙菲剋•拉斯(Sleiman Chafic El-Rassi) 同美國的關係 黎、美於1943年建交。黎巴嫩重視發展同美國的關係，力求美在政治、經濟、軍事上的支持和援助。美支持黎獨立、主權和領土完整，支持《塔伊夫協議》；敦促敘利亞軍隊撤出黎境內；要求黎政府解除真主黨武裝。1997年美解除了長達12年之久的對美公民赴黎禁令。美在“9•11”事件後宣佈黎真主黨為恐怖組織，並嚮黎政府提出了凍結該組織武裝行動、資金，雙方進行情報合作等一係列要求，並暗示可能對真主黨動武。黎政府則堅持認為應將民族抵抗運動與恐怖主義區別對待，部分拒絶美的要求。此外美在安理會審議聯黎部隊任期問題時支持削減聯黎部隊人數、變更其職能，亦使黎感到不滿。2005年2月黎前總理哈裏裏遇害後，美國加大對黎問題的幹預力度，迫使敘從黎撤軍，支持黎反敘派在議會選舉中獲勝，對黎影響力增強。4月、10月、12月，美聯合法、英推動安理會通過有關哈裏裏遇害國際獨立調查的1595、1636、1644號决議。2006年，美在黎以衝突期間偏襢以方，在黎形象受損。衝突結束後，美承諾嚮黎提供2.3億美元援助，其中4000萬美元為軍事援助。 同法國的關係 黎巴嫩在1943年獨立前曾是法國委任統治地，兩國有傳統的關係。法為謀求在黎的經濟和政治優勢，大力投入黎重建市場。1996年，雙方簽訂了兩項財政協定，法嚮黎提供10.5億法郎的贈款、優惠貸款和商業貸款。法支持黎哈裏裏政府主導的經濟重建與改革計劃，2002年法在第二次國際援黎會議上承諾嚮黎提供5億美元援助。2005年2月，黎前總理哈裏裏遇害，希拉剋總理夫婦親自赴黎參加哈葬禮，法主張對事件進行國際調查，並支持黎舉行議會大選，改組政府。4月、10月、12月，法與美、英共同推動安理會通過有關哈裏裏遇害國際獨立調查的1595、1636、1644號决議。2006年黎以衝突期間，法推動安理會通過要求黎以停火的1701號决議。衝突後，法派兵2000人參加聯黎部隊。2007年1月，法召開援助黎巴嫩國際會議，嚮黎提供5億歐元低息貸款，共為黎募得逾76億美元援款。 同敘利亞的關係 黎敘在法國委任統治時期曾是同一個國傢。黎獨立後，敘未予承認，黎敘仍保持“特殊關係”。1976年5月以來，敘軍（最初約2.8萬人）一直以“阿拉伯威懾部隊”的名義駐紮在黎。1991年5月，黎敘簽署“兄弟關係合作與協調條約”和“安全與防務條約”，確定兩國將進行最高級和最全面的協調。1996年1月，黎敘簽訂經濟一體化、取消雙重稅、推進和保證投資、建立聯合邊界哨所和社會領域合作五項協定。同時，雙方决定在與以色列談判中密切配合，决不單獨與以媾和。2004年9月2日，美、法等國推動安理會通過1559號决議，要求敘駐黎部隊全部撤離。2005年2月，黎前總理哈裏裏遇害，美等西方國傢和黎反敘派指責敘應對此負責。在空前外部壓力下，敘於4月宣佈撤回其駐黎全部軍隊、安全人員和軍事裝備。7月，黎新政府成立，黎敘關係進入調整期。2006年3月，黎召開全國對話會議，就與敘發展正常國與國關係及劃分國界等問題進行討論。5月，安理會通過1680號决議，要求敘回應黎要求，與黎建立外交關係，劃定邊界。 2006年4月，黎議長貝裏訪敘。7月，黎總統拉鬍德與敘總統巴沙爾通電話。8月，黎總統拉鬍德、總理西尼烏拉分別與敘總統巴沙爾、總理奧特裏通電話。同月，敘外長穆阿利姆訪黎。9月，敘黎關係最高委員會秘書長鬍裏訪敘。10月，黎前總理卡拉米、鬍斯先後訪敘。 同其他阿拉伯國傢的關係 目前在黎境內共有約36.7萬巴難民，其中26％住在大城市，45％住在得到聯合國救濟的12個難民營，約7萬人生活在沒有衛生、教育及社會服務等保障的13個居民點。 2006年，黎繼續積極發展與其他阿拉伯國傢的友好關係。黎以衝突期間，阿拉伯國傢給予黎政治與財力上的支持。衝突結束以後，沙特、阿盟等亦積極斡旋，調解黎內部矛盾。 同以色列的關係 黎巴嫩南部與以色列北部接壤。1982年6月，以色列大規模入侵黎巴嫩。1985年，以色列以保衛北部加利利地區為由在黎南部建立了約850平方公裏的“安全區”，在“安全區”駐紮了千餘人的部隊，並扶植由3000名親以黎基督徒組成的南黎軍。2000年5月，以色列單方面從黎巴嫩南部撤軍，但黎仍堅持1923年國際邊界綫，要求以結束對謝巴農場的占領，並撤至1967年6月4日的敘以邊界綫；譴責以修建“隔離墻”。2005年，真主黨武裝與以軍在黎南部邊境地區頻繁交火，並造成一定人員傷亡。2006年7月12日，真主黨武裝越境襲擊以色列並俘獲兩名以軍士兵，以軍隨即對黎展開大規模軍事行動，黎以衝突驟然升級，引起國際社會廣泛關註。8月11日，安理會通過1701號决議，要求雙方全面停止敵對行動。14日，雙方停火。此次衝突造成黎逾1000平民死亡，4000餘人受傷，逾100萬人流離失所。以色列亦有157人死亡。 The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This is a reference to the famous cedars of Lebanon, renowned throughout the region in antiquity. The red refers to the blood spilled in order to gain the independence, the white refers to the purity and peace. Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed a period of relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy. It is considered the banking capital of the Levant and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the East" due to its financial power and diversity. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of Western Asia" Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts. The 2006 war, however, caused widespread loss of life and damage to Lebanon's infrastructure from July 12, 2006 until a cessation of hostilities call, by the UN Security Council, went into effect on August 14, 2006, and the country's economy is still in the process of recovering. The name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Libnén" in the local dialect) comes from the Canaanite (and common West Semitic) root "LBN", meaning "white", which could be regarded as a reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 BC), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 BC), and 71 times in the Old Testament. The name is even recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where r stood for Canaanite l. The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago. Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great. After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Armenian, Assyrian, Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman. French mandate and independence Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria, until 1918 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria. Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate of Syria. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany. General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon. The flag of Greater Lebanon (1920-1943)After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon. The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim. Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade. 1948 Arab-Israeli war Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined the Arab League to invade Israel shortly after its declaration of independence. during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while going on an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State. The Lebanese army gained nothing during the war, and the Israeli army managed to conquer territory west of the Naphtali Mountains. After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in Operation Hiram, Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949 and the conquered territory was returned. During the war, about 100,000 Palestinian refugees fled to Lebanon. Civil war and beyond In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed. The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins. During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982, the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence. The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated. Recent history On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut. Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Others, namely the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country. This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, known as Cedar Revolution, that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri. The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report. Eventually, and under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria. The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures. On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah captured two Israeli soldiers leading to a conflict, known in Lebanon as July War, that lasted until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006. In October 2007, Émile Lahoud finished his second term as President. The opposition conditioned its vote for a successor on a power-sharing deal, thus leaving the country without a president for over 6 months. On May 09, 2008, Hezbollah and Amal militants, in an armed attack triggered by a government decision on Hezbollah's communications network, temporarily took over Western Beirut. The situation was described by the government as an attempted "coup". On May 21, 2008, all major Lebanese parties signed an accord to elect Michel Suleiman as President, to form a national unity government with 11 out of 30 seats for the opposition, thus enabling it to veto decisions, and to adopt a new electoral law, based on the 1960 law with amendments for the 3 Beirut constituencies. The deal was brokered by an Arab League delegation, headed by the Emir and Foreign Minister of Qatar and the Secretary General of the Arab League, after 5 days of intense negotiations in Doha. Michel Suleiman was officially elected President on Sunday May 25, 2008 in the presence of the Foreign Ministers of Syria and Iran as well as France and Saudi-Arabia. Geography and climate Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain rangesLebanon is located in Western Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225-kilometre (140 mi) coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for 375 kilometres (233 mi) and the Lebanon-Israel border for 79 kilometres (49 mi). The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations. Qornet el Sawda (Cornet es-Sawda or Qurnat as Sawda' ) the highest summit in the middle east, 3088 meters.Most of Lebanon's area is mountainous terrain, except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, which plays an integral role in Lebanon's agriculture. Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with frequent, sometimes heavy, snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry. Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea. In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem. However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests. Governorates and districts Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa). The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below: NorthAkkarMiniyeh- DanniyehZghartaKouraTripoliBsharriBatrounMount LebanonJbeilKesrwanMatnBeirut♦BaabdaAleyChoufSouthJezzineSidonTyreBeqaaHermelBaalbekZahleWestern BeqaaRashayaNabatiehHasbayaNabatiehMarjeyounBint JbeilBeirut Governorate The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut. Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) - 4 districts Bint Jbeil Hasbaya Marjeyoun Nabatieh Beqaa Governorate - 5 districts Baalbek Hermel Rashaya Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi) Zahle North Governorate (al-Shamal) - 7 districts Akkar Batroun Bsharri Koura Miniyeh-Danniyeh Tripoli Zgharta Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) - 6 districts Aley Baabda Byblos (Jbeil) Chouf Kesrwan Matn South Governorate (al-Janoub) - 3 districts Jezzine Sidon (Saida) Tyre (Sur) Demographics and religion The Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque in Martyrs' Square, Beirut. Our Lady of Lebanon.No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance. The CIA World Fact Book gives the following distribution: Muslim - 59.7% (Shi'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian - 39% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1.3%. According to the New York Times, Shi'a Muslims make up 35% of the population; Sunni Muslims and Druze followers make up 25% and 5% of the population, respectively, while the Christians make up 35% of the population (with the Maronites accounting for 25%). There are 17 religious sects recognized. Some followers of the Druze religion do not consider themselves to be Muslim; however, the state legally recognizes Druze followers as Muslim. The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,925,502 in July 2007. There are approximately 18 million people of Lebanese descent spread all over the world, with Brazil having the largest Lebanese community abroad (8 million). Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Spain, Germany, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela, USA, West Africa, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic also have large Lebanese communities. In 2007, Lebanon hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 325,800. 270,800 refugees and asylum seekers were from the Former Palestine, 50,200 from Iraq, and 4,500 from Sudan. Lebanon forcibly returned more than 300 refugees and asylum seekers in 2007. Economy The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise. Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arabic speaking countries. Although Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arabic speaking world, it does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce, agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons. Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population, and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP. The Kadisha Valley is a World Heritage SiteA combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%) have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP. The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, as it leaves the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade. The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub. The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange. Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars. By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon had already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures. Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started. Beirut's airport, Rafiq Hariri International Airport, re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with $US 1.5 billion pledged), the European Union (with about $1 billion) and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million. Foreign Relations Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization. Aside from Syria, Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon also is a member of the Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with Iran, largely centered on Shi'a Muslim links. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002. Education Schools All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all, may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, history, civics, geography, Arabic, and either French or English or both. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects. The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities, and 12th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade. Students go through three academic phases: Elementary: Six years. Intermediate: Three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion. Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade. Students studying at French-system schools may also graduate with a French Baccalaureate that is considered equivalent to the Lebanese Baccalaureate. These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory. Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced. Higher education Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad. Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized. The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively. The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon. At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II. The University academic degrees for the first stage are the Bachelor or the Licence, for the second stage are the Master or the DEA and the third stage is the doctorate. The United Nations assigned Lebanon an Education Index of 0.84 in 2005. Language Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language may be used". The majority of Lebanese people speak Arabic and either French or English fluently. Moreover, Lebanese people of Armenian descent also speak Armenian fluently. The colloquial variant of Arabic used in Lebanon, which is known as Lebanese, is one part of a grouping of dialects called Levantine Arabic. It differs from the literary Modern Standard Arabic, owing its historical blend to Arabic, Syraic, Turkish, and Persian. In recent years, it has become increasingly common for Lebanese people, especially the better educated, to converse in a combination of Arabic, English and French, whereby the same sentence would include words or expressions from the different languages. In the 1960s Lebanese linguists, such as Mr. Saeed Aql, proposed 37 letters for the Lebanese dialect based on the Latin alphabets. The Arab league rejected the idea, putting pressure on the Lebanese government to refuse such a project. Noteworthy, the Lebanese dialcet is considered a language/dialect continuum. Teams of linguists from UCLA, Moscow State University, and from Cairo University, agreed that 45% of the Lebanese vocabulary is of Aramaic or Syraic origins. The Lebanese dialect has literary works date back to the 18th century AD. Regional influences and occupations throughout the centuries could possibly explain why Lebanese people speak so many languages, even incorporating them into their own. In addition, due to the importance of the Lebanese diaspora and business interests of Lebanese worldwide, it has always been important to master languages other than Arabic. Moreover, the Palestinian dialect of Akko in Israel is considered a dialect of Lebanese. In the Christian communities, until the Lebanese Civil War, it was seen as a mark of status to not speak Arabic.[citation needed] The reason for this could possibly be that Christians generally were educated in many of the French educational institutions and so a general Francophonic class emerged in their communities. However, as the Muslim population increased in previously Christian areas, Arabic is nowadays almost universally spoken among Lebanese.[citation needed] Culture Overview Phoenicia and its colonies. The Triumphal Arch in Tyre.The area including modern Lebanon has been home to various civilizations and cultures for thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine, and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Western Asia, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate. Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is often considered to serve as Europe's gateway to Western Asia as well as the Asian gateway to the Western World. Creative arts Lebanese music is known around the world for its soothing rhythms and oriental beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular as are western rhythms. One of the most well-known Lebanese singers is Fairuz; her songs are broadcast every morning on most radio stations and many TV channels, both in Lebanon and the Arab world in general. Other prominent artists include Julia Boutros, composer and oud player Marcel Khalife, Majida El Roumi, Sabah, Wadih El Safi, and the important nun and singer Sister Marie Keyrouz, founder of The Ensemble of the Peace. Some Lebanese artists, such as Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani, remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'jabali' ("from the mountains"), while other artists incorporate Western style into their songs. Lebanese performers are perhaps the most popular in the Arab world alongside Egyptian artists, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Najwa Karam, Nancy Ajram, Elissa (singer), Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares, Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri, Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hijazi and Majida El Roumi. In addition, the lead guitarist from All Time Low, Jack Barakat, was born in Lebanon as well as the London based singer/songwriter Mika. Nevertheless, Lebanon is playing a leader rule in media and digital arts in the MENA region, in addition to the growth of online campaign such as Going Niche www.goingniche.com. Sports Because of Lebanon's unique geography, both summer and winter sports thrive in the country. In fact, in autumn and spring it is sometimes possible to engage in both during the same, skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean during the afternoon. At the competitive level, basketball, football, and hip ball are among Lebanon's most popular sports. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the Asian Cup and the Pan-Arab Games; the country will host the Winter Asian Games in 2009. To meet the needs of these international competitions, Lebanon maintains state-of-the-art athletic facilities, that encourage local sporting activities and which in turn in both winter and summer games of the Olympics and Special Olympics. Lebanon boasts six ski resorts, with slopes suitable for skiers and snowboarders of all ages and levels of experience. Off-slope, there are many opportunities for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling. In the summer, skilifts can be used to access some of Lebanon's best hiking trails, with panoramic views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and spelunking are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad. Shorter races are also held for youth and less serious competitors. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing. Arts and literature Lebanon's contribution to the Arab Rennaissance during the middle of the 19th century is immense. This flowering allowed for the modernisation of the Arabic language moving it away from its Koranic classical dictums, and allowing for the creation and adaptation of previously unknown terms/ words as Al-Watan (the nation), Al-Watania (Nationalism). The first theatre production in the Arab world was performed at the Al-Kahzen household in 1862, a Lebanese aristocratic family who were also representatives of France. By the turn of the 20th century, Beirut was vying with Cairo as the major centre for modern Arab thought, with untold number of newspapers, magazines, and literary societies. Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek.In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran, who was born in Bsharri, Lebanon but grew to adulthood in Boston, Massachusetts, is known to be one of the world's famous writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages. Several contemporary Lebanese writers have achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf and Hanan al-Shaykh. In art, Moustafa Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Mustafa Farroukh (1901-1957) was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. His work was applauded for its representation of real life in Lebanon in pictures of the country, its people and its customs. Farroukh became highly regarded as a Lebanese nationalist painter at a time when Lebanon was asserting its political independence. His art captured the spirit and character of the Lebanese people and he became recognized as the outstanding Lebanese painter of his generation. His total paintings were more than 2000 sold to collectors inside and outside of Lebanon. He also wrote five books and taught art at the American University of Beirut. Festivals Beiteddine Palace, the venue of Beiteddine Festival.Several international music festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Beiteddine Festival, Byblos International Festival, and the Al-Bustan Festival. Beirut (Beirut Nights) in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces. Politics Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism. This system, allegedly meant to ensure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body. As such, high-ranking offices in are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim and the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian. The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'ÉtoileThis trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided equally between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years, although for much of Lebanon’s recent history, civil war precluded the exercise of this right. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term. At the urging of the Syrian government, this constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad hoc amendment twice in recent history. Elias Hrawi’s term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years. This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007. The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding). Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism. The Grand Serail, the government headquarters in downtown BeirutLebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related. These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians". |
|