| 黎巴嫩 Lebanon 首都:贝鲁特 国家代码: lb |
 黎巴嫩阿拉伯语تصنيف:لبنان 国旗 黎巴嫩国旗为长方形，长宽之比为3：2。旗面上下为红色，中间为白色。白色部分中央是一棵黎巴嫩雪松，它在《圣经》中被称为植物之王。红色象征自我牺牲，白色象征和平，雪松代表挺拔，坚强及纯洁，永生。 国徽 黎巴嫩国徽呈盾形。盾面上为斜置的国旗图案，周围有白色绶带，底部的白色饰带上分别用阿拉伯文和法文写着“黎巴嫩共和国”。 国歌 黎巴嫩共和国国歌 面积 10452平方公里 人口 400万（2006年）。绝大多数为阿拉伯人。阿拉伯语为官方语言，通用法语、英语。居民54%信奉伊斯兰教，主要是什叶派、逊尼派和德鲁兹派；46%信奉基督教，主要有马龙派、希腊东正教、罗马天主教和亚美尼亚东正教等。 同北京时差 -6 国际电话码 961 首都 贝鲁特 Beirut，人口约180万（2006年），7月平均最高气温32℃，1月平均最低气温11℃。 国家元首 总统：米歇尔·苏莱曼，2008年5月25日就任。 重要节日 烈士节（5月6日） 建军节（8月1日） 独立日/国庆日（11月22日） 黎教派众多，各教派重要节日均为国家法定节日。 国树 雪松 名胜 塞达城堡 世界遗产 安杰尔，巴勒贝克，比布鲁斯，提尔城 新闻出版 黎以中东新闻中心著称。全国各类报刊有600余家，其中52家政治性日报。主要日报有《白天报》，发行量约4万份；《使节报》发行量５万份；《旗帜报》发行量6.2万份，其中在黎发行2.95万份；《家园报》发行量1.4万份；《安瓦尔报》发行量5.8万份。主要刊物有《事件周刊》、《阿拉伯周刊》、《狩猎者》、《杂志周刊》、《黎巴嫩评论》、《星期一早晨》等。 通讯社：黎巴嫩国家通讯社是唯一官方通讯社，成立于1962年，属新闻部领导。每日发阿、英、法3种文字的新闻稿，只报道官方的黎国内消息。中央通讯社为私人通讯社，创立于1982年9月。每日用阿文报道黎国内政治、经济、商业等方面消息。《中东报道》是私人通讯社，1977年创办。除周末外，每日发黎国内、外消息英文通讯稿。周末有综述和新闻分析内容的专刊。在开罗和华盛顿设有分社。 广播电台：黎全国现有140多家广播电台，其中大部分是私营娱乐性电台。其中，黎巴嫩广播电台为国家广播电台，属新闻部领导。其前身是“东方电台”，始建于1938年。1962年开始增用阿、法、英、西和葡语对外广播。内战爆发后，由于经济困难，该台被迫停止对外广播。“祖国之声”电台为黎伊斯兰教逊尼派慈善基金会于1984年创办。每天广播20个小时，除英语新闻节目外，主要用阿语广播。“人民之声”电台为黎巴嫩共产党于1987年创办，每天广播18小时，每隔半小时有一次新闻节目。在开罗、巴黎、伦敦和莫斯科派有常驻记者。 电视台：黎巴嫩国家电视台，成立于1978年。属黎巴嫩电视公司所有，政府仅有一半资本，但公司的董事长和董事会成员均由政府任命。每天有两套节目，每套播放10小时，用阿、法和英语播放新闻节目，教育、卫生、文化娱乐等节目则以阿语为主。未来电视台，创办于1992年，由已故前总理哈里里创建，是黎目前第二大电视台，2001年5月与沙特的MBC电视台合并。黎巴嫩广播公司电视台成立于1985年，该台系私营电视台，有两套节目，其中一套称为“Ｃ33”，以法语节目为主，除播放本国编制的新闻节目外，还转播法国“TV5”电视台的法语新闻节目。灯塔电视台，由黎真主党开办，创办于1991年，是该党的宣传喉舌，节目的政治性和宗教性很强。 简况 位于亚洲西南部地中海东岸。东、北部邻叙利亚，南界巴勒斯坦、以色列，西濒地中海。海岸线长220公里。沿海夏季炎热潮湿，冬季温暖。 公元前2000年为腓尼基的一部分。以后相继受埃及、亚述、巴比伦、波斯和罗马统治。7～16世纪初并入阿拉伯帝国。1517年被奥斯曼帝国占领。第一次世界大战后沦为法国委任统治地。1940年6月，法向纳粹德国投降后，黎被德、意轴心国控制。1941年6月英军在自由法国部队协助下占领黎巴嫩。同年11月自由法国部队宣布结束对黎的委任统治。1943年11月22日黎宣布独立，成立黎巴嫩共和国。1946年12月英、法军全部撤离黎巴嫩。1975年4月,黎巴嫩基督教和伊斯兰教两派因国家权力分配产生的矛盾激化，内战爆发。1989年10月，伊、基两派议员达成《塔伊夫协议》，重新分配政治权力。1990年，黎内战结束。 获奖情况 金牌 银牌 铜牌 奖牌总数 1 0 2 3 金牌:1 银牌:0 铜牌:1 奖牌总数:2 12月9日 姓名 项目 备注 金牌 拉巴赫 男子跳高 2米23 铜牌 巴斯布斯 跆拳道女子55公斤级 金牌:0 银牌:0 铜牌:1 奖牌总数:1 12月3日 姓名 项目 备注 铜牌 黎巴嫩队 男子多向飞碟团体 316中 二、政治 [编辑本段] 1998年拉胡德总统上台后，致力于医治战争创伤，努力消弭内战造成的教派、宗派、党派隔阂，收到一定成效。但黎教派分权的特殊政治架构决定其中央政府缺乏权威。 2004年9月，黎总统拉胡德在叙支持下，延长总统任期3年。美、法借机推动安理会通过1559号决议，要求叙从黎撤军，黎解除境内民兵武装，举行公正、自由的总统选举。2005年2月，黎前总理哈里里遭刺身亡，引发黎政局动荡。在美、法等支持下，黎反叙派发动针对叙及黎亲叙派的“雪松革命”，迫叙从黎撤军。6月，黎举行议会大选，以“未来阵线”为首的反叙派赢得近60％议席。7月，前财长西尼乌拉完成组阁，真主党首次入阁。 2006年3月，黎举行全国对话会议，各派在哈案调查、谢巴农场归属、黎叙关系、解除巴勒斯坦难民营外的巴民兵武装问题上达成一致，但在拉胡德总统去留和解除真主党武装问题上分歧严重。7月，黎真主党武装越境袭击以色列并俘获两名以军士兵，黎以冲突爆发。冲突持续34天，造成黎1200多人死亡，近4000人受伤，逾100万人流离失所；黎全国的道路、港口、机场及大多数桥梁遭到大规模破坏。 黎以冲突结束后，黎真主党影响回升，联合其他反政府力量要求重组政府并拥有内阁三分之一以上部长席位，以掌握对政府重大决策的否决权。11月，黎举行全国协商会议，议会多数派政党拒绝真主党的要求，亲真主党的6名政府部长相继提出辞职。此后，黎总统、议长同总理在建立前总理哈里里遇害案特别法庭问题上产生严重分歧。11月21日，黎前总统阿明•杰马耶勒之子，工业部长皮埃尔•杰马耶勒在贝鲁特遇刺身亡，反叙派随即发动大规模游行示威。25日，黎内阁在6名部长缺席的情况下通过了联合国关于建立哈案特别法庭的提案，引起包括总统拉胡德在内的亲叙派强烈反对。12月1日开始，真主党联合其他亲叙政党发动大规模、无限期反政府示威活动。2007年1月，两派支持者发生暴力冲突。3月，双方代表议会多数派领袖萨阿德•哈里里和议长贝里举行多轮对话未果。黎政府表示，如黎内部无法就成立哈案法庭事达成一致，将请求安理会予以强行推动。 宪法 1926年5月23日颁布，后经8次修改。1990年9月修改时增加了前言。宪法规定黎巴嫩是一个独立、统一和主权完整的国家，是议会民主共和国，具有阿拉伯属性，实行自由贸易政策。任何有悖各教派共处原则的权力均属非法。总统由议会选举产生，任期6年，不得连选连任。1995年10月19日，议会修改宪法第49条，规定“现任总统在（目前）特殊情况下延任3年，延任只准一次”。修改宪法必须由总统提议后、经政府向议会提出，或10名以上议员提出动议，并获议会三分之二多数通过。2004年9月2日，议会通过决议，同意拉胡德总统延任三年。 议会 为一院制。主要职能是制定法律、修改宪法、选举总统、批准总理和阁员人选及审议国家财政预算和对外条约及协定。议席按教派间协商后的比例分配，议员由普选产生，任期4年。议会原设99个议席，基督教派和伊斯兰教派按6∶5分配席位。根据“塔伊夫协议”，黎政府于1991年6月任命基督教和伊斯兰教各占一半的108名议员。1992年7月议会通过选举法修正案，议席增至128个。本届议会于2005年6月选举产生，基督教和伊斯兰教议员各占一半，现任议长纳比•贝里（Nabih Barri）于1992年11月当选，1996年10月，2000年10月，2005年6月三次连任。 政府 2005年7月19日，前财长福阿德•西尼乌拉完成组阁。内阁主要成员为：副总理兼国防部长埃利亚斯•米歇尔•穆尔（Ellas Michel Murr）,外长法齐•萨鲁赫（Fawzi Salloukh），财政部长杰哈德•艾兹欧尔（Jihad Azour），电信部长马尔旺•哈马德（Marwan Hamadeh），司法部长查勒尔•利兹克（Charles Rizk）等。2006年11月，包括外长在内的5名什叶派部长和亲拉胡德总统的环境部长提出辞职。 行政区划 全国分八个省：贝鲁特省、山区省、北方省、南方省、贝卡省、纳巴蒂亚省、阿卡省、巴尔贝克--赫尔梅勒省。 司法机构 法院分为初审法院、上诉法院、最高法院、行政法院和治安法院。此外还有处理婚丧、遗产继承等问题的宗教法庭。 政党 黎党派林立，但因力量分散，故目前无一党占绝对优势。主要政党有： （1）“未来阵线”（Future Movement）:由黎前总理哈里里创建。2005年2月哈遇刺后，其子萨阿德·哈里里接任“未来阵线”领袖。同年6月，萨领导的竞选联盟在议会选举中赢得近60％议席，“未来阵线”跃升为黎政坛和议会第一大党派。 （2）黎巴嫩长枪党（The Lebanese Kataeb Party）：1936年11月成立，基督教马龙派政党。2001年10月，卡利姆·巴格尔杜尼当选该党主席。前总统阿明·杰马耶勒为长枪党最高主席。 （3）自由国民党（The National Liberal Party）：1958年9月成立，其成员大部分是基督教徒。主席杜里·夏蒙（Dory CHAMOUN）。 （4）“阿迈勒”运动（“Amal”Movement）：1974年成立，前身为“被剥夺者运动”。为伊斯兰教什叶派主要组织，曾拥有民兵约6000人，部分已解散，余部集中在黎南部。主席纳比·贝里（Nabih BARRI）（现议长）。 （5）社会进步党（The Progressive Socialist Party）：1949年5月成立，为穆斯林德鲁兹派政党，有党员约6000人。1980年该党加入社会党国际。主席瓦立德·琼布拉特（Walid JOUMBLATT）。 （6）黎巴嫩共产党（The Lebanese Communist Party）：1924年成立，1948年被宣布为非法，1970年取得合法地位。有党员3000人。总书记赫利德·哈达德。 （7）黎巴嫩共产主义行动组织（Organization of Communist Action Lebanon）：1970年由黎巴嫩社会主义者运动和社会主义黎巴嫩合并而成。主要领导人穆赫辛·易卜拉欣（Mohsen IBRAHIM）。 （8）叙利亚民族社会党（The National Syrian Social Party）：1932年成立。1987年9月该党分裂为两派。 （9）真主党（The Party of God或Hezbullah）：1982年以色列入侵黎巴嫩期间成立，黎穆斯林什叶派政党，与伊朗关系密切。该党拥有民兵约5000人，集中在黎南部地区。1992年2月18日，谢赫·阿巴斯·穆萨维总书记被炸身亡，哈桑·纳斯鲁拉（Hassan NASRALLAH）当选总书记。 三、重要人物 [编辑本段] 埃米勒·拉胡德：总统。1936年1月10日生于黎巴嫩山区省麦顿县巴布达特镇，出身军人世家，其父为黎开国元勋之一。1959年毕业于英国达特茅斯海军学院，后历任舰长、总司令副官、后勤处长、人事局长、黎军总司令办公室主任、国防部长办公室主任等职。1984年授海军准将。1989年11月，被任命为黎军总司令，晋升中将。1990年奉命重建军队。1998年10月15日，黎议会选举拉为第11任总统，11月24日拉宣誓就职。2004年9月，黎议会通过宪法修正案，将拉任期延长三年。已婚，生有2子1女。能讲英、法、亚美尼亚语。 福阿德•西尼乌拉：总理。1943年生于赛达，伊斯兰教逊尼派，贝鲁特美国大学商业管理学士、硕士，长期从事金融、财政工作，有丰富的理论和实践经验。1967－1992年担任花旗银行、信贷银行、地中海银行、黎巴嫩银行、黎银监会等金融机构的重要领导职务。1992、1995、1996年三次出任主管财政的国务部长。2000、2003年两次出任财长。2005年6月30日，被新议会126名议员提名为新总理人选。已婚，有三个子女。 纳比•贝里：议长。1938年生于塞拉利昂,穆斯林什叶派,希望运动主席。毕业于黎巴嫩大学法律系,后在法国进修。1963年任黎全国大学生联合会主席，并担任过世界爱国学生联合会执委会委员。后担任黎伊斯兰什叶派最高委员会委员，1980年当选为“希望运动”主席。1984年4月30日，担任水、电、司法、南方、重建事务国务部长。1989年11月，担任水、电资源、住房、合作部长。1990年12月至1992年5月，担任国务部长。1992年10月21日当选为议长，1996年10月，2000年10月，2005年6月三次连任该职。贝曾于2001年4月访华。有9个孩子。 四、经济 [编辑本段] 黎实行自由、开放的市场经济，私营经济占主导地位。黎内战前曾享有中近东金融、贸易、交通和旅游中心的盛名，但16年内战加之以色列入侵，造成直接和间接经济损失约1650亿美元。1991年中东和平进程启动后，黎预期经济利好，大兴土木，后由于地区形势持续动荡，其经济复苏计划受挫，背上了沉重的债务包袱。九十年代后期，黎经济形势渐入困境，财政赤字居高不下，债务攀升。2006年长达月余的黎以冲突造成黎大量基础设施被毁，直接经济损失达32亿美元，间接损失超过70亿美元，使黎经济发展陷入停顿，债务负担加重，战后重建任务艰巨。冲突结束后，黎已获得逾100亿美元援助承诺。 2006年主要经济数字如下： 公共债务：410亿美元 外债：192亿美元 财政赤字：38亿美元 国内生产总值：206亿美元 人均GDP: 5150美元 国内生产总值增长率:－6.4％ 通货膨胀率: 7% 货币名称:黎巴嫩镑 汇率: 1美元＝1507.5黎镑 资源 矿产资源少，且开采不多。矿藏主要有铁、铅、铜、褐煤和沥青等。 工业 黎工业基础相对薄弱，以加工业为主。主要行业有非金属制造、金属制造、家具、服装、木材加工、纺织等。从业人数约20万，占黎劳动力的7％。2005年工业投资额为1.04亿美元,总产值占国内生产总值的17％,是仅次于商业和非金融服务业的第三大产业。 农业 农业欠发达。2005年农业总产值占国内生产总值的13％。全国可耕地面积247939公顷，其中灌溉面积104009公顷。牧场36万公顷,林地面积79万公顷。农产品以水果和蔬菜为主。水果产值占农业产值的51％。果园面积约6万公顷，主产柑桔、苹果、葡萄和香蕉，年出口水果约26万吨。黎粮食生产落后，主要靠进口。国内粮食耕种面积共8万公顷，其中大麦、小麦种植面积2.5万公顷。其他农产品有玉米、马铃薯等。经济作物有烟草、甜菜、橄榄等。近年来黎葡萄种植业发展很快,2001年生产葡萄酒500万瓶,其中40%出口。贝卡谷地为黎主要农业种植区，占全黎种植面积35%及谷物产量的30%。 旅游业 黎原为中东旅游胜地。内战前，每年入境旅客达200万人次，旅游收入占国民收入的20％以上,游客主要来自海湾地区产油国和欧美国家。内战期间，旅游业一蹶不振，战后黎政府将振兴旅游业作为重建计划重要组成部分，通过了发展旅游业的投资计划。黎现有各类星级饭店398家，床位约1.1万张。主要旅游点有腓尼基时代兴建的毕卜鲁斯城、古罗马时代兴建的巴尔贝克城和十字军时代兴建的赛达城堡。此外，北部的雪山有很多滑雪场，吸引了大量游客。 交通运输 黎交通以海、空为主，公路次之。 水运：主要港口有贝鲁特港、的黎波里港、赛达港。贝鲁特港为主要贸易港，现有集装箱及集散货码头14个。2005年吞吐量为471.2万吨，承担着黎70%的进出口货物运输量。 空运：贝鲁特机场是著名航空港，内战前有70家航空公司飞机经停贝鲁特机场。内战期间，机场经常被迫关闭。1990年黎政府投资4亿美元改造贝鲁特机场，将其吞吐量由每年200万人次提高到600万人次。目前有35家航空公司飞经该机场。2005年起降班次30627次,年航空货物吞吐量为6万吨。黎以冲突期间，机场的多次遭以军轰炸，严重被毁。 公路：贯穿全境，全长约7100公里，其中沥青路3500公里。高速路约530公里。公路在内战期间破坏严重，黎政府制定了修复计划，但因资金无法到位修复工作进展缓慢。黎平均每3人拥有一辆汽车，人均汽车拥有量居世界前列，车辆总数为145万辆。黎以冲突期间，黎全国公路系统遭到严重破坏。 铁路：全长335公里，全部为国有，除贝鲁特－谢卡（Chekka）段外，其余尚不能使用。 财政金融 贝鲁特曾是中东金融中心，外汇和黄金可自由买卖。至2001年上半年,全国有72家银行,其中商业银行65家,各类分行和分支机构多达730个。黎的第一大银行是黎巴嫩中央银行，由政府控制，负责货币的发行。黎银行多为私人所有，其中较大的有奥狄银行、黎巴嫩－法国银行、毕卜鲁斯银行等。2001年黎银行业收入占GDP的9%。2006年，黎财政赤字38亿美元。截至2006年底，黎外汇储备为130.4亿美元，黄金储备58.36亿美元。 对外贸易 外贸在黎国民经济中占有重要地位，政府实行对外开放与保护民族经济相协调的外贸政策，制定配套措施，提供充分保障，开展经济外交，引进资金。出口商品主要有蔬菜、水果、金属制品、纺织品、化工产品、玻璃制品和水泥等。主要贸易对象是意大利、美国、法国、沙特阿拉伯、阿联酋、叙利亚和中国。（资料来源：黎巴嫩报刊） 人民生活 2002年平均预期寿命73.5岁，出生率千分之二十八。至2005年，黎共有医院161所，床位约9700张，注册医生约4000人，医护人员共约2万人。 五、军事 [编辑本段] 政府军由陆、海、空三军组成。总统为军队最高统帅。内战中军队分裂。1984年组成“六人军事委员会”，与总司令共同掌握领导和指挥军队的最高权力。实行义务兵役制与志愿兵役制相结合的兵役体制。义务制服役期限为18个月，志愿制至少签3年合同。 总兵力约6.5万人。由法国和美国负责提供武器和训练。陆军 5.2万人，编成11个旅和4个特种兵旅，装备坦克272辆、装甲运输车1400辆、火炮328门、反坦克炮218门，还有反坦克导弹400枚及各型高炮113门。空军1700人，编成1个战斗机中队、3个直升机中队和1个教练救援机中队。装备战斗机2架和直升机4架。海军约2000人，装备7艘巡逻快艇和2艘登陆艇。内部治安军8000人，装备有50辆装甲车、6艘巡逻艇。总司令米什阿勒·苏莱曼中将。 2006年10月，1.5万名黎政府军40年来首次部署到黎以边境，恢复对该地区的控制。 六、教育 [编辑本段] 黎全国有中小学2535所，在校学生100万，教师6万余名。公立学校约1300所。其它还有私人免费和私人收费学校。综合大学4所，相当于大学和大学预科的学院20多所。黎巴嫩大学是唯一国立综合大学，1953年创建。贝鲁特阿拉伯大学创办于1960年，贝鲁特美国大学由美国教会创建于1866年，用英语讲课。贝鲁特圣·约瑟大学1881年建立，用法语讲课，设有孔子学院。 七、对外关系 [编辑本段] 黎奉行中立不结盟政策，主张建立公正、合理、平等、均衡的国际政治、经济新秩序。对外强调其阿拉伯国家属性，调整与叙利亚关系，积极发展同埃及、沙特等阿拉伯大国的关系，重视同美国和法国等西方国家的关系。 对当前重大国际问题的看法 关于伊拉克问题：黎反对美发动对伊战争，认为解决伊拉克问题应尊重国际法和联合国决议，美单方面打伊并持续占领严重影响了地区局势的稳定，引发了中东乃至整个伊斯兰世界的反美浪潮。支持伊维护独立、主权、领土完整和民族团结，尽快结束暴力，恢复和平与稳定。支持“伊人治伊”，希望伊人民在国家事务上能独立行使选举权，通过自由、公正的选举确定国家的未来。主张联合国在伊问题上发挥主导作用，以帮助伊人民摆脱当前的困境。 关于反恐问题：认为黎仍在受到以色列国家恐怖主义的威胁，谴责各种形式的恐怖主义，但强调区分恐怖主义与以解放被占领土为目标的人民抵抗运动。黎对安理会1373号决议（2001年9月28日，安理会通过的要求各国采取切实措施打击恐怖主义的决议）有保留，认为它为强权干涉弱小国家主权开了方便之门。 关于联合国改革问题：黎支持安理会改革和扩大，鼓励通过充分讨论、协商一致而形成公正、合理的改革方案，反对对表决设时限，认为强行推动，施压促改，不成熟的方案将有碍改革的进行。黎方立场取决于阿拉伯国家共同协商的结果。黎认为，安理会改革方案应考虑到地区代表性的平衡和发展中国家的利益，主张21个阿国应有更多代表权，在安理会中至少拥有2个非常任席位，由亚、非阿国各分一席。目前各国在A、B两方案上存在较大分歧，黎乐见其他建设性的提案。 关于“文明冲突”问题：黎反对“文明冲突”观点，对“9·11”事件后美等西方国家领导人有关“十字军东征”的言论极为不满，强调各种文明应进行对话，和平共处，称黎是各种文明和谐相处的典范。 关于经济全球化问题：黎申请加入WTO，现正积极与各方进行谈判，但对经济全球化态度消极，认为经济全球化是强国对弱国的掠夺与控制。 同我国的关系 中、黎1971年11月9日建交，双边关系发展平稳。 中国驻黎巴嫩大使：刘志明。 黎巴嫩驻中国大使：苏莱曼•沙菲克•拉斯(Sleiman Chafic El-Rassi) 同美国的关系 黎、美于1943年建交。黎巴嫩重视发展同美国的关系，力求美在政治、经济、军事上的支持和援助。美支持黎独立、主权和领土完整，支持《塔伊夫协议》；敦促叙利亚军队撤出黎境内；要求黎政府解除真主党武装。1997年美解除了长达12年之久的对美公民赴黎禁令。美在“9•11”事件后宣布黎真主党为恐怖组织，并向黎政府提出了冻结该组织武装行动、资金，双方进行情报合作等一系列要求，并暗示可能对真主党动武。黎政府则坚持认为应将民族抵抗运动与恐怖主义区别对待，部分拒绝美的要求。此外美在安理会审议联黎部队任期问题时支持削减联黎部队人数、变更其职能，亦使黎感到不满。2005年2月黎前总理哈里里遇害后，美国加大对黎问题的干预力度，迫使叙从黎撤军，支持黎反叙派在议会选举中获胜，对黎影响力增强。4月、10月、12月，美联合法、英推动安理会通过有关哈里里遇害国际独立调查的1595、1636、1644号决议。2006年，美在黎以冲突期间偏袒以方，在黎形象受损。冲突结束后，美承诺向黎提供2.3亿美元援助，其中4000万美元为军事援助。 同法国的关系 黎巴嫩在1943年独立前曾是法国委任统治地，两国有传统的关系。法为谋求在黎的经济和政治优势，大力投入黎重建市场。1996年，双方签订了两项财政协定，法向黎提供10.5亿法郎的赠款、优惠贷款和商业贷款。法支持黎哈里里政府主导的经济重建与改革计划，2002年法在第二次国际援黎会议上承诺向黎提供5亿美元援助。2005年2月，黎前总理哈里里遇害，希拉克总理夫妇亲自赴黎参加哈葬礼，法主张对事件进行国际调查，并支持黎举行议会大选，改组政府。4月、10月、12月，法与美、英共同推动安理会通过有关哈里里遇害国际独立调查的1595、1636、1644号决议。2006年黎以冲突期间，法推动安理会通过要求黎以停火的1701号决议。冲突后，法派兵2000人参加联黎部队。2007年1月，法召开援助黎巴嫩国际会议，向黎提供5亿欧元低息贷款，共为黎募得逾76亿美元援款。 同叙利亚的关系 黎叙在法国委任统治时期曾是同一个国家。黎独立后，叙未予承认，黎叙仍保持“特殊关系”。1976年5月以来，叙军（最初约2.8万人）一直以“阿拉伯威慑部队”的名义驻扎在黎。1991年5月，黎叙签署“兄弟关系合作与协调条约”和“安全与防务条约”，确定两国将进行最高级和最全面的协调。1996年1月，黎叙签订经济一体化、取消双重税、推进和保证投资、建立联合边界哨所和社会领域合作五项协定。同时，双方决定在与以色列谈判中密切配合，决不单独与以媾和。2004年9月2日，美、法等国推动安理会通过1559号决议，要求叙驻黎部队全部撤离。2005年2月，黎前总理哈里里遇害，美等西方国家和黎反叙派指责叙应对此负责。在空前外部压力下，叙于4月宣布撤回其驻黎全部军队、安全人员和军事装备。7月，黎新政府成立，黎叙关系进入调整期。2006年3月，黎召开全国对话会议，就与叙发展正常国与国关系及划分国界等问题进行讨论。5月，安理会通过1680号决议，要求叙回应黎要求，与黎建立外交关系，划定边界。 2006年4月，黎议长贝里访叙。7月，黎总统拉胡德与叙总统巴沙尔通电话。8月，黎总统拉胡德、总理西尼乌拉分别与叙总统巴沙尔、总理奥特里通电话。同月，叙外长穆阿利姆访黎。9月，叙黎关系最高委员会秘书长胡里访叙。10月，黎前总理卡拉米、胡斯先后访叙。 同其他阿拉伯国家的关系 目前在黎境内共有约36.7万巴难民，其中26％住在大城市，45％住在得到联合国救济的12个难民营，约7万人生活在没有卫生、教育及社会服务等保障的13个居民点。 2006年，黎继续积极发展与其他阿拉伯国家的友好关系。黎以冲突期间，阿拉伯国家给予黎政治与财力上的支持。冲突结束以后，沙特、阿盟等亦积极斡旋，调解黎内部矛盾。 同以色列的关系 黎巴嫩南部与以色列北部接壤。1982年6月，以色列大规模入侵黎巴嫩。1985年，以色列以保卫北部加利利地区为由在黎南部建立了约850平方公里的“安全区”，在“安全区”驻扎了千余人的部队，并扶植由3000名亲以黎基督徒组成的南黎军。2000年5月，以色列单方面从黎巴嫩南部撤军，但黎仍坚持1923年国际边界线，要求以结束对谢巴农场的占领，并撤至1967年6月4日的叙以边界线；谴责以修建“隔离墙”。2005年，真主党武装与以军在黎南部边境地区频繁交火，并造成一定人员伤亡。2006年7月12日，真主党武装越境袭击以色列并俘获两名以军士兵，以军随即对黎展开大规模军事行动，黎以冲突骤然升级，引起国际社会广泛关注。8月11日，安理会通过1701号决议，要求双方全面停止敌对行动。14日，双方停火。此次冲突造成黎逾1000平民死亡，4000余人受伤，逾100万人流离失所。以色列亦有157人死亡。 The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This is a reference to the famous cedars of Lebanon, renowned throughout the region in antiquity. The red refers to the blood spilled in order to gain the independence, the white refers to the purity and peace. Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed a period of relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy. It is considered the banking capital of the Levant and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the East" due to its financial power and diversity. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of Western Asia" Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts. The 2006 war, however, caused widespread loss of life and damage to Lebanon's infrastructure from July 12, 2006 until a cessation of hostilities call, by the UN Security Council, went into effect on August 14, 2006, and the country's economy is still in the process of recovering. The name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Libnén" in the local dialect) comes from the Canaanite (and common West Semitic) root "LBN", meaning "white", which could be regarded as a reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 BC), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 BC), and 71 times in the Old Testament. The name is even recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where r stood for Canaanite l. The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago. Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great. After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Armenian, Assyrian, Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman. French mandate and independence Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria, until 1918 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria. Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate of Syria. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany. General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon. The flag of Greater Lebanon (1920-1943)After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon. The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim. Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade. 1948 Arab-Israeli war Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined the Arab League to invade Israel shortly after its declaration of independence. during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while going on an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State. The Lebanese army gained nothing during the war, and the Israeli army managed to conquer territory west of the Naphtali Mountains. After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in Operation Hiram, Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949 and the conquered territory was returned. During the war, about 100,000 Palestinian refugees fled to Lebanon. Civil war and beyond In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed. The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins. During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982, the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence. The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated. Recent history On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut. Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Others, namely the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country. This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, known as Cedar Revolution, that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri. The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report. Eventually, and under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria. The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures. On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah captured two Israeli soldiers leading to a conflict, known in Lebanon as July War, that lasted until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006. In October 2007, Émile Lahoud finished his second term as President. The opposition conditioned its vote for a successor on a power-sharing deal, thus leaving the country without a president for over 6 months. On May 09, 2008, Hezbollah and Amal militants, in an armed attack triggered by a government decision on Hezbollah's communications network, temporarily took over Western Beirut. The situation was described by the government as an attempted "coup". On May 21, 2008, all major Lebanese parties signed an accord to elect Michel Suleiman as President, to form a national unity government with 11 out of 30 seats for the opposition, thus enabling it to veto decisions, and to adopt a new electoral law, based on the 1960 law with amendments for the 3 Beirut constituencies. The deal was brokered by an Arab League delegation, headed by the Emir and Foreign Minister of Qatar and the Secretary General of the Arab League, after 5 days of intense negotiations in Doha. Michel Suleiman was officially elected President on Sunday May 25, 2008 in the presence of the Foreign Ministers of Syria and Iran as well as France and Saudi-Arabia. Geography and climate Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain rangesLebanon is located in Western Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225-kilometre (140 mi) coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for 375 kilometres (233 mi) and the Lebanon-Israel border for 79 kilometres (49 mi). The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations. Qornet el Sawda (Cornet es-Sawda or Qurnat as Sawda' ) the highest summit in the middle east, 3088 meters.Most of Lebanon's area is mountainous terrain, except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, which plays an integral role in Lebanon's agriculture. Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with frequent, sometimes heavy, snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry. Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea. In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem. However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests. Governorates and districts Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa). The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below: NorthAkkarMiniyeh- DanniyehZghartaKouraTripoliBsharriBatrounMount LebanonJbeilKesrwanMatnBeirut♦BaabdaAleyChoufSouthJezzineSidonTyreBeqaaHermelBaalbekZahleWestern BeqaaRashayaNabatiehHasbayaNabatiehMarjeyounBint JbeilBeirut Governorate The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut. Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) - 4 districts Bint Jbeil Hasbaya Marjeyoun Nabatieh Beqaa Governorate - 5 districts Baalbek Hermel Rashaya Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi) Zahle North Governorate (al-Shamal) - 7 districts Akkar Batroun Bsharri Koura Miniyeh-Danniyeh Tripoli Zgharta Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) - 6 districts Aley Baabda Byblos (Jbeil) Chouf Kesrwan Matn South Governorate (al-Janoub) - 3 districts Jezzine Sidon (Saida) Tyre (Sur) Demographics and religion The Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque in Martyrs' Square, Beirut. Our Lady of Lebanon.No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance. The CIA World Fact Book gives the following distribution: Muslim - 59.7% (Shi'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian - 39% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1.3%. According to the New York Times, Shi'a Muslims make up 35% of the population; Sunni Muslims and Druze followers make up 25% and 5% of the population, respectively, while the Christians make up 35% of the population (with the Maronites accounting for 25%). There are 17 religious sects recognized. Some followers of the Druze religion do not consider themselves to be Muslim; however, the state legally recognizes Druze followers as Muslim. The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,925,502 in July 2007. There are approximately 18 million people of Lebanese descent spread all over the world, with Brazil having the largest Lebanese community abroad (8 million). Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Spain, Germany, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela, USA, West Africa, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic also have large Lebanese communities. In 2007, Lebanon hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 325,800. 270,800 refugees and asylum seekers were from the Former Palestine, 50,200 from Iraq, and 4,500 from Sudan. Lebanon forcibly returned more than 300 refugees and asylum seekers in 2007. Economy The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise. Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arabic speaking countries. Although Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arabic speaking world, it does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce, agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons. Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population, and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP. The Kadisha Valley is a World Heritage SiteA combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%) have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP. The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, as it leaves the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade. The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub. The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange. Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars. By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon had already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures. Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started. Beirut's airport, Rafiq Hariri International Airport, re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with $US 1.5 billion pledged), the European Union (with about $1 billion) and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million. Foreign Relations Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization. Aside from Syria, Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon also is a member of the Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with Iran, largely centered on Shi'a Muslim links. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002. Education Schools All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all, may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, history, civics, geography, Arabic, and either French or English or both. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects. The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities, and 12th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade. Students go through three academic phases: Elementary: Six years. Intermediate: Three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion. Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade. Students studying at French-system schools may also graduate with a French Baccalaureate that is considered equivalent to the Lebanese Baccalaureate. These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory. Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced. Higher education Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad. Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized. The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively. The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon. At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II. The University academic degrees for the first stage are the Bachelor or the Licence, for the second stage are the Master or the DEA and the third stage is the doctorate. The United Nations assigned Lebanon an Education Index of 0.84 in 2005. Language Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language may be used". The majority of Lebanese people speak Arabic and either French or English fluently. Moreover, Lebanese people of Armenian descent also speak Armenian fluently. The colloquial variant of Arabic used in Lebanon, which is known as Lebanese, is one part of a grouping of dialects called Levantine Arabic. It differs from the literary Modern Standard Arabic, owing its historical blend to Arabic, Syraic, Turkish, and Persian. In recent years, it has become increasingly common for Lebanese people, especially the better educated, to converse in a combination of Arabic, English and French, whereby the same sentence would include words or expressions from the different languages. In the 1960s Lebanese linguists, such as Mr. Saeed Aql, proposed 37 letters for the Lebanese dialect based on the Latin alphabets. The Arab league rejected the idea, putting pressure on the Lebanese government to refuse such a project. Noteworthy, the Lebanese dialcet is considered a language/dialect continuum. Teams of linguists from UCLA, Moscow State University, and from Cairo University, agreed that 45% of the Lebanese vocabulary is of Aramaic or Syraic origins. The Lebanese dialect has literary works date back to the 18th century AD. Regional influences and occupations throughout the centuries could possibly explain why Lebanese people speak so many languages, even incorporating them into their own. In addition, due to the importance of the Lebanese diaspora and business interests of Lebanese worldwide, it has always been important to master languages other than Arabic. Moreover, the Palestinian dialect of Akko in Israel is considered a dialect of Lebanese. In the Christian communities, until the Lebanese Civil War, it was seen as a mark of status to not speak Arabic.[citation needed] The reason for this could possibly be that Christians generally were educated in many of the French educational institutions and so a general Francophonic class emerged in their communities. However, as the Muslim population increased in previously Christian areas, Arabic is nowadays almost universally spoken among Lebanese.[citation needed] Culture Overview Phoenicia and its colonies. The Triumphal Arch in Tyre.The area including modern Lebanon has been home to various civilizations and cultures for thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine, and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Western Asia, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate. Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is often considered to serve as Europe's gateway to Western Asia as well as the Asian gateway to the Western World. Creative arts Lebanese music is known around the world for its soothing rhythms and oriental beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular as are western rhythms. One of the most well-known Lebanese singers is Fairuz; her songs are broadcast every morning on most radio stations and many TV channels, both in Lebanon and the Arab world in general. Other prominent artists include Julia Boutros, composer and oud player Marcel Khalife, Majida El Roumi, Sabah, Wadih El Safi, and the important nun and singer Sister Marie Keyrouz, founder of The Ensemble of the Peace. Some Lebanese artists, such as Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani, remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'jabali' ("from the mountains"), while other artists incorporate Western style into their songs. Lebanese performers are perhaps the most popular in the Arab world alongside Egyptian artists, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Najwa Karam, Nancy Ajram, Elissa (singer), Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares, Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri, Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hijazi and Majida El Roumi. In addition, the lead guitarist from All Time Low, Jack Barakat, was born in Lebanon as well as the London based singer/songwriter Mika. Nevertheless, Lebanon is playing a leader rule in media and digital arts in the MENA region, in addition to the growth of online campaign such as Going Niche www.goingniche.com. Sports Because of Lebanon's unique geography, both summer and winter sports thrive in the country. In fact, in autumn and spring it is sometimes possible to engage in both during the same, skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean during the afternoon. At the competitive level, basketball, football, and hip ball are among Lebanon's most popular sports. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the Asian Cup and the Pan-Arab Games; the country will host the Winter Asian Games in 2009. To meet the needs of these international competitions, Lebanon maintains state-of-the-art athletic facilities, that encourage local sporting activities and which in turn in both winter and summer games of the Olympics and Special Olympics. Lebanon boasts six ski resorts, with slopes suitable for skiers and snowboarders of all ages and levels of experience. Off-slope, there are many opportunities for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling. In the summer, skilifts can be used to access some of Lebanon's best hiking trails, with panoramic views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and spelunking are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad. Shorter races are also held for youth and less serious competitors. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing. Arts and literature Lebanon's contribution to the Arab Rennaissance during the middle of the 19th century is immense. This flowering allowed for the modernisation of the Arabic language moving it away from its Koranic classical dictums, and allowing for the creation and adaptation of previously unknown terms/ words as Al-Watan (the nation), Al-Watania (Nationalism). The first theatre production in the Arab world was performed at the Al-Kahzen household in 1862, a Lebanese aristocratic family who were also representatives of France. By the turn of the 20th century, Beirut was vying with Cairo as the major centre for modern Arab thought, with untold number of newspapers, magazines, and literary societies. Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek.In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran, who was born in Bsharri, Lebanon but grew to adulthood in Boston, Massachusetts, is known to be one of the world's famous writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages. Several contemporary Lebanese writers have achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf and Hanan al-Shaykh. In art, Moustafa Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Mustafa Farroukh (1901-1957) was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. His work was applauded for its representation of real life in Lebanon in pictures of the country, its people and its customs. Farroukh became highly regarded as a Lebanese nationalist painter at a time when Lebanon was asserting its political independence. His art captured the spirit and character of the Lebanese people and he became recognized as the outstanding Lebanese painter of his generation. His total paintings were more than 2000 sold to collectors inside and outside of Lebanon. He also wrote five books and taught art at the American University of Beirut. Festivals Beiteddine Palace, the venue of Beiteddine Festival.Several international music festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Beiteddine Festival, Byblos International Festival, and the Al-Bustan Festival. Beirut (Beirut Nights) in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces. Politics Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism. This system, allegedly meant to ensure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body. As such, high-ranking offices in are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim and the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian. The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'ÉtoileThis trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided equally between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years, although for much of Lebanon’s recent history, civil war precluded the exercise of this right. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term. At the urging of the Syrian government, this constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad hoc amendment twice in recent history. Elias Hrawi’s term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years. This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007. The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding). Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism. The Grand Serail, the government headquarters in downtown BeirutLebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related. These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians". |
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