波多黎各

波多黎各 Puerto Rico 首都:聖鬍安國家代碼: pr

波多黎各

　　波多黎各聯邦（Commonwealth of Puerto Rico，Puerto Rico）
　　
　　擁有聯邦身份的美國領土。位於加勒比海的大安的列斯群島東部，全稱波多黎各自由邦。面積8897平方千米，人口337萬。其中西班牙人和葡萄牙人的後裔占99.9％。官方語言為西班牙語，通用英語。居民多信奉天主教。首府聖鬍安。
　　
　　包括波多黎各島及別剋斯、庫萊布拉等小島。北臨大西洋，南瀕加勒比海、東與美屬、英屬維爾京群島隔水相望，西隔莫納海峽同多米尼加共和國為鄰。山地和丘陵占全島面積的3／4。中央山脈橫貫東西，地勢從中央嚮四周伸展，由高到低，沿海為平原。最高峰蓬塔山海拔1338米。屬熱帶雨林氣候。
　　
　　歷史
　　
　　原為印第安人居住地。1493年剋裏斯托弗·哥倫布航行至此。1509年淪為西班牙殖民地。1869年波多黎各人民起義，宣佈成立共和國，遭西班牙殖民軍鎮壓。1897年實現內部自治。1898年美西戰爭後成為美國殖民地。1917年美國把“美國公民籍”強加於波多黎各人民。1950年人民武裝起義，宣佈成立波多黎各共和國。1952年美國給予波多黎各自由聯邦的地位，實行自治，但外交、國防、關稅等重要部門仍由美國控製。1972年以來，聯合國非殖民化特別委員會多次重申波多黎各人民享有自决和獨立的不可剝奪的權利。1977年美國總統G.R.福特嚮國會提交了《1977年波多黎各立州法》，主張把波多黎各變成美國的第51州。1982年11月羅納德·威爾遜·裏根總統發表聲明，支持波多黎各成為美國的一個州。1993年11月，波多黎各再次就與美國的關係舉行全民公决，結果多數人仍主張維持美國的自由聯邦地位。1992年佩得羅·羅塞洛當選為總督。
　　
　　根據1952年由美國製定的憲法，總督為最高行政長官，由選舉産生，任期4年，下設部長會議。美國國會有權廢除波多黎各議會通過的法律。議會分參、衆兩院。該島選舉出地方專員常駐美國國會，但衹能在衆院委員會參加表决。主要政黨有：
　　①人民民主黨，執政黨。成立於1938年。主張維持波多黎各“自由聯邦”地位，要求在美國主權下成立地方自治政府。
　　②新進步黨，1967年成立。主張波多黎各成為美國的一個州。
　　③波多黎各獨立黨，1946年成立。主張波多黎各獨立，建立社會主義民主共和國。
　　
　　經濟
　　
　　以美國為主的外國資本控製了波多黎各的主要經濟部門。波多黎各註重與加勒比地區和拉美國傢發展經濟關係。1992年國民生産總值為235億美元。人民生活水平在拉丁美洲居於首位。貨幣使用美元。旅遊業發達，主要名勝有蓬塞藝術博物館、聖鬍安老城、聖鬍安大教堂、雲蓋雨林和波多黎各16～17世紀家庭博物館等。波多黎各為加勒比地區空運中心，聖鬍安、蓬塞、馬亞古埃斯均為海、空良港。工業主要有化工、電力設備、機械製造、石油、食品加工和服裝等行業。農業主要生産棉花、咖啡、甘薯、煙草、水果等。
　　
　　對6～16歲兒童實行免費義務教育。主要報紙有《世界報》、《新日報》、《聖鬍安明星報》等。有110個廣播電臺，13個電視臺。
　　
　　概況
　　
　　名稱波多黎各自由邦（The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico），擁有美國聯邦領土地位（US Commonwealth Territory）。
　　面積 8959平方公裏。
　　人口 373萬（1996年），人口密度為416人/平方公裏。人口中拉美裔人占99.9%。官方語言為西班牙語和英語。居民主要信奉基督教（81%為天主教信徒）。
　　首府聖鬍安（San Juan），人口43.77萬（1990年）。
　　總督佩德羅•羅塞略（Pedro Rossello），1996年11月再次當選。
　　
　　
　　地理
　　位於加勒比海大安的列斯群島東部，北臨大西洋，南瀕加勒比海，東與美屬、英屬維爾京群島隔水相望，西隔莫納海峽同多米尼加共和國為鄰。科地勒拉山穿過境內，屬熱帶雨林氣候，雨量充足，1月平均氣溫24℃，7月平均氣溫27℃。
　　
　　原為印第安人居住地。1493年哥倫布第二次去美洲大陸時抵達此島。1509年淪為西班牙殖民地。1869年，波人民起義，宣佈成立共和國，遭西班牙殖民軍鎮壓。1897年實現內部自治。1898年美西戰爭後割讓給美國。1917年，波多黎各人被賦予美國公民權。波多黎各居民可以參加美國全國的政黨初選，但不能參加美國總統大選。1947年開始自行選舉總督。1952年通過的憲法規定，在實現內部自治的前提下，保持與美國的聯繫，美國會通過法案給予波多黎各美國聯邦領土地位（即在內部事務方面享有最高自治地位）。在1993年11月的全民投票中，48％的人贊成保持美國聯邦領土地位，46％贊成擁有美國州的地位，4％的人贊成完全獨立。
　　
　　
　　政治
　　
　　
　　目前，波多黎各維持美國聯邦領土地位，但憲法地位問題（即與美國關係的法律地位問題）仍是內部爭執的焦點。目前的主要爭執點是維持目前的美國聯邦領土地位還是成為美國之一州。
　　
　　波多黎各人民的生活水平在拉美居首位。工業、製造業、旅遊業、服裝業和電子業為主要生産部門。製造業産值占國民生産總值的41％。建築業産值1987年為25億美元。能源生産發展較快，1985年水力和沼氣發電量為119.38億度，其他電力發電量為2.09億度。由於基礎設施不足，經濟增長受到很大製約。美國聯邦援助項目對波經濟至關重要。近年來，波註重與加勒比地區和拉美國傢發展經濟關係。正致力於將本島建成拉美國傢面嚮美加自由貿易區成員的製成品加工中心。由於人口密集，就業形勢一直嚴峻。近年來旅遊業發展迅速。失業率從1985年的21％下降到1996年的13.8%。
　　國內生産總值（1996年）：454億美元。
　　人均國民收入（1993年）：7000美元。
　　貨幣：使用美元。
　　失業率（1996年）：13.8%。
　　
　　工業
　　
　　 1996年，工業産值占國民生産總值的43.5%。主要有機械製造、建築、采礦、化工、塑料、石油、食品加工和飲料等行業，從業人口占勞動總人口的20％。
　　
　　農業
　　
　　主要生産棉花、咖啡、甘薯、煙草、水果等。1994年漁業捕獲量2240噸。1996年，林業和漁業占國民生産總值的0.7%，從業人口占勞動總人口的2.9％。
　　
　　
　　服務業
　　
　　1996年，服務業産值占國民生産總值的58％，從業人口占勞動總人口的76％。
　　
　　
　　旅遊業
　　
　　1995/1996年度，接待遊客達411萬人次，旅遊收入近19億美元，72%的遊客來自美國。主要名勝有：蓬塞藝術博物館、聖鬍安老城、聖鬍安大教堂、雲蓋雨林和波多黎各16世紀－17世紀家庭博物館等。
　　
　　
　　交通運輸
　　
　　運輸業較發達。1987年擁有汽車108萬輛。波為加勒比地區空運中心，聖鬍安、蓬塞、馬亞古埃斯均為海空良港。
　　
　　
　　財政金融
　　
　　1995/1996年度，預算總收入78.5億美元。
　　
　　
　　對外貿易
　　
　　1996年，進出口總額分別為190億和229億美元。主要貿易夥伴除美國大陸外，還有日本、英國、多米尼加、委內瑞拉、美屬薩摩亞等。同美國的進出口貿易分別占其進出口總額的62.5%和87.8%，其中出口藥品占美國全國藥品的50%左右。
　　
　　
　　軍事
　　
　　美國負責其防務。實行義務兵役製，擁有主要由美國聯邦政府提供預算的國民警衛隊1.1萬人。美在波有軍事基地七個，駐軍5萬人。其中，羅斯福羅茲基地是世界最大的海軍基地，每年可接納4.5萬架次飛機和1200艘艦衹。
　　文化教育
　　
　　
　　教育
　　
　　對6歲－16歲兒童實行免費義務教育。授課用西班牙語進行，但所有年級英語都是必修課。有公立中小學1782所，私立中小學818所，在校學生約63萬人（1996年）；高等學校69所（其中以聖鬍安大學、波多黎各大學等三所公立大學規模最大）。1980年成人文盲率為12％。
　　
　　
　　新聞出版
　　
　　主要報紙：《世界報》、《新日報》、《聖鬍安明星報》等。廣播電臺118個，電視臺15個。
　　對外關係為聯合國拉美及加勒比經社理事會準成員，擁有加勒比共同體和共同市場的觀察員地位。由於美國反對加勒比國傢聯盟（成立於1994年）接受古巴為其成員，波多黎各沒有接受該聯盟的準成員地位。

　　Puerto Rico (IPA: /ˌpwertoˈriko/), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: "Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" [literally, English: "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"), is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands. The territory is composed of an archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands and keys, the largest of which are Vieques, Culebra, and Mona. The main island of Puerto Rico is the smallest by land area but third largest by population among the four Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico).
　　
　　Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen, from Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name. The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known as "La Isla del Encanto", which translated means "The Island of Enchantment."
　　
　　Pre-Columbian era
　　The history of the archipelago of Puerto Rico (Spanish for "Rich Port") before the arrival of Christopher Columbus is not well known. What is known today comes from archaeological findings and early Spanish accounts. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, 293 years after the first Spaniards arrived on the island.
　　
　　Taíno Village at the Tibes Ceremonial CenterThe first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen. An archaeological dig in the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Arcaico (Archaic) man (named Puerto Ferro man) dated to around 2000 BC. Between AD 120 and 400, the Igneri, a tribe from the South American Orinoco region, arrived. Between the 4th and 10th centuries, the Arcaicos and Igneri co-existed (and perhaps clashed) on the island. Between the 7th and 11th centuries the Taíno culture developed on the island, and by approximately 1000 AD had become dominant. This lasted until Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492.
　　
　　Spanish colony
　　When Christopher Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19, 1493, the island was inhabited by a group of Arawak Indians known as Taínos. They called the island "Borikén" or, in Spanish, "Borinquen". Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist. Later the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the capital was named San Juan. In 1508, Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León became the island's first governor to take office.
　　
　　Garita at fort San Felipe del MorroThe Spanish soon colonized the island. Taínos were forced into slavery and were decimated by the harsh conditions of work and by diseases brought by the Spaniards. In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish; cacique Urayoán, as planned by Agüeybaná II, ordered his warriors to drown the Spanish soldier Diego Salcedo to determine whether the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Salcedo, they kept watch over his body for three days to confirm his death. The revolt was easily crushed by Ponce de León and within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of suicide. African slaves were introduced to replace the Taíno. Puerto Rico soon became an important stronghold and port for the Spanish Empire. Various forts and walls, such as La Fortaleza, El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristóbal, were built to protect the port of San Juan from European enemies. France, The Netherlands and England made several attempts to capture Puerto Rico but failed to wrest long-term occupancy. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries colonial emphasis was on the more prosperous mainland territories, leaving the island impoverished of settlers.
　　
　　In 1809, in the midst of the Peninsular War, the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament. The representative, Ramon Power y Giralt, died after serving a three-year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms, which were in force from 1810 to 1814 and again from 1820 to 1823, were reversed twice afterwards when the traditional monarchy was restored by Ferdinand VII. Nineteenth century reforms augmented the population and economy, and expanded the local character of the island. After the rapid gaining of independence by the South and Central American states in the first part of the century, Puerto Rico and Cuba became the sole New World remnants of the large Spanish empire.
　　
　　The Original Lares Revolutionary Flag.Toward the end of the 19th century, poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "Grito de Lares". It began in the rural town of Lares but was easily and quickly crushed when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián. Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican nation, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. In 1897, Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. In 1898, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized as an 'overseas province' of Spain. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, which held the power to annul any legislative decision, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor-General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomous Charter. General elections were held in March and the autonomous government began to function on 17 July 1898.
　　
　　United States colony
　　On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico was invaded by the United States with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with Cuba, the Philippines, and Guam to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris.
　　
　　The United States and Puerto Rico thus began a long-standing relationship. Puerto Rico began the 20th century under the military rule of the U.S. with officials, including the governor, appointed by the President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of popular government, including a popularly-elected House of Representatives. On 1917, the Jones-Shafroth Act granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship and provided for a popularly-elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly. As a result of their new U.S. citizenship, many Puerto Ricans were drafted into World War I and all subsequent wars with U.S. participation. This new citizenship also saw a large increase of Puerto Rican migrants to the U.S.[citation needed]
　　
　　Natural disasters, including a major earthquake, a tsunami and several hurricanes, and the Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under American rule. Some political leaders, like Pedro Albizu Campos who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, demanded change. On October 30, 1950, Albizu-Campos and other nationalists led a 3-day revolt (known as The Jayuya Uprising) against the United States in the town of Jayuya. The United States declared martial law and attacked Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers. On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S Truman. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was captured. Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, being released in 1979. Don Pedro Albizu Campos also served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta, Georgia, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.
　　
　　The internal governance changed during the latter years of the Roosevelt–Truman administrations, as a form of compromise led by Muñoz Marín and others. It culminated with the appointment by President Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor, Jesus T. Piñero.
　　
　　Commonwealth
　　In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor. Luis Muñoz Marín was elected during the 1948 general elections, becoming the first popularly-elected governor of Puerto Rico. In 1950, the Truman Administration allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution. A local constitution was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952, the anniversary of the 1898 arrival of U.S. troops. Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado (literally translated as "Free Associated State"), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic.
　　
　　During the 1950s Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to Operación Manos a la Obra ("Operation Bootstrap"), an offshoot of FDR's New Deal, which aimed to transform Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based. Presently, Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center.[citation needed] Yet it still struggles to define its political status. Three plebiscites have been held in recent decades to resolve the political status but no changes have been attained. Support for the pro-statehood party, Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP) and the pro-commonwealth party, Partido Popular Democrático (PPD) remains about equal. The only registered pro-independence party, the Partido Independentista Puertorriqueño (PIP), usually receives 3-5% of the electoral votes.[citation needed]
　　
　　On October 25, 2006, the State Department of Puerto Rico conferred Puerto Rican citizenship to Juan Mari Brás. The Supreme Court of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rican Secretary of Justice determined that Puerto Rican citizenship exists and was recognized in the Constitution of Puerto Rico. Since the summer of 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed the protocol to grant Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans.
　　
　　Government and politics
　　
　　See also: Municipalities of Puerto Rico and List of political parties in Puerto Rico
　　Puerto Rico has a republican form of government, subject to U.S. jurisdiction and sovereignty. Its current powers are all delegated by the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United States Constitution. Puerto Rico's head of state is the President of the United States. The government of Puerto Rico, based on the formal republican system, is composed of three branches: Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. The Executive branch is headed by the Governor, currently Mr. Anibal Acevedo Vila. The Legislative branch consists of a bicameral Legislative Assembly made up of a Senate upper chamber and a House of Representatives lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the President of the Senate, while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House. The Judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court. The legal system is a mix of the civil law and the common law systems. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the "advice and consent" of the Senate.
　　
　　Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a nonvoting delegate, formally called a Resident Commissioner (currently Luis Fortuño). The current Congress has returned the Commissioner's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole, but not on matters where the vote would represent a decisive participation. Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission; While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections.
　　
　　As Puerto Rico is not an independent country, it hosts no embassies. It is host, however, to consulates from 42 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe. Most consulates are located in San Juan. The Holy See has designated the Papal Nuncio in the Dominican Republic as the ecclesiastical liaison to the Roman Catholic Church in Puerto Rico; the Papal Nuncio in Washington, D.C. serves as the Vatican State's ambassador to the U.S. and the ecclesiastical liaison to the American Roman Catholic Church.
　　
　　As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez. Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town"), was founded first, in 1521, San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971.
　　
　　From 1952 to present, Puerto Rico has had 3 political parties which stand for three distinct future political scenarios. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain the island's "association" status as a commonwealth, improved commonwealth and/or seek a true free sovereign-association status or Free Associated Republic, and has won a plurality vote in referendums on the island's status held over six decades after the island was invaded by the U.S. The New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks statehood. The Puerto Rican Independence Party seek independence. In 2007, a fourth party, Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR), was ratified. The PPR seeks to address the islands problems (including its status) from a status-neutral platform. Non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement (Puerto Rico), the Hostosian National Independence Movement, and others.
　　
　　Political status
　　
　　Puerto Rico is an “unincorporated territory” of the United States which according to the United States Supreme Court is “a territory appurtenant and belonging to the United States, but not a part of the United States.” Puerto Rico is subject to the Congress’ plenary powers under the “territorial clause” of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution. United States federal law is applicable to Puerto Rico, even though Puerto Rico is not a state of the American Union and has no voting representative in the United States Congress. Due to the establishment of the Federal Relations Act of 1950 all federal laws that are “not locally inapplicable” are automatically the law of the land in Puerto Rico.
　　
　　Estado Libre Asociado
　　In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum. Puerto Ricans expressed their support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum being held to ratify the constitution. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known. On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word "Commonwealth", meaning a "politically organized community" or "state," which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. The convention adopted a translation into Spanish of the term, inspired by the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) of "Estado Libre Asociado" (ELA) to represent the agreement. Literally translated into English the phrase Estado Libre Asociado means "Associated Free State."
　　
　　In 1967, the Legislative Assembly tested the political interests of the Puerto Rican people by passing a plebiscite Act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice on three status options (continued Commonwealth, statehood, and independence). The Commonwealth option, represented by the PDP, won with a majority of 60.4% of the votes. After the plebiscite, efforts in the 1970s to enact legislation to address the status issue died in Congressional committees. In subsequent plebiscites on 1993 and 1998 the status quo was upheld.
　　
　　International status
　　On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico's classification as a non-self-governing territory under article 73(e) of the Charter from UN. But the General Assembly did not apply its full list of criteria to Puerto Rico to determine if it has achieved self-governing status. According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico's Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory's consent. It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution. In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the "U.S. House Committee on Resources stated that PR's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government". It concluded that PR is still an unincorporated territory of the U.S. under the territorial clause, that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of PR residents of PR at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose. The application of the Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the Insular Cases.
　　
　　Within the United States
　　Under the Constitution of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico is described as a 'Commonwealth' and Puerto Ricans enjoy a degree of administrative autonomy similar to that of a U.S. state. Puerto Ricans are statutory U.S. citizens, but since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory and not a U.S. state, the U.S. Constitution does not enfranchise U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico does participate in the internal political process of both the Democratic and Republican parties in the U.S., accorded equal-proportional representation in both parties, and delegates from the islands vote in each party's national convention.
　　
　　Puerto Rico is classified by the U.S. government as an independent taxation authority by mutual agreement with the U.S. Congress. Contrary to common misconception, residents of Puerto Rico pay some U.S. federal taxes: import/export taxes, federal commodity taxes, social security taxes, etc. Most residents do not pay federal income tax but pay federal payroll taxes (Social Security and Medicare), and Puerto Rico income taxes. But federal employees, or those who do business with the federal government, Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S. and others also pay federal income taxes. Because the cutoff point for income taxation is lower than that of the U.S. IRS code, and because the per-capita income in Puerto Rico is much lower than the average per-capita income on the mainland, more Puerto Rico residents pay income taxes to the local taxation authority than if the IRS code were applied to the island. Residents are eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. But Puerto Rico is excluded from Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and receives less than 15% of the Medicaid funding it would be allotted as a state, while Medicare providers receive only partial state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico (even though the latter paid fully into the system).
　　
　　Puerto Ricans may enlist in the U.S. military. Since becoming statutory United States citizens in 1917, Puerto Ricans have been included in the compulsory draft whenever it has been in effect. Puerto Ricans have participated in all U.S. wars since 1898, most notably World War II, the Korean and Vietnam wars, as well as the current Middle Eastern conflicts.
　　
　　Recent developments
　　The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the United States Congress, and the United Nations. On 2005 and 2007, two reports were issued by the U.S. President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status. Both reports conclude that Puerto Rico continues to be a territory of U.S. under the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress. Reactions from the two major political parties were mixed. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) challenged the task force's report and committed to validating the current status in all international forums, including the United Nations. It also rejects any "colonial or territorial status" as a status option, and vows to keep working for the enhanced Commonwealth status that was approved by the PPD in 1998 which included sovereignty, an association based on "respect and dignity between both nations", and common citizenship. The New Progressive Party (PNP) supported the White House Report's conclusions and supported bills to provide for a democratic referendum process among Puerto Rico voters.
　　
　　Geography
　　
　　See also: Geology of Puerto Rico and Fauna of Puerto Rico
　　Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of the latter five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are also many other even smaller islands including Monito and "La Isleta de San Juan" which includes Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra.
　　
　　Puerto Rico has an area of 5,325 square miles (13,790 km²), of which 3,425 square miles (8,870 km²) is land and 1,900 square miles (4,900 km²) is water. The maximum length from east to west is 110 miles (180 km), and the maximum width from north to south is 40 miles (64 km). Comparing land areas, Puerto Rico is 8/10 the size of Jamaica and 8/100 the size of Cuba, the next smallest and the largest countries in the Greater Antilles, respectively. Compared to U.S. states, it is larger than Delaware and Rhode Island combined, but slightly smaller than Connecticut. The main island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta (4,390 feet; 1,338 m), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 3,494 feet (1,065 m).
　　
　　Map of Puerto Rico.Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central. Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions.
　　
　　Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm.
　　
　　Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The most recent major earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918 and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. It originated off the coast of Aguadilla and was accompanied by a tsunami.
　　
　　
　　Illustration of the Puerto Rico Trench.The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 75 miles (121 km) north of Puerto Rico in the at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is 1,090 miles (1,750 km) long and about 60 miles (97 km) wide. At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is 27,493 feet (8,380 m) deep, or about 5.2 miles (8.4 km).
　　
　　Located in the tropics, Puerto Rico enjoys an average temperature of 82.4 °F (30 °C) throughout the year. Temperatures do not change drastically throughout the seasons. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than the rest of the island. The Hurricane season spans from June to November. The all-time low in Puerto Rico has been 40 °F (4 °C), registered in Aibonito.
　　
　　Species endemic to the archipelago are 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians/reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the Coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, and from which it gets its name. Most Coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, a tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including one on the top 10 endangered birds in the world, the Puerto Rican Amazon. Across the island in the southwest, the 10,000 acres (40 km²) of dry land at the Guánica Dry Forest Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico.
　　
　　Economy
　　
　　In the early 1900s the greatest contributor to Puerto Rico's economy was agriculture and its main crop was sugar. In the late 1940s a series of projects codenamed Operation Bootstrap encouraged a significant shift to manufacture via tax exemptions. Manufacturing quickly replaced agriculture as the main industry of the island. Puerto Rico is classified as a high income country by the World Bank.
　　
　　Economic conditions have improved dramatically since the Great Depression due to external investment in capital-intensive industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and technology. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions.
　　
　　Also, starting around 1950, there was heavy migration from Puerto Rico to the Continental United States, particularly New York City, in search of better economic conditions. Puerto Rican migration to New York displayed an average yearly migration of 1,800 for the years 1930-1940, 31,000 for 1946-1950, 45,000 for 1951-1960, and a peak of 75,000 in 1953. As of 2003, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more people of Puerto Rican birth or ancestry live in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico.
　　
　　On May 1, 2006, the Puerto Rican government faced significant shortages in cash flows, which forced the closure of the local Department of Education and 42 other government agencies. All 1,536 public schools closed, and 95,762 people were furloughed in the first-ever partial shutdown of the government in the island's history. On May 10, 2006, the budget crisis was resolved with a new tax reform agreement so that all government employees could return to work. On November 15, 2006 a 5.5% sales tax was implemented. Municipalities are required by law to apply a municipal sales tax of 1.5% bringing the total sales tax to 7%.
　　
　　Tourism is an important component of Puerto Rican economy supplying an approximate $1.8 billion. In 1999, an estimated 5 million tourists visited the island, most from the U.S. Nearly a third of these are cruise ship passengers. A steady increase in hotel registrations since 1998 and the construction of new hotels and new tourism projects, such as the Puerto Rico Convention Center, indicate the current strength of the tourism industry.
　　
　　Puerto Ricans had a per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of $19,600 for 2007, By comparison, the poorest state of the Union, Mississippi, had a per capita GSP (nominal) of $24,062 in 2006. The United Nation's Human Development Index ranking is not regularly available for Puerto Rico, though the UN Development Program assigned it a .942 score in 1998, which would place it among the top 15 countries in the HDI rankings.
　　
　　Demographics
　　
　　Population and racial makeup
　　
　　Royal Decree of Graces, 1815During the 1800s hundreds of Corsican, French, Lebanese, Chinese, and Portuguese families arrived in Puerto Rico, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain (mainly from Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia, the Balearic Islands, Andalusia, and the Canary Islands) and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America. Other settlers included Irish, Scots, Germans, Italians and thousands others who were granted land by Spain during the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815"), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land. This mass immigration during the 19th century helped the population grow from 155,000 in 1800 to almost a million at the close of the century. A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858, gives the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at this time: 300,430 identified as Whites; 341,015 as Free colored; and 41,736 as Slaves. More recently, Puerto Rico has become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents who immigrated from not only Spain, but from Latin America: Argentines, Cubans, Dominicans, Colombians and Venezuelans.
　　
　　Emigration has been a major part of Puerto Rico's recent history. Starting soon after WWII, poverty, cheap airfare and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the continental United States, particularly to New York City, New York; Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, and Camden, New Jersey; Chicago, Illinois; Springfield and Boston, Massachusetts; Orlando, Miami and Tampa, Florida; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Hartford, Connecticut; Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles, California. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined.
　　
　　Demographic distribution
　　Racial distribution[show]
　　Race - Puerto Rico - 2000 Census
　　Race Population % of Total
　　White 3,064,862 80.5%
　　Black/African American 302,933 8.0%
　　American Indian and Alaska Native 13,336 0.4%
　　Asian 7,960 0.2%
　　Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 1,093 0.0%
　　Some other race 260,011 6.8%
　　Two or more races 158,415 4.2%
　　
　　According to the 2000 U.S. Census there were almost four million inhabitants. Eighty percent of Puerto Ricans described themselves as "white"; 8% as "black"; 12% as "mulatto" and 0.4% as "American Indian or Alaska Native". (The U.S. Census does not consider Hispanic a race, and asks if a person considers himself Hispanic in a separate question.)
　　
　　Genetics
　　A 2002 study of Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of 800 Puerto Ricans found that 61.1% had Amerindian maternal mtDNA, 26.4% African, and 12.5% Caucasian. Conversely, patrilineal input showed that 70% of all Puerto Rican males have inherited Y chromosome DNA from a male European ancestor, 20% from a male African ancestor, and fewer than 10% from a male Amerindian ancestor. This suggests that the largest components of the Puerto Rican genetic pool are European/Caucasian, Amerindian, and African, in descending order.
　　
　　Admixture Graph, Bonilla et al 2004In a study done on Puerto Rican women born on the island but living in NY in 2004, the ancestry proportions corresponding to the three parental populations were found to be 53.3±2.8% European, 29.1±2.3% West African, and 17.6±2.4% Native American based on autosomal ancestry informative markers. The study also showed 98% of the people sampled had European ancestry markers, 87% had African ancestry markers, 84% had Native American ancestry markers, 5% showed only African and European markers, 4% showed only Native American and European markers, 2% showed only African markers, and 2% showed only European markers.
　　
　　Language
　　The official languages are Spanish and English with Spanish being the primary language. In 2008, it is estimated that 50 percent of Puerto Ricans speak English fluently.[citation needed] English is taught as a second language in public and private schools from elementary levels to high school and also in universities. Particularly, the Spanish of Puerto Rico, has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies that differentiates it from the language as spoken in other Spanish-speaking countries. This is mainly due to the influences from ancestral languages, such as those from the Taínos and Africans, and more recently from the English language influence resulting from its relation with the United States.
　　
　　Religion
　　The Roman Catholic Church has been historically the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas was erected in Puerto Rico in 1511. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church (building), most of which are located at the town center or "plaza". Protestantism which was suppressed under the Spanish regime has been encouraged under American rule making modern Puerto Rico interconfessional. Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered/reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Various African religious practices have been present since the arrival of African slaves. In particular, the Yoruba beliefs of Santeria and/or Ifá, and the Kongo-derived Palo Mayombe find adherence among a few individuals who practice some form of African traditional religion.
　　
　　Migration to the United States
　　Puerto Ricans moved to the U.S. in hopes of a better life—particularly more employment and higher wages. Most moved to urban areas, particularly New York City, but also to cities such as Philadelphia, Chicago, Hartford, or Boston. In the 1920s, Puerto Rico still largely retained a rural, agricultural economy that began to decline in the era of growing industrialization and expanded capitalism in the U.S. Both men and women migrated. Families migrated with their children, but widowed women migrated with their children as well.
　　
　　Puerto Rican women, due to language barriers and racism, often received the lowest ranking jobs. Most Puerto Rican women acquired work in the food service or garment industries. In 1955, Puerto Rican skirtmakers in New York City produced 83 million items. They worked long hours and received the lowest wages. Women who could not find work took jobs in the informal economy, helping to take care of other women’s children or helping with other women’s domestic chores.
　　
　　By the 1950s, the Puerto Rican population in the U.S. had increased dramatically. Average yearly migration of Puerto Ricans to the U.S. was up to 1,800 from 191 in 1940 and increased to 45,000 between 1951 and 1960. Twenty percent of Puerto Rico’s population migrated to the U.S. in the 1950s. By 1964, Puerto Ricans made up almost 10% of New York City’s population. Today, more Puerto Rican descendants live in the continental U.S. than in Puerto Rico.
　　
　　Puerto Ricans did not assimilate like other immigrant groups, and retained their culture and language. U.S. policymakers believed Puerto Ricans were having too many children and that they had a poor work ethic. Women were seen as reproducing too much. Because they did not stay in the home as women were expected to, Puerto Rican women were also considered inadequate mothers. Additionally, they were blamed for spreading immorality to their children and their larger community.
　　
　　Such ideas supported the sterilization of Puerto Rican women. Puerto Rico has a higher rate of female sterilization than any other country in the world, a phenomenon that also occurred in the U.S. Beginning in the 1930s, U.S. officials declared an overpopulation of people in Puerto Rico. Instead of educating young women about contraceptives, doctors forced them to be sterilized. Many women had no idea that other options existed for them. The operations women were subjected to were often very dangerous and many women faced serious complications afterwards.
　　
　　Culture
　　
　　Kapok tree (Ceiba), the national tree of Puerto RicoPuerto Rican culture is a mix of four cultures, African (from the slaves), Taíno (Amerindians), Spanish, and more recently, North American. From Africans, the Puerto Ricans have obtained the "bomba and plena", a type of music and dance including percussions and maracas. From the Amerindians (Taínos), they kept many names for their municipalities, foods, musical instruments like the güiro and maracas. Many words and other objects have originated from their localized language. From the Spanish they received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. From the United States they received the English language, the university system and a variety of hybrid cultural forms that developed between the U.S. mainland and the island of Puerto Rico. The University of Puerto Rico was founded in 1903, five years after the island became part of the U.S.
　　
　　Much of the Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music. Like the country as a whole, Puerto Rican music has been developed by mixing other cultures with its own unique flavor. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of African and Spanish traditions were most noticeable. However, the cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences that have reached Puerto Rico.
　　
　　The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the bird, Reinita mora (Spindalis portoricensis), the flower, Flor de Maga (Thespesia grandiflora), and the tree, Ceiba or Kapok (Ceiba pentandra). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the Coquí (Eleutherodactylus coqui). Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the "jíbaro" , the "countryman", and the carite.
　　
　　Sports
　　
　　Juan Evangelista Venegas, first Puerto Rican to win an Olympic medalBaseball is the most popular sport in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico has its own professional baseball league which operates as a winter league. No major league franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. Puerto Rico has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals and the Caribbean Series, winning fourteen times. Famous Puerto Rican baseball players include Roberto Clemente and Orlando Cepeda, enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973 and 1999, respectively.
　　
　　Boxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and its the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Félix Trinidad, Wilfred Benítez, and Wilfredo Gómez. Secondary sports include Professional wrestling, association football and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The Puerto Rico Islanders Football Club, founded in 2003, plays in the United Soccer Leagues First Division, which constitutes the second tier of football in North America. Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008 the islands first unified league the Puerto Rico Soccer League was established.
　　
　　Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rican athletes have won 6 medals (1 silver, 5 bronze) in Olympic competition, the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas. August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the National Basketball Team when it defeated the United States in the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens, Greece. On March 2006 San Juan's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic.
　　
　　
　　Education
　　
　　Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels — Primary (elementary school grades 1-6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7-12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females. According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher. This ranks as worst and 6th worst, respectively, among U.S. states, where the national averages are 80.4% and 24.4%.
　　
　　Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18 and is enforced by the state. The Constitution of Puerto Rico grants the right to an education to every citizen on the island. To this end, public schools in Puerto Rico provide free and non-sectarian education at the elementary and secondary levels. At any of the three levels, students may attend either public or private schools. As of 1999, there were 1532 public schools and 569 private schools in the island.[citation needed]
　　
　　The largest and oldest university system in Puerto Rico is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campus. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este, the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontificial Catholic University, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and four Law Schools.
　　
　　Transportation
　　
　　Tren Urbano at Bayamón StationMain article: Transportation in Puerto Rico
　　Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority and patrolled by the Police of Puerto Rico. The island's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include sea-born ferries (that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago) as well as Carros Públicos (Mini Bus), similar to jitney service on the United States.
　　
　　The island's main airport, Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport, is located in Carolina and is a major hub in the Caribbean. The most recently renovated airport in the west of Puerto Rico is that of the former Ramey Military airbase in Aguadilla, Rafael Hernandez Airport, which has made it easier to explore the towns of the newly created tourism area known as "Porta del Sol." The main port of the island is San Juan Port.

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