南美洲:
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| 智利 Chile 首都:聖地亞哥 國家代碼: cl |
 智利英文縮寫——CHI 國旗：由藍、白、紅三色構成。靠旗桿一邊上方的旗角為藍色正方形，其中央繪有一顆白色五角星。旗地由白、紅兩個平行長方形構成。白色在上，紅色在下。白色部分等於紅色部分的三分之二。 紅色象徵為了智利的獨立和自由， 為了反抗西班牙殖民軍的統治，在蘭卡瓜英勇犧性的烈士鮮血。白色象徵安第斯山高峰的白雪。藍色象徵海洋。 國徽：盾面來自國旗圖案。盾徽左側是安第斯鹿，右側是美洲大兀鷹，上方是與國旗顔色相同的美洲鴕鳥羽毛。底部的智利國花“戈比愛”野百合花是獨立自由的象徵。綬帶用西班牙文寫着“依靠公理和武力進行鬥爭”。 國樹：阿勞烏卡利亞鬆。是世界稀有樹種。有“黑色金字塔”之稱。 國花：“戈比愛”野百合花（柯碧韋）是喇叭藤科植物。花紅色，偶爾也開白花，長度３—４寸，花瓣堅挺好像塗蠟。結椒形小果。花開藤上，藤攀緣在樹幹上。以智利南方多見。 國石：青金石 國舞：昆卡 貨幣： 智利比索 獨立日：９月１８日（１８１０年） 國慶日：９月１８日（１８１０年） 國傢政要：總統米歇爾·巴切萊特·赫裏亞(Michelle BACHELET Jeria)，２００６年１月當選，2006年 3月11日就職，任期4年。 是智利歷史上第一位女總統。 【自然地理】 面積７５６６２６平方公裏（其中陸地面積７５６２５３平方公裏，島嶼面積３７３平方公裏）。位於南美洲西南部，安第斯山脈西麓。東同阿根廷為鄰，北與秘魯、玻利維亞接壤，西臨太平洋，南與南極洲隔海相望。海岸綫總長約１萬公裏，南北長４３５２公裏，東西最窄９６．８公裏、最寬３６２．３公裏，是世界上地形最狹長的國傢。東為安第斯山脈的西坡，約占全境東西寬度的１／３；西為海拔３００—２０００米的海岸山脈，大部分地帶沿海岸伸展，嚮南入海，形成衆多的沿海島嶼；中部是由衝積物所填充的陷落𠔌地，海拔１２００米左右。境內多火山，地震頻繁。位於智利、阿根廷邊境上的奧霍斯－德爾薩拉多峰海拔６８８５米，為全國最高點。全國有河流３０餘條，較重要的有比奧比奧河等。主要島嶼有火地島、奇洛埃島、惠靈頓島等，氣候可分為北、中、南三個明顯不同的地段：北段主要是沙漠氣候；中段是鼕季多雨、夏季乾燥的亞熱帶地中海型氣候；南為多雨的溫帶闊葉林氣候。由於地處美洲大陸的最南端，與南極洲隔海相望，智利人常稱自己的國傢為“天涯之國”。 人口 1609.34萬（2004年）。其中城市人口占86.8％。印歐混血種人占75%，白人20%，印第安人4.6%。官方語言為西班牙語。在印第安人聚居區使用馬普切語。15歲以上人口中信仰天主教的占69.90%，信仰福音教的占15.14%。 首都：聖地亞哥 (Santiago) ，位於智利中部，人口６０６萬（２００２年）。 行政區劃：全國分為１３個大區，下設５０個省和３４１個市。各大區名稱如下：塔拉帕卡，安托法加斯塔，阿塔卡馬，科金博，瓦爾帕萊索，解放者奧希金斯將軍，馬烏萊，比奧比奧，阿勞卡尼亞，洛斯·拉戈斯，伊瓦涅斯將軍的艾森，麥哲倫，聖地亞哥首都區。 重要城市 首都：聖地亞哥（Santiago），智利首都，南美洲第四大城市，位於國境中部，坐落在馬波喬河畔，東依安第斯山，西距瓦爾帕來索港約100公裏，夏季乾燥溫和，鼕季涼爽多雨霧，碧波鱗鱗的馬波喬河從城邊緩緩流過，終年積雪的安第斯山仿佛一頂閃閃發光的銀冠，天然山水給聖地亞哥增添了動人的風韻。 聖地亞哥是一座擁有400多年歷史的古城。1541年，西班牙殖民者瓦爾迪維亞率領150名騎兵來到這裏，在位於現在城市中心的聖盧西亞山上修築了西班牙在南美洲大陸上的第一座炮臺，並在山下用泥磚和草木建築了一批原始的住宅區，這就是聖地亞哥城的雛形。1818年4月5日，經過智利爭取獨立戰爭中一場决定性戰役——邁普之戰後，聖地亞哥成為智利的首都。公元19世紀因智利發現銅礦並逐漸大規模開採，城市迅速得到發展。在隨後的年月裏，數次遭受地震、洪水等自然災害的破壞，市區歷史性建築物受到嚴重毀壞。今天的聖地亞哥是一座現代化的城市，面積100多平方公裏，人口534萬，是智利最大城市，全國政治、經濟、文化和交通中心。 聖地亞哥市所在的地區夏季（10月至次年3月）氣溫並不太熱，最熱的1月份平均溫度是20℃左右；鼕天也不太冷，最冷的7月份平均溫度也有8℃左右。宜人的氣候使聖地亞哥城風光綺麗、婀娜多姿。這裏一年四季，棕櫚婆娑，緑草如茵，各種鮮花爭相吐豔。聖地亞哥的美麗的城市背景更是令人贊嘆不已。從市區可以眺望遠處白雪皚皚的安第斯山頂峰。清晨，雪峰四周雲霧繚繞；中午，陽光普照，光芒四射； 傍晚，朵朵白雲飄蕩在山腰。隨着風、雲、雨、霧的天氣變幻和朝陽、夕照彼往此至，雪峰不時地出現銀灰、銀白、淡青、淺紫或深紅的色彩，有時幾種色彩交相輝映，形成一幅迷人的畫面。 智利是世界上第三大産銅國，也是世界上出口銅最多的國傢之一。在聖地亞哥市，人們處處都能感受到銅的存在，到處都可以看到銅的光輝。漫步市區，每隔不遠眼前就會出現一座精工細琢的紀念銅像，這些銅雕刻大小各異，千姿百態，栩栩如生。格外引人註目的是聳立在市區“憲法廣場”上智利民族解放運動先驅沃伊金斯將軍的銅像雕刻，橫刀躍馬，氣壯山河。那一座座銅像雕刻，讓人目不暇接，仔細觀賞，仿佛置身於銅像的世界，真是別有一番情趣。 不論在商店的櫥窗裏，還是在智利朋友的傢中，舉目便是閃閃發光的各種銅製器皿：銅碗、銅盆、銅壺、銅杯、銅煙具……並且每件器皿上面雕有人物、風景、花草以及獸類等。商店裏的銅製手工藝品，更是新穎別緻，手工精細，令人愛不釋手。賓館、飯店以及居民家庭的門窗、桌子等都是銅鑲邊，或者有銅的裝飾。親朋自遠方來，也總是以銅製藝術品相贈送。 聖地亞哥的市區在歷史上是以聖盧西亞山為中心發展起來的。聖盧西亞山高230米，是著名的風景遊覽區。一條彎彎麯麯的山路盤旋而上，直通山頂。山上有古希臘雅典式的白石門廊，門廊兩側是古樸、蒼勁的巨型壁畫。滿山都是莖幹肥碩、形態各異的仙人掌，色彩豔麗的花草點綴其間。山腰有一處“石泉”，泉水緩緩從造型優美的石雕頑童懷抱的罐子中流淌出來，在郁郁葱葱的林木中形成一潭碧水。山崗上的古堡、雉堞和銅炮年代久遠，迄今保存完好。站在古堡前俯視全市，長3公裏、寬100米的奧希金斯大街橫貫全城，公路上汽車川流不息，兩側高樓大廈林立；解放廣場、憲法廣場、巴格達諾廣場等歷歷在目；市區和近郊的天主教堂、主教堂、市政廳、郵政大樓、智利大學、天主教大學、國民學院、國傢圖書館、歷史博物館、美術館等，一覽無餘。 市區東北部的聖剋裏斯托瓦山，海拔1000米，山上有用大理石雕成的巨型聖母像，山坡花草林木之中建有天文臺和動物園，被稱為“首都公園”，是聖地亞哥市的旅遊中心。 瓦爾帕萊索(Valparaiso) 南美洲太平洋岸重要海港，智利阿空加瓜區和瓦爾帕萊索省首府。位於瓦爾帕萊索灣南岸，東南距聖地亞哥約130公裏。人口27.6萬（1982）。始建於1536年。屢遭海盜、風暴、大火、地震毀壞，現市區大多為1906年地震後重建；1971年又遭地震破壞。港灣開闊，築有堅固的防波堤以及現代化的港口設施。智利最大貿易港，其中輸入占全國進口總值的半數以上。工業約占全國的五分之一，有紡織、金屬加工、化工、煉油、製糖、服裝、製革、油漆等。氣候宜人，風景秀麗，為旅遊勝地。設有大學和博物館。橫貫安第斯山國際鐵路的西部終端站，與首都有電氣火車相通。 瓦爾帕萊索市（Valparaíso）是智利議會所在地，也是第五大區（帕萊索地區）的首府和瓦爾帕萊索省省會、智利第二大城市和南美太平洋沿岸最大的深水港，瓦市也是智利最大的對外貿易港。位於太平洋瓦爾帕萊索海灣南端，距首都聖地亞哥119公裏。目前，該市人口有28萬多，面積402平方公裏。該市東部和南部為海岸山脈。城市宛如一輪明月鑲嵌在大海與高山間八平方公裏的狹長地帶上。 瓦市地理位置優越，是智利最早的貿易港口。巴拿馬運河開通之前，瓦市是有“智利門戶”之稱。目前，瓦市仍是全國重要的港口之一，有2000多米長的泊位，有現代化的裝卸設備。繁忙的碼頭景象，是智利對外經濟發展的象徵。工商業發達，有鑄造、機械、煉油、化工、紡織、化纖、製革、藥品、香煙、榨糖、食品、搪瓷、造船和金屬加工等，生産油漆、服裝等。瓦爾帕萊索也是交通中心，與首都聖地亞哥通電氣化鐵路。還有鐵路通往各大城市和港口。瓦爾帕萊索市是智利通嚮太平洋之窗和智利與世界各國貿易交流的主要通道，對外貿易輸入總量占全國半數以上。服務業和旅遊業也很發達。 2003年，聯合國教科文組織授予智利瓦爾帕萊索市“人類遺産”稱號。 瓦爾帕萊索在西班牙文中意思是“天堂𠔌”。由西班牙殖民者修建的，至今已有350多年的歷史，城內的建築、街道依然遺留着殖民時期的痕跡。城中的其中特色之一在於一種特別的通工具：纜車。為了人們平時上下山的方便，它幾乎全天運作着。在瓦市漫長的歷史中也記載了許多痛苦的經歷，特別是1905年的地震幾乎將瓦市夷為平地。 1996年8月2日-4日，上海市代表團訪問瓦爾帕萊索,雙方簽署了兩市結好意嚮書。2001年7月10日至11日，上海市政協主席、上海市市長代表王力平率領上海市代表團一行5人應瓦爾帕萊索市市長埃爾南·平托·米朗達邀請訪問了瓦爾帕萊索市。7月10日王力平代表徐匡迪市長與平托市長共同簽署了締結友好城市協議書。 康塞普西翁 Concepcion 智利中部城市，比奧比奧區康塞普西翁省首府。位於智利中南部。比奧比奧河傍城而過，西距河口10公裏。人口約30.3萬。最熱月平均氣溫20℃，最冷月平均氣溫（7月）10℃，年平均降水量1000毫米左右。西距海岸港口城市塔爾卡瓦諾10千米。始建於1550年。屢遭地震、海嘯破壞，屢遷城址，1754年遷現址。周圍農産豐富，水力資源充足。附近産煤，煤礦占全國的90％以上，為國傢重要工商業中心之一。農業發達，是葡萄酒和𠔌物的貿易中心。工業有紡織、面粉、製革、玻璃、陶瓷、製糖、鋼鐵、造紙、煉油等。有鐵路通聖地亞哥。設有康塞普西翁大學。西北13公裏的外港塔爾卡瓦諾，港灣優良，有鐵路通連。 【簡史】 早期境內居住着阿勞幹人、火地人等印第安民族。１６世紀初以前屬於印加帝國。１５３５年，西班牙殖民者從秘魯侵入智利北部。１５４１年建立聖地亞哥城後，智利淪為西班牙殖民地，並受其統治近３００年。１８１０年９月１８日，智利成立執政委員會，實行自治。１８１７年２月與阿根廷聯軍擊敗西班牙殖民軍。１８１８年２月１２日正式宣佈獨立，成立智利共和國。 在聖地亞哥舉行的國際圖書節。智利是南美的圖書出版大國，年均出版圖書2500多種。 憲法 ２００５年９月，智利頒布憲法新文本，正式取代了皮諾切特軍政府時期頒布的憲法文本，這是智利對完善本國民主制度所實現的重大改革承諾和歷史性步驟。新憲法對１９８０年憲法作了５８處實質性修改。共和國總統任期將由６年減至４年，取消議會中終身參議員和指定參議員的設置，所有參議員將與衆議員一樣均由民主選舉産生。此外，修改後的憲法將賦予共和國總統對軍隊和警察擁有絶對的領導權和指揮權，規定總統有權撤換武裝部隊各軍種和警察部隊的總司令，改變過去憲法中關於這些職務不可罷免的限製。國傢安全委員會將不再可以跨越總統的權力，而使之轉變成為隸屬總統領導下的國傢安全顧問機構。 經濟 智利屬於中等發展水平國傢。礦業、林業、漁業和農業資源豐富，是國民經濟四大支柱。礦藏、森林和水産資源豐富，以盛産銅聞名於世，素稱“銅礦之國”。已探明的銅藴藏量達２億噸以上，居世界第一位，約占世界儲藏量的１/３。銅的産量和出口量也均為世界第一。鐵藴藏量約１２億噸，煤約５０億噸。此外，還有硝石、鉬、金、銀、鋁、鋅、碘、石油、天然氣等。盛産溫帶林木，木質優良，是拉美第一大林産品出口國。漁業資源豐富，是世界第五大漁業國。工礦業是智國民經濟的命脈。２００１年，工業總産值為５７２２０.５６億比索，礦業總産值３０５０７.２７億比索。工礦業從業人口為８２.９萬人，占總勞動力的１４％。２００１年，農、林業産值１５２４３.５１億比索,農業勞動力７０.４萬人，占總勞動力的１２％。耕地面積１.６６萬平方公裏。全國森林覆蓋面積１５６４.９萬公頃，占全國土地面積的２０.８％。主要林産品為木材、紙漿、紙張等。智利是是以經濟開放而著稱於世的貿易國傢。２００３年出口額首次突破２００億美元大關，達到２１０．４６億美元。 新聞出版 全國有報社８７傢。主要報紙有《信使報》，１８２７年創刊；《民族報》，１９８０年創刊；《三點鐘報》，１９５０年創刊；《二點鐘報》（晚報），１９３１年創刊；《最後消息報》，１９０２年創刊；主要雜志有《事件》，１９７１年創刊；《新情況》，１９７６年創刊；《今日》，１９７７年創刊。主要通訊社為環球通訊社。全國有電臺１０９５傢，主要有國傢電臺、合作電視臺、波塔萊斯電臺、農業電臺和礦業電臺。電視臺９傢，其中影響較大的是國傢電視臺（７臺）、智利大學電視臺（11臺）、天主教大學電視臺（１３臺）、大視野電視臺（９臺）和瓦爾帕萊索天主教大學電視臺（５臺）。 【文化藝術】 是拉美文化藝術水準較高的國傢之一。全國有圖書館１９９９傢，總藏書量為１７９０.７萬册。有電影院２６０傢。首都聖地亞哥是全國文化活動中心，有２５個美術館。詩人加夫列拉·米斯特拉爾獲１９４５年諾貝爾文學奬，成為第一個獲此奬的南美洲作傢。詩人巴勃羅·聶魯達獲１９７１年諾貝爾文學奬。 智利的復活節島位於太平洋東南部，以神秘巨像名聞遐邇。島上有６００多尊面對大海的古代巨大半身石雕像。１９９６年２月，該島被聯合國教科文組織宣佈為世界文化遺産。 外交：奉行獨立自主的民族主義外交政策，遵循不干涉內政和人民自决的原則。 【與中國關係】 １９７０年１２月１５日，智利成為南美洲第一個同中國建交的國傢，智利也是最早同中國完成入世談判的拉美國傢。１９７０年中智建交以來，兩國關係穩步發展。２００１年，江澤民主席對智利進行國事訪問，與拉戈斯總統就發展兩國面嚮２１世紀長期穩定、平等互利的全面合作夥伴關係達成共識。２００４年１１月，鬍錦濤主席對智利進行國事訪問。2004年11月，鬍錦濤主席對智利進行國事訪問並出席在智首都舉行的亞太經合組織領導人第12次非正式會議。訪問期間，兩國元首一致同意確立兩國全面合作夥伴關係，並宣佈啓動雙邊自由貿易協定談判。智方宣佈承認中國的完全市場經濟地位。2005年11月，鬍錦濤主席在韓國APEC領導人非正式會議期間與拉戈斯總統會晤，並共同出席了中智自由貿易協定簽字儀式。2006年9月，吳邦國委員長訪智，與巴切萊特總統共同宣佈實施中智自由貿易協定和啓動中智自貿協定服務貿易和投資談判。2006年11月，鬍錦濤主席在河內亞太經合組織領導人非正式會議期間會晤巴切萊特總統。2007年4月，中共中央政治局常委吳官正同志訪智。中方重要去訪還有（職務均為時任）：吳學謙國務委員兼外長（1987年）、楊尚昆主席（1990年）、錢其琛國務委員兼外長（1993年）、政協主席李瑞環（1995年）、朱鎔基副總理（1996年）、李鵬總理（1996年）、李嵐清副總理（1997年）、田紀雲副委員長（1998、2002年）、唐傢璇外長（2000年）、成思危副委員長（2001年）、中共中央政治局委員、廣東省委書記張德江（2003年）、國務院副總理回良玉（2004年）。智重要來訪還有：外長阿爾梅達（1973年）、外長庫維略斯（1978年）、外長德爾瓦列（1984年）、衆議長比埃拉-加略（1991年）、總統艾爾文（1992年）、總統弗雷（1995年）、參議長迭斯（1996年）、外長因蘇爾薩（1997、1998、1999年）、衆議長馬丁內斯（1999年）、外長阿爾韋亞爾（2000年）、總統拉戈斯（2001年）、參議長薩爾迪瓦（2001年）、外長瓦爾剋、參議長羅梅羅（2005年）、參議長弗雷（2006年）、衆議長萊亞爾（2007年1月）。 雙方在國際事務中開展了良好合作。1999年，智利在拉美國傢中率先同中國簽署“關於中國加入WTO的雙邊協議”。2002年，中國支持智利競選聯合國安理會2003-2004年度非常任理事國。2004年，智利支持中國成為美洲國傢組織常駐觀察員和拉美議會觀察員。在臺灣問題上，智歷屆政府均奉行一個中國政策。 兩國外交部於1988年建立政治磋商制度，迄今已舉行10次磋商。目前兩國間建有6對友好省市關係。 Chile's unusual, ribbon-like shape —4,300 km long and on average 175 km wide— has given it a hugely varied climate, ranging from the world's driest desert - the Atacama - in the north, through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, to a snow-prone Alpine climate in the south, with glaciers, fjords and lakes. The northern Chilean desert contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century, when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Prior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century, northern Chile was under Inca rule while Araucanian Indians (also known as Mapuches) inhabited central and southern Chile. Although Chile declared its independence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was not achieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-83), Chile defeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern regions. It was not until the 1880s that the Araucanian Indians were completely subjugated. The country, which had been relatively free of the coups and arbitrary governments that blighted the South American continent, endured a 17 year military dictatorship (1973-1990), one of the bloodiest in 20th-century Latin America that left more than 3,000 people dead and missing. Currently, Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations. Within the greater Latin American context it leads in terms of competitiveness, quality of life, political stability, globalization, economic freedom, low perception of corruption and comparatively low poverty rates. It also ranks high regionally in freedom of the press, human development and democratic development. Its status as the region's richest country in terms of gross domestic product per capita (at market prices and purchasing power parity) is countered by its high level of income inequality, as measured by the Gini index. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile. According to one theory the Incas of Peru, who had failed to conquer the Araucanians, called the valley of the Aconcagua "Chili" by corruption of the name of a tribal chief ("cacique") called Tili, who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest. Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Other theories say Chile may derive its name from the indigenous Mapuche word chilli, which may mean "where the land ends," "the deepest point of the Earth," or "sea gulls;" or from the Quechua chin, "cold," or the Aymara tchili, meaning "snow." Another meaning attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of a bird call. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535-36 called themselves the "men of Chilli." History The Mapuche were the original inhabitants of central and southern Chile.About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys and along the coast of what is now Chile. The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the area's barrenness prevented extensive settlement. In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the earth, the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan, discovered the southern passage now named after him, the Strait of Magellan. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered hundreds of thousands of Native Americans from various cultures in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarro's lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on February 12, 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Pedro de Valdivia.Conquest of the land that is today called Chile took place only gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks at the hands of the local population. A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of slavery in 1683 defused tensions on the frontier between the colony and the Mapuche land to the south, and permitted increased trade between colonists and the Mapuche. The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph in 1808. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand—heir to the deposed king—was formed on September 18, 1810. The junta proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish monarchy. A movement for total independence soon won a wide following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the "Reconquista" led to a prolonged struggle. Bernardo O'Higgins.Intermittent warfare continued until 1817, when an army led by Bernardo O'Higgins, Chile's most renowned patriot, and José de San Martín, hero of the Argentine War of Independence, crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On February 12, 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic under O'Higgins' leadership. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained extremely powerful. War of the Pacific: The Battle of Iquique on May 21, 1879.Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by ruthlessly suppressing the Mapuche during the Occupation of Araucanía. In 1881, it signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. The Chilean Civil War in 1891 brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards who had strong ties to foreign investors. Hence the Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri Palma, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. Alessandri Palma's reformist tendencies were partly tempered later by an admiration for some elements of Mussolini's Italian Corporate State. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose. Diego Portales (1793-1837), Founder of the Chilean State and creator of the Constitution of 1833.A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship, although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that has often bedeviled the rest of Latin America, and certainly not comparable to the violent and repressive regime of Augusto Pinochet decades later. By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo, now reincarnated as a sort of Chilean Perón, to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term. The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals. In 1970, Senator Salvador Allende Gossens, a Marxist physician and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the "Popular Unity" (UP or "Unidad Popular") coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action, won a plurality of votes in a three-way contest. Despite pressure from the government of the United States, the Chilean Congress, keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri and chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs. Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests; a thoroughgoing implementation of agrarian reform; the reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors; a foreign policy of "international solidarity" and national independence; and a new institutional order (the "people's state" or "poder popular"), including the institution of a unicameral congress. The Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of foreign (U.S.) ownership of Chile's major copper mines. La Moneda Presidential Palace being bombed during the coup (1973).An economic depression that began in 1967 peaked in 1970, exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits by those opposed to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, which had the effect of increasing consumer spending and redistributing income downward. Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the banking sector was nationalized. Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year. Other reforms undertaken during the early Allende period included redistribution of millions of hectares of land to landless agricultural workers as part of the agrarian reform program, giving the armed forces an overdue pay increase, and providing free milk to children. The Indian Peoples Development Corporation and the Mapuche Vocational Institute were founded to address the needs of Chile's indigenous population. The nationalization of U.S. and other foreign-owned companies led to increased tensions with the United States. The Nixon administration brought international financial pressure to bear in order to restrict economic credit to Chile. Simultaneously, the CIA funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization. By 1972, the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed and the economy was in crisis. Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes. By early 1973, inflation was out of control. The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous strikes by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. A US-backed military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende reportedly committed suicide. A military government, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, took over control of the country. The first years of the regime were marked by serious human rights violations. On October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death. At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the Rettig Report. Some 30,000 were forced to flee the country, and tens of thousands of people were detained and tortured, as investigated by the 2004 Valech Commission. A new Constitution was approved by a highly irregular and undemocratic plebiscite characterized by the absence of registration lists, on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became President of the Republic for an 8-year term. The four Concertación presidents (left to right): Patricio Aylwin, Michelle Bachelet, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle and Ricardo Lagos.In the late 1980s, the regime gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and limited political activity. The right-wing military government pursued free market economic policies. During Pinochet's nearly 17 years in power, Chile moved away from state involvement, toward a largely free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not returned to foreign ownership. In a plebiscite on October 5, 1988, General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on December 14, 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%).. President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile. In January 2006 Chileans elected their first woman president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006, extending the Concertación coalition governance for another four years. Politics Palacio de La Moneda in downtown Santiago.Chile's Constitution was approved in a highly irregular national plebiscite in September 1980, under the military government of Augusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In September 2005, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years. Chileans voted in the first round of presidential elections on December 11, 2005. None of the four presidential candidates won more than 50% of the vote. As a result, the top two vote-getters—center-left Concertación coalition's Michelle Bachelet and center-right Alianza coalition's Sebastián Piñera—competed in a run-off election on January 15, 2006, which Michelle Bachelet won. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006. This was Chile's fourth presidential election since the end of the Pinochet era. All four have been judged free and fair. The President is constitutionally barred from serving consecutive terms. Chile's bicameral Congress has a 38-seat Senate and a 120-member Chamber of Deputies. Senators serve for 8 years with staggered terms, while Deputies are elected every 4 years. The current Senate has a 20-18 split in favor of pro-government Senators. The last congressional elections were held in December 11, 2005, concurrently with the presidential election. The current lower house—the Chamber of Deputies—contains 63 members of the governing center-left coalition and 57 from the center-right opposition. The Congress is located in the port city of Valparaíso, about 140 kilometers (84 mi.) west of the capital, Santiago. Chile's congressional elections are governed by a binomial system that rewards large representations. Therefore, there are only two Senate and two Deputy seats apportioned to each electoral district, parties are forced to form wide coalitions and, historically, the two largest coalitions (Concertación and Alianza) split most of the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket out-polls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 does the winning coalition gain both seats. In the 2001 congressional elections, the conservative Independent Democratic Union surpassed the Christian Democrats for the first time to become the largest party in the lower house. In 2005, both leading parties, the Christian Democrats and the UDI lost representation in favor of their respective allies Socialist Party (which became the biggest party in the Concertación block) and National Renewal in the right-wing alliance. The Communist Party again failed to gain any seats in the election. (See Chilean parliamentary election, 2005.) Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court. In June 2005, Chile completed a nation-wide overhaul of its criminal justice system. The reform has replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system more similar to that of the United States. Administrative division Chile is divided into 15 regions, each of which is headed by an intendant appointed by the President. Every region is further divided into provinces, with a provincial governor also appointed by the President. Finally each province is divided into communes which are administered by municipalities, each with its own mayor and councilmen elected by their inhabitants for four years. Each region is designated by a name and a Roman numeral, assigned from north to south. The only exception is the region housing the nation's capital, which is designated RM, that stands for Región Metropolitana (Metropolitan Region). Two new regions were created in 2006: Arica and Parinacota in the north, and Los Ríos in the south. Both became operative in October 2007. Key Name Spanish Capital XV Arica and Parinacota Región de Arica y Parinacota Arica I Tarapacá Región de Tarapacá Iquique II Antofagasta Región de Antofagasta Antofagasta III Atacama Región de Atacama Copiapo IV Coquimbo Región de Coquimbo La Serena V Valparaíso Región de Valparaíso Valparaiso VI O'Higgins Región del Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins Rancagua VII Maule Región del Maule Talca VIII Biobío Región del Biobío Concepción IX Araucanía Región de la Araucanía Temuco XIV Los Ríos Región de Los Ríos Valdivia X Los Lagos Región de Los Lagos Puerto Montt XI Aisén Región Aisén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo Coihaique XII Magallanes Región de Magallanes y de la Antártica Chilena Punta Arenas RM Santiago Región Metropolitana de Santiago Santiago Geography Parinacota Volcano in northern Chile. Elqui Valley in north-central Chile. Conguillío National Park in south-central Chile. Grey Glacier in southern Chile.A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains, Chile stretches over 4,630 kilometers (2,880 mi) north to south, but only 430 kilometers (265 mi) at its widest point east to west. This encompasses a remarkable variety of landscapes. At 756,950 km² (292,260 sq mi), Chile is the world's 38th-largest country. It is comparable in size to Zambia, and is about twice the size of Japan. The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late nineteenth century, when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Chile is the longest (N-S) country in the world (over 4,200 km (2,610 mi)), and also claims 1,250,000 km² (482,628 sq mi) of Antarctica as part of its territory. However, this latter claim is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty, of which Chile is signatory. Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and Robinson Crusoe Island, more than 600 km (373 mi) from the mainland, in the Juan Fernández archipelago. Easter Island is nowadays a province of Chile. Also controlled but only temporally inhabited (by some local fishermen) are the small islands of Sala y Gómez, San Ambrosio and San Felix, these islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific. Climate The climate of Chile comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale, extending across 38 degrees in latitude, making generalisations difficult. According to the Köppen system, Chile within its borders hosts at least seven major climatic subtypes, ranging from desert in the north, to alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south east, humid subtropical in Easter Island, Oceanic in the south and mediterranean climate in central Chile. There are four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November). Time zones Because of the distance between the mainland and Easter Island, Chile uses 4 different UTC offsets: The mainland uses UTC-4, and in summer as daylight saving time UTC-3. Easter Island uses UTC-6, and in summer as daylight saving time UTC-5. Economy Chilean notes currently in circulation.After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999, brought on by unfavorable global economic conditions related to the Asian financial crisis, which began in 1997. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% real GDP growth. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.0%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4.0% growth in 2006. Higher energy prices as well as lagging consumer demand were drags on the economy in 2006. Higher Chilean Government spending and favorable external conditions (including record copper prices for much of 2006) were not enough to offset these drags. For the first time in many years, Chilean economic growth in 2006 was among the weakest in Latin America. GDP expanded 5.1% in 2007. Chile has pursued generally sound economic policies for nearly three decades. The 1973-90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization, though at a slower pace. The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant CODELCO and a few other enterprises (there is one state-run bank). Chile is strongly committed to free trade and has welcomed large amounts of foreign investment. Chile has signed free trade agreements (FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States, which was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004. Over the last several years, Chile has signed FTAs with the European Union, South Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, China, and Japan. It reached a partial trade agreement with India in 2005 and began negotiations for a full-fledged FTA with India in 2006. Chile conducted trade negotiations in 2007 with Australia, Malaysia, and Thailand, as well as with China to expand an existing agreement beyond just trade in goods. Chile hopes to conclude FTA negotiations with Australia and the expanded agreement with China in 2008. Negotiations with Malaysia and Thailand are scheduled to continue throughout 2008. The members of the P4 (Chile, Singapore, New Zealand, and Brunei) also plan to conclude a chapter on finance and investment in 2008. The economic international organization the OECD agreed to invite Chile to be among four countries to open discussions in becoming an official member. High domestic savings and investment rates helped propel Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the 1990s. The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP. However, the AFP is not without its critics, who cite low participation rates (only 55% of the working population is covered), with groups such as the self-employed outside the system. There has also been criticism of the inefficiency and high costs due to a lack of competition among pension funds. Critics cite loopholes in the use of pension savings through lump sum withdraws for the purchase of a second home or payment of university fees as fundamental weaknesses of the AFP. The Bachelet administration plans substantial reform, but not an overhaul, of the AFP during the next several years. Chile GDP growth since 1961.Unemployment stubbornly hovered in the 9%-10% range after the start of the economic slowdown in 1999, above the 7% average for the 1990s. Unemployment finally dipped to 7.8% for 2006, and has kept falling in 2007, averaging 6.8% monthly (up to August). Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The percentage of Chileans with household incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 13.7% in 2006, according to government polls. Critics in Chile, however, argue true poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published, due to the government's use of an outdated 1987 household budget poll, updated every 10 years. According to these critics, using the 1997 household budget data, the poverty rate rises to 29%. Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of the ECLAC. Despite enjoying a comparatively higher GDP and more robust economy compared to most other countries of Latin America, Chile also suffers from one of the most uneven distributions of wealth in the world, ahead only of Brazil in the Latin American region and lagging behind even of most developing sub-Saharan African nations. Chile's top 10 richest percentile possesses 47 percent of the country's wealth. In relation to income distribution, some 6.2% of the country populates the upper economic income bracket, 15% the middle bracket, 21% the lower middle, 38% the lower bracket, and 20% the extreme poor. Airbus A340 of Chile's LAN Airlines.Chile's independent Central Bank pursues an inflation target of between 2% and 4%. Inflation has not exceeded 5% since 1998. Chile registered an inflation rate of 3.2% in 2006. The Chilean peso's rapid appreciation against the U.S. dollar in recent years has helped dampen inflation. Most wage settlements and loans are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility. Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds. Total foreign direct investment (FDI) was only $3.4 billion in 2006, up 52% from a poor performance in 2005. However, 80% of FDI continues to go to only four sectors: electricity, gas, water and mining. Much of the jump in FDI in 2006 was also the result of acquisitions and mergers and has done little to create new employment in Chile. The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, which is tasked with identifying new sectors and industries to promote. It is hoped that this, combined with some tax reforms to encourage domestic and foreign investment in research and development, will bring in additional FDI and to new parts of the economy. As of 2006, Chile invested only 0.6% of its annual GDP in research and development (R&D). Even then, two-thirds of that was government spending. The fact that domestic and foreign companies spend almost nothing on R&D does not bode well for the Government of Chile's efforts to develop innovative, knowledge-based sectors. Beyond its general economic and political stability, the government also has encouraged the use of Chile as an "investment platform" for multinational corporations planning to operate in the region, but this will have limited value given the developing business climate in Chile itself. Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. Foreign trade Chile is responsible for over a third of world's copper production.2006 was a record year for Chilean trade. Total trade registered a 31% increase over 2005. During 2006, exports of goods and services totaled U.S. $58 billion, an increase of 41%. This figure was somewhat distorted by the skyrocketing price of copper. In 2006, copper exports reached a historical high of U.S. $33.3 billion. Imports totaled U.S. $35 billion, an increase of 17% compared to the previous year. Chile thus recorded a positive trade balance of U.S. $23 billion in 2006. The main destinations for Chilean exports were the Americas (U.S. $39 billion), Asia (U.S. $27.8 billion) and Europe (U.S. $22.2 billion). Seen as shares of Chile's export markets, 42% of exports went to the Americas, 30% to Asia and 24% to Europe. Within Chile's diversified network of trade relationships, its most important partner remained the United States. Total trade with the U.S. was U.S. $14.8 billion in 2006. Since the U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement went into effect on January 1, 2004, U.S.-Chilean trade has increased by 154%. Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then. Total trade with Europe also grew in 2006, expanding by 42%. The Netherlands and Italy were Chile's main European trading partners. Total trade with Asia also grew significantly at nearly 31%. Trade with Korea and Japan grew significantly, but China remained Chile's most important trading partner in Asia. Chile's total trade with China reached U.S. $8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia. Chile is the world's fifth largest exporter of wine.The growth of exports in 2006 was due mainly to a strong increase in sales to the United States, the Netherlands, and Japan. These three markets alone accounted for an additional U.S. $5.5 billion worth of Chilean exports. Chilean exports to the United States totaled U.S. $9.3 billion, representing a 37.7% increase compared to 2005 (U.S. $6.7 billion). Exports to the European Union were U.S. $15.4 billion, a 63.7% increased compared to 2005 (U.S. $9.4 billion). Exports to Asia increased from U.S. $15.2 billion in 2005 to U.S. $19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase. During 2006, Chile imported U.S. $26 billion from the Americas, representing 54% of total imports, followed by Asia at 22%, and Europe at 16%. Mercosur members were the main suppliers of imports to Chile at U.S. $9.1 billion, followed by the United States with U.S. $5.5 billion and the European Union with U.S. $5.2 billion. From Asia, China was the most important exporter to Chile, with goods valued at U.S. $3.6 billion. Year-on-year growth in imports was especially strong from a number of countries—Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%). Chile's overall trade profile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports. The state-owned firm CODELCO is the world's largest copper-producing company, with recorded copper reserves of 200 years. Chile has made an effort to expand nontraditional exports. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and processed food, fishmeal and seafood, and wine. Successive Chilean governments have actively pursued trade-liberalizing agreements. During the 1990s, Chile signed free trade agreements (FTA) with Canada, Mexico, and Central America. Chile also concluded preferential trade agreements with Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. An association agreement with Mercosur—Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay—went into effect in October 1996. Continuing its export-oriented development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and South Korea. Chile, as a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization, is seeking to boost commercial ties to Asian markets. To that end, it has signed trade agreements in recent years with New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, India, China, and most recently Japan. In 2007, Chile held trade negotiations with Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, and China. In 2008, Chile hopes to conclude an FTA with Australia, and finalize an expanded agreement (covering trade in services and investment) with China. The P4 (Chile, Singapore, New Zealand, and Brunei) also plan to expand ties through adding a finance and investment chapter to the existing P4 agreement. Chile's trade talks with Malaysia and Thailand are also scheduled to continue in 2008. San Antonio port in Chile.After two years of negotiations, the United States and Chile signed an agreement in June 2003 that will lead to completely duty-free bilateral trade within 12 years. The U.S.-Chile FTA entered into force January 1, 2004 following approval by the U.S. and Chilean congresses. The bilateral FTA has inaugurated greatly expanded U.S.-Chilean trade ties, with total bilateral trade jumping by 154% during the FTA's first three years. Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board import tariff for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations in 2002, and the government has introduced legislation to modify them. Under the terms of the U.S.-Chile FTA, the price bands will be completely phased out for U.S. imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar within 12 years. Chile is a strong proponent of pressing ahead on negotiations for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and is active in the WTO's Doha round of negotiations, principally through its membership in the G-20 and Cairns Group. Finance Skyline of Santiago's Financial District.Chile's financial sector has grown quickly in recent years, with a banking reform law approved in 1997 that broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. The Chilean Government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001, and there is further pending legislation proposing further liberalization. Over the last ten years, Chileans have enjoyed the introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has also been accompanied by an increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $70 billion at the end of 2006, has been an important source of investment capital for the capital market. Chile maintains one of the best credit ratings (S&P A+) in Latin America. There are three main ways for Chilean firms to raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stocks on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised through these means go to finance domestic Chilean investment. The government is required by law to run a fiscal surplus of at least 1% of GDP. In 2006, the Government of Chile ran a surplus of $11.3 billion, equal to almost 8% of GDP. The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006. Defense Leopard 2A4 of the Chilean army in Fidae 2008.Chile's Armed Forces are subject to civilian control exercised by the President through the Minister of Defense. The President has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces. Army The commander in chief of the Chilean Army is General Oscar Izurieta Ferrer. The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, seven divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in Rancagua, and a Special Forces Command in Colina. The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America. Navy Chilean frigate Almirante Blanco Encalada (FF-15) at Pearl Harbor, 2006.Admiral Rodolfo Codina directs the 23,000-person Navy, including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based in Valparaiso. The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano. Air Force (FACH) Gen. Ricardo Ortega Perrier heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica. The FACH took delivery of the final 2 of 10 F-16s, all purchased from the U.S., in March 2007. Chile also took delivery in 2007 of a number of reconditioned Block 15 F-16s from the Netherlands, bringing to 18 the total of F-16s purchased from the Dutch. Carabineros After the military coup in September 1973, the Chilean national police (Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Eduardo Gordon is the head of the national police force of 40,964 men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile. Foreign relations Former President Ricardo Lagos with United States President George W. Bush.Since the early decades after independence, Chile has always had an active involvement in foreign affairs. In 1837 the country aggressively challenged the dominance of Peru's port of Callao for preeminence in the Pacific trade routes, defeating the short-lived alliance between Peru and Bolivia, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836-39) in the War of the Confederation. The war dissolved the confederation while distributing power in the Pacific. A second international war, the War of the Pacific (1879-83), further increased Chile's regional role, while adding considerably to its territory. During the nineteenth century, Chile's commercial ties were primarily with Britain, a country that had a decisive influence on the organization of the navy. The French influenced Chile's legal and educational systems and had a decisive impact on Chile, through the architecture of the capital in the boom years at the turn of the century. German influence came from the organization and training of the army by Prussians. On June 26, 1945 Chile participated as a founding member of the United Nations being among 50 countries that signed the United Nations Charter in San Francisco. With the military coup of 1973, Chile became isolated politically as a result of widespread human rights abuses. Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a 2-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. Jose Miguel Insulza, a Chilean national, was elected Secretary General of the Organization of American States in May 2005. Chile is currently serving on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Board of Governors, and the 2007-2008 chair of the board is Chile's ambassador to the IAEA, Milenko E. Skoknic. The country is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. It is currently bidding for a seat on the UN Human Rights Council. Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. It also hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005 and the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade. The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with Argentina during the 1990s. Chile and Bolivia severed diplomatic ties in 1978 over Bolivia's desire to reacquire territory it lost to Chile in 1879-83 War of the Pacific. The two countries maintain consular relations and are represented at the Consul General level. Demographics Chile's 2002 census reported a population of 15,116,435. Its growth has been declining since 1990, due to a decreasing birth rate. By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 20.2 million. About 85% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in Greater Santiago. The largest agglomerations according to the 2002 census are Greater Santiago with 5.4 million people, Greater Valparaíso with 804,000 and Greater Concepción with 666,000. Racial structure The bulk of the Chilean population features a considerably homogeneous mestizo quality, the product of miscegenation between colonial Spanish immigrants and Amerindian females (including the Atacameños, Diaguitas, Picunches, Araucanians or Mapuches, Huilliches, Pehuenches, and Cuncos). Chile's ethnic structure can be classified as 30% white, 5% Native American and 65% predominantly white mestizos. Whites are mostly Spanish in origin (mainly Castilians, Andalusians and Basques), and to a much lesser degree from Chile's various waves of immigrants (Italians, Germans, Israelis, Yugoslavians, Arabs, etc.). Foreigners have always been scarce in Chile, totalling 600 in the whole colonial period. At the 1960 census they numbered 105,000 (55% being Spanish, German, Italians or Argentines, in that order). Besides being small in number, they mixed quickly with the locals. The black population was always scant, reaching a high of 25,000 during the colonial period; its racial contribution is less than 1%. The current Native American population is relatively small (see below) according to the censuses; their numbers are augmented when one takes into consideration those that are physically similar, and those that are linguistically or socially thought to belong to them. Indigenous communities Those belonging to recognised indigenous communities (2002) Alacaluf 2,622 0.02% Mapuche 604,349 4.00% Atacameño 21,015 0.14% Quechua 6,175 0.04% Aymara 48,501 0.32% Rapanui 4,647 0.03% Colla 3,198 0.02% Yámana 1,685 0.01% In the 1992 Chilean census, a total of 10.5% of the total population surveyed declared themselves indigenous, irrespective of whether they currently practiced or spoke a native culture and language; almost one million people (9.7% of the total) declared themselves Mapuche, 0.6% declared to be Aymara, and 0.2% reported as Rapanui. At the 2002 census, only indigenous people that still practiced a native culture or spoke a native language were surveyed: 4.6% of the population (692,192 people) fit that description; of these, 87.3% declared themselves Mapuche. Immigration German influence is apparent in southern Chile.Relative to its overall population, Chile never experienced any large scale wave of immigrants. The total number of immigrants to Chile, both originating from other Latin American countries and all other (mostly European) countries, never surpassed 4% of its total population. This is not to say that immigrants were not important to the evolution of Chilean society and the Chilean nation. Basque families who migrated to Chile in the 18th century vitalized the economy and joined the old Castilian aristocracy to become the political elite that still dominates the country. Some non-Spanish European immigrants arrived in Chile — mainly to the northern and southern extremities of the country — during the 19th and 20th centuries, including English, Germans, Irish, Italians, French, Croatians and other former Yugoslavians. The prevalence of non-Hispanic European surnames among the governing body of modern Chile are a testament to their disproportionate contribution and influence on the country. Also worth mentioning are the Korean, and especially Palestinian communities, the latter being the largest colony of that people outside of the Arab world. The volume of immigrants from neighboring countries to Chile during those same periods was of a similar value. After independence and during the republican era, English, Italian, and French merchants established themselves in the growing cities of Chile and incidentally joined the political or economic elites of the country. The official encouragement of German and Swiss colonization in the Lake District (Los Lagos Region) during the second half of the 19th century was exceptional. Small numbers of displaced eastern European Jews and Christian Syrians and Palestinians fleeing the Ottoman Empire arrived in Chile. Today they spearhead financial and small manufacturing operations. Croats have also immigrated to Chile and have formed a notable ethnic identity. Currently, immigration from neighboring countries to Chile is greatest, and during the last decade immigration to Chile has doubled to 184,464 people in 2002, originating primarily from Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Emigration of Chileans has decreased during the last decade: It is estimated that 857,781 Chileans live abroad, 50.1% of those being in Argentina, 13.3% in the United States, 8.8% in Brazil, 4.9% in Sweden, and around 2% in Australia, with the rest being scattered in smaller numbers across the globe. Culture Gabriela Mistral, Nobel Prize for Literature (1945). Pablo Neruda, Nobel Prize for Literature (1971).Northern Chile was an important center of culture in the medieval and early modern Inca empire, while the central and southern regions were areas of Mapuche cultural activities. Through the colonial period following the conquest, and during the early Republican period, the country's culture was dominated by the Spanish. Other European influences, primarily English, French, and German began in the 19th century and have continued to this day. German migrants influenced the Bavarian style rural architecture and cuisine in the south of Chile in cities such as Valdivia and Puerto Montt. Music and dance The national dance is the cueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is the tonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody. In the mid-1960s native musical forms were revitalized by the Parra family with the Nueva Canción Chilena, which was associated with political activists and reformers, and by the folk singer and researcher on folklore and Chilean ethnography, Margot Loyola. Literature Chileans call their country país de poetas—country of poets. Gabriela Mistral was the first Chilean to win a Nobel Prize for Literature (1945). Chile's most famous poet, however, is Pablo Neruda, who also won the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly individualistic homes, located in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations. Cuisine Chilean cuisine is a reflection of the country's topographical variety, featuring an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Traditional recipes include cazuela, empanadas, humitas, and curanto. Sports Rodeo is a national sport in rural Chile. Marcelo Ríos was chosen Chilean sportsman of the century.Chile's most popular sport is association football (soccer). Chile hosted the 1962 FIFA World Cup and its national football team finished third. Other results achieved by the national football team include four finals at the Copa América, one silver and two bronze medals at the Pan American Games and a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics. The main soccer clubs are Colo-Colo, CF Universidad de Chile and CD Universidad Católica. Colo-Colo is the country's most successful club, winning 41 national tournaments and three international championships, including the coveted Copa Libertadores South American club tournament. Tennis is the country's most successful sport and second most popular. Its national team won the World Team Cup clay tournament twice in 2003-04, and played the Davis Cup final against Italy in 1976. At the 2004 Summer Olympics the country captured gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles. Marcelo Ríos became the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in the ATP singles rankings in 1998. Anita Lizana won the US Open in 1937, becoming the first women from Latin America to win a grand slam tournament. Luis Ayala was twice a runner-up at the French Open and both Ríos and Fernando González reached the Australian Open men's singles finals. At the Olympic Games Chile boasts two gold medals (tennis), six silver medals (athletics, equestrian, boxing and shooting) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football). Rodeo is the country's national sport and is practiced in the more rural areas of the country. A sport similar to hockey called chueca was played by the Mapuche people during the Spanish conquest. Skiing and snowboarding are practiced at ski centers located in the Central Andes, while surfing is popular at some coastal towns. Tourism San Pedro de Atacama.Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last few decades. In 2005, tourism grew by 13.6%, generating more than 4.5 billion dollars of which 1.5 billion is attributed to foreign tourists. According to the National Service of Tourism (Sernatur), 2 million people a year visit the country. Most of these visitors come from other countries in the American continent, mainly Argentina; followed by a growing amount from the United States, Europe, and Brazil with a growing amount of Asians from South Korea and PR China. Easter Island.The main attractions for tourists are places of natural beauty situated in the extreme zones of the country: San Pedro de Atacama, in the north, is very popular with foreign tourists who arrive to admire the Incaic architecture and the altiplano lakes of the Valley of the Moon. In Putre, also in the North, there is the Chungará Lake, as well as the Parinacota and the Pomerape volcanoes, with altitudes of 6,348 m and 6,222 m, respectively. Throughout the central Andes there are many ski resorts of international repute, like Portillo and Valle Nevado. In the south, the main tourist sites are the Chiloé Archipelago, Patagonia, the San Rafael Lagoon, with its many glaciers, and the Towers of Paine national park. The central port city of Valparaíso, with its unique architecture, is also popular. Finally, Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean is probably the main Chilean tourist destination. Torres del Paine.For locals, tourism is concentrated mostly in the summer (December to March), and mainly in the coastal beach towns. Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, La Serena and Coquimbo are the main summer centres in the north, and Pucón on the shores of Lake Villarrica is the main one in the south. Due to its proximity to Santiago, the coast of the Valparaíso Region, with its many beach resorts, receives the largest amount of tourists. Viña del Mar, Valparaíso's northern affluent neighbor, is popular due to its beaches, casino, and its annual song festival, the most important musical event in Latin America. In November 2005, the government launched a campaign under the brand "Chile: All Ways Surprising," intended to promote the country internationally for both business and tourism. Languages Spanish The Spanish spoken in Chile is distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighbouring South American countries due to the dropping of final syllables and 's' sounds, and the soft pronunciation of some consonants. English language learning and teaching is popular among students, academics and professionals, with some English words being absorbed and appropriated into everyday Spanish speech, although they might seem unrecognizable due to Non-native pronunciations of English. Indigenous languages There are several indigenous languages spoken in Chile: Mapudungun, Quechua, Rapa Nui, Huilliche, Aimará, Kawésqar and Yámana. After the Spanish invasion, Spanish took over as the lingua franca and the indigenous languages have become minority languages, with some now extinct or close to extinction. National symbols A red copihue.The national flower is the copihue (Lapageria rosea, Chilean bellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile. The coat of arms depicts the two national animals: the condor (Vultur gryphus, a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus, an endangered white tail deer). It also has the legend Por la razón o la fuerza (By right or might or By reason or by force). The flag of Chile consists of two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red stands for the blood spilled to achieve independence. Religion Chile is a traditionally Catholic nation, with an estimated 70% of Chileans belonging to that church. According to census data other declared denominations or groupings include: Protestant or Evangelical (15.1%), Jehovah's Witnesses (1%), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (0.9%), Jewish (0.1%), Atheist or Agnostic (8.3%), and other (4.4%). Less than 0.1% are either Orthodox or Muslim. (For the precise numbers of declared religions among the population ages 15 and over as indicated by the results of the latest census, see: 2002 Census data.) The LDS church statistics claim to have 543,628 members within Chile. |
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