 冰岛
tā wèi yú 'ōu zhōu de xī běi bù， miàn jī 10.3 wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ， rén kǒu 27.6 wàn（ 2002 nián， quán bù shì sī kān de nà wéi yà rén。 xīn jiào fú yīn xìn yì huì shì bīng dǎo de guó jiào huì， jiào tú zhàn quán guó rén kǒu de 97%。 guān fāng yǔ yán wéi bīng dǎo yǔ。 wài mào hán diàn jí shāng wù qià tán kě yòng yīng yǔ。 shǒu dū léi kè yǎ wèi kè。 bīng dǎo yòu “ huǒ shān dǎo ”、“ wù dǎo”、“ bīng fēng de tǔ dì”、“ bīng yǔ huǒ zhī dǎo” zhī chēng。
1918 nián 12 yuè 1 rì dú lì， dàn shí jì shàng réng chén shǔ yú dān mài。 1944 nián 6 yuè chéng lì gòng hé guó。 1971 nián 12 yuè 8 rì yǔ wǒ guó jiàn jiāo。
bīng dǎo rén jūn jìn sān wàn měi yuán， shǔ zhōng děng fā dá guó jiā。 shuǐ chǎn zī yuán fēng fù， yú chǎn pǐn chū kǒu 'é zhàn bīng dǎo zǒng chū kǒu 'é de 80% zuǒ yòu， quán guó 13.5% de rén kǒu yǐ kào bǔ yú hé yú jiā gōng yè wéi shēng。 yú yè shì bīng dǎo guó mín jīng jì de zhòng yào zhī zhù。 bīng dǎo de yú lèi zhù yào yòu xuě yú， qīng yú， shā dīng yú， bǐ mù yú děng， qí zhōng yǐ xuě yú zuì duō， ròu wèi kě kǒu， jīng jì jià zhí hěn gāo shì yī zhǒng gāo jí shí pǐn， shèn shòu 'ōu zhōu shì chǎng huān yíng。 nián bǔ yú liàng 1979 nián chuàng 164.9 wàn dūn de lì shǐ zuì gāo jì lù， rén jūn 7.27 dūn， jū shì jiè shǒu wèi。
bái sǔn shì bīng dǎo de guó niǎo。 zhè shì yī zhǒng běi jí niǎo， tǐ xíng dà， fēi dé kuài、 shàn yú gōng jī qí tā niǎo lèi。 bái sǔn yòu sān zhǒng sè xíng , zhēn zhèng bái sè de jí shǎo , yì cháng zhēn guì。
bīng dǎo huò bì wéi bīng dǎo kè lǎng。
dāng dì shāng diàn de yíng yè shí jiān， zhèng cháng gōng zuò shí jiān， cóng shàng wǔ 9 shí zhì zhōng wǔ 12 shí， xià wǔ 1 shí zhì 5 shí。 mǒu xiē shāng diàn xīng qī liù yíng yè bàn tiān， dàn xià jì chú wài。
bīng dǎo duō shān， zài láo gé hú fēng jǐng qū yī dài， shì yī piàn xiǎo píng yuán， xī cè yòu yī kuài jù dà de shí bì， cháng 7 gōng lǐ， gāo 30 mǐ， xiàng yī dǔ píng fēng， jù yòu liáng hǎo de kuò yīn xiào guǒ， shǐ zuò zài gè gè jiǎo luò de huì yì cān jiā zhě dōunéng tīng dào dà huì de fā yán。 zhè yàng de lù tiān huì chǎng， zhēn shì bié jù qíng qù。
léi kè yǎ wèi kè shì bīng dǎo dì yī dà gǎng， quán guó zhèng zhì、 jīng jì、 wén huà zhōng xīn。 yòu yú lèi jiā gōng、 huà gōng、 shuǐ ní děng gōng yè。 léi kè yǎ wèi kè shù bǎi nián jiān， tā yī zhí shì yī zuò zhuāng yuán。 17 shì jì chū chéng wéi guó wáng de huáng jiā zhuāng yuán。 1944 nián chéng wéi shǒu dū， yě shì wài guó rén dào bīng dǎo lǚ yóu de qǐ diǎn。 léi kè yǎ wèi kè hé 'ōu zhōu suǒ yòu de shǒu dū bù tóng， bìng fēi dào chù dōuyòu gāo lóu dà shà。 shì nèi jiāo tōng sì tōng bā dá， chéng kè shàng chē zì dòng jiāng qián tóu rù qián xiāng， bù shè shòu piào yuán。 zhè gè chéng shì de nuǎn qì shè bèi hé rè shuǐ gōng yìng chēng shì jiè dì yī。 huán jìng yōu měi、 kōng qì qīng xīn， shì yī zuò shì jiè shàng shǎo yòu de wú yān chéng shì。
bīng dǎo rén shòu gòu liǎo lián mián hán dōng， duì yáng guāng wú xiàn rè 'ài。 měi nián 6、 7 yuè fèn， wǔ yè cháng yòu tài yáng zhào yào， rú tóng bái zhòu， shèn zhì kě yǐ kàn shū xiě xìn。 dào liǎo dōng tiān， zé gāng hǎo xiāng fǎn， yòu shí zhěng tiān bù jiàn tài yáng， ér yuè liàng dāng tóu。 zì gǔ yǐ lái， bīng dǎo rén jiù yòu dú shū xí guàn， měi dào dōng tiān， cháng yè màn màn， rén men jiù zài wū zǐ lǐ dú shū xué xí， bīng dǎo shì wén huà shuǐ píng jiào gāo de guó jiā。
zhōng guó kě pài chuán de jī běn gǎng shì sī tè lè yīn sī wéi kè gǎng， gāi dǎo wéi bīng dǎo chuán chǎng de zhuān yòng gǎng kǒu， zhè shì chū kǒu chéng jiāo fāng miàn。 zài jìn kǒu chéng jiāo fāng miàn， zhōng guó fāng miàn kě pài chuán jiē huò de zhuǎn chuán huò zhuǎn chuán gǎng kǒu shì 'ā kù léi lǐ、 hú sà wéi kè hé léi kè yǎ wèi kè。 wǒ guó fā bīng dǎo de háng kōng hé shuǐ lù lù yóu jiàn jūn yóu běi jīng sàn jì dān mài zhuǎn。 diàn bào、 diàn huà jūn yóu běi jīng jīng lún dūn zhuǎn。
duì bīng dǎo rén lái shuō， gěi xiǎo fèi shì yī zhǒng wǔ rǔ。 yòng xìng chēng hū bīng dǎo rén shì bù lǐ mào de， yīnggāi jiào tā men de míng zì。 yuē huì bù yī dìng fēi zhǔn shí bù kě。 tán gōng zuò yī bān bù xū yào shì xiān yuē huì，“ shùn biàn jìn lái zuò zuò” shì bīng dǎo de chuán tǒng。 rú yìng yāo dào zhù rén jiā qù chī fàn， yī bān qíng kuàng xià gěi nán zhù rén huò nǚ zhù rén dài jiàn xiǎo lǐ pǐn jiù kě yǐ liǎo。
guó jiā dì lǐ
zì rán dì lǐ： miàn jī wéi １ ０ ． ３ wàn píng fāng gōng lǐ。 shì 'ōu zhōu zuì xī bù de guó jiā， wèi yú běi dà xī yáng zhōng bù， kào jìn běi jí juàn， bīng chuān miàn jī zhàn ８０００ píng fāng gōng lǐ， wéi 'ōu zhōu dì 'èr dà dǎo。 hǎi 'àn xiàn cháng yuē ４ ９ ７０ gōng lǐ。 quán jìng３ ／４ shì hǎi bá４００ －８００ mǐ de gāo yuán， qí zhōng１／８ bèi bīng chuān fù gài。 yòu１００ duō zuò huǒ shān， qí zhōng huó huǒ shān ２０ duō zuò。 huá nà dá 'ěr sī hè nǔ kè huǒ shān wéi quán guó zuì gāo fēng， hǎi bá２１１９ mǐ。 bīng dǎo jīhū zhěng gè guó jiādōu jiàn lì zài huǒ shān yán shí shàng， dà bù fēn tǔ dì bù néng kāi kěn， shì shì jiè wēn quán zuì duō de guó jiā， suǒ yǐ bèi chēng wéi bīng huǒ zhī guó。 duō pēn quán、 pù bù、 húpō hé tuān jí hé liú， zuì dà hé liú xī yóu 'ěr sāo hé cháng２２７ gōng lǐ。 bīng dǎo shǔ hán wēn dài hǎi yáng xìng qì hòu， biàn huà wú cháng。 yīn shòu mò xī gē wān nuǎn liú yǐng xiǎng， jiào tóng wěi dù de qí tā dì fāng wēn hé。 xià jì rì zhào cháng， dōng jì rì zhào jí duǎn。 qiū jì hé dōng chū kě jiàn jí guāng。
tóng běi jīng shí chā bǐ gé lín ní zhì shí jiān wǎn 1 xiǎo shí； bǐ běi jīng shí jiān wǎn 9 xiǎo shí
guó jì diàn huà mǎ 354
rén kǒu：２７． ６ wàn rén（２００２ nián）。 jué dà duō shù wéi bīng dǎo rén， shǔ rì 'ěr màn zú。 guān fāng yǔ yán wéi bīng dǎo yǔ， yīng yǔ wéi tōng yòng yǔ yán。 jìn９０ ％ de rén xìn fèng jī dū jiào lù dé jiào pài。
shǒu dū： léi kè yǎ wèi kè（ Reykjavik）， rén kǒu１１２２６８ rén（２００１ nián１２ yuè）， nián píng jūn qì wēn４ .３ ℃。 quán guó jìn sān fēn zhī yī de rén shēng huó zài léi kè yǎ wèi kè。
xíng zhèng qū huá： quán guó fēn wéi２３ gè shěng、２１ gè zì zhì shì hé２０３ gè jiào qū。
jiǎn shǐ：８ shì jì mò， ài 'ěr lán xiū dào shì shǒu xiān yí jū bīng dǎo 。９ shì jì hòu bàn yè， nuó wēi kāi shǐ xiàng bīng dǎo yí mín。 gōng yuán９３０ nián jiàn lì yì huì hé bīng dǎo lián bāng。１２６２ nián， bīng dǎo hé nuó wēi qiān dìng xié yì， bīng dǎo chén shǔ yú nuó wēi。１３８０ nián bīng、 nuó tóng guī dān mài tǒng zhì。１９０４ nián huò nèi bù zì zhì。１９１８ nián， bīng dān qiān dìng lián bāng fǎ， guī dìng bīng wéi zhù quán guó jiā， dàn wài jiāo shì wù réng yóu dān mài kòng zhì。１９４０ nián dān mài bèi dé guó zhàn lǐng， bīng dān guān xì zhōng duàn。 tóng nián yīng jūn jìn zhù， cì nián měi jūn qǔ dài yīng jūn zhù bīng。１９４４ nián６ yuè１６ rì bīng yì huì zhèng shì xuān bù jiě sàn bīng dān lián méng，１７ rì chéng lì bīng dǎo gòng hé guó。１９４６ nián jiā rù lián hé guó，１９４９ nián chéng wéi běi yuē chéng yuán guó。
guó jiā lì shǐ
yí mín shí qī hé gǔ dài bīng dǎo gòng hé guó， gōng yuán 860 nián nuó wēi rén de chuán zhǐ yùnàn piào liú zhì bīng dǎo 。 874 nián bèi nuó wēi guó wáng qū zhú de bù luò shǒu lǐng yīng gé 'ěr fū . ā 'ěr nà xùn jūn lǐng jiā zú hé nú lì lái bīng dǎo dìng jū , tā men jiāng yī chù yòu zì pēn wēn quán de dì fāng mìng míng wéi léi kè yǎ wèi kè ( mào yān de xiá wān )。 cǐ hòu lái zì nuó wēi , jiànhuò yì yòu lái zì 'ài 'ěr lán de yí mín bù duàn zēng jiā。 10 shì jì qián qī , bīng dǎo lì shǐ shàng de yí mín shí qī jié shù。 930 nián zài léi kè yǎ wèi kè shǒu cì zhào kāi liǎo míng wéi 'ā 'ěr tíng de quán tǐ jū mín dà huì。 ā 'ěr tíng jì shì lì fǎ huì yì , yě shì zhòng cái jiū fēn de fǎ tíng。 965 nián 'ā 'ěr tíng jiāng quán dǎo huàfēn chéng 4 gè xíng zhèng qū , gè shè yī gè yóu 3 míng zú cháng gòng tóng zhǎng guǎn de fǎ tíng , xíng chéng liǎo gǔ dài de bīng dǎo gòng hé guó。 cǐ qī jīng jì yòu jiào dà fā zhǎn。 jī dū jiào chuán rù , bìng yú gōng yuán 1000 nián chéng wèiguó jiào。 yóu yú fēng jiàn guì zú fēn fēn tóu kào nuó wēi ,1262 nián bīng dǎo chéng wéi nuó wēi de fù shǔ guó , yóu nuó wēi guó wáng zhǐ pài zǒng dū guǎn zhì , cóng 'ér jié shù liǎo cún zài 300 nián zhī jiǔ de gǔ dài gòng hé jú miàn。 1202 nián yǐ hòu de bīng dǎo bīng dǎo chén fú yú nuó wēi hòu , ā 'ěr tíng sàng shī lì fǎ quán , zhǐ qǐ sī fǎ jī guān de zuò yòng。 nuó wēi zǒng dū bǎ nuó wēi de fǎ lǜ tuī xíng dào bīng dǎo , duì bīng dǎo shì wù yòu jué dìng quán。 1380 nián dān mài guó wáng jiān rèn nuó wēi guó wáng , bīng dǎo yì chéng wéi dān mài de fù yōng guó , yǐn qǐ bīng dǎo rén mín de fǎn duì。 1534 nián nuó wēi bèi dān mài jiān bìng , bīng dǎo yì chéng wéi dān mài shǔ dì。 16 shì jì 30 nián dài hòu qī , kē lā jiào qū dà zhù jiào J. ā lā sōng (1484 yī 1550) fā dòng bīng dǎo rén mín fǎn duì dān mài de tǒng zhì , hòu bèi zhèn yā。 1602 nián dān mài guó wáng kè lǐ sī dì 'ān sì shì zài bīng dǎo tuī xíng mào yì lǒng duàn zhì dù , guī dìng gē běn hā gēn děng sān dì de dān mài shāng rén yōng yòu zài bīng dǎo cóng shì mào yì de tè quán。 mào yì lǒng duàn cháng qī shù fù zhe bīng dǎo jīng jì fā zhǎn , zhí dào 1854 nián dān mài cái bèi pò qǔ xiāo zhè zhǒng zhì dù。 cóng 19 shì jì zhōng yè qǐ , bīng dǎo mín zú zhù yì yùn dòng zài J. xī gǔ 'ěr cí sōng (1811 yī 1879) lǐng dǎo xià zhú jiàn gāo zhǎng qǐ lái。 zài bīng dǎo rén mín yào qiú zì zhì yǔ dú lì de yā lì zhī xià , dān mài bù dé bù zài 1843 nián tóng yì bīng dǎo chóngjiàn 'ā 'ěr tíng , dàn yòu guī dìng 'ā 'ěr tíng zhǐ shì zī xún jī gòu 'ér bù shì quán lì jī gòu。 1849 nián bīng dǎo yào qiú duì nèi zì zhì quán , bìng qiě zài 1851 nián zhào kāi quán guó huì yì zhèng shì tí chū shí xíng zì zhì de zhù zhāng。 jīng guò tán pàn , bīng dǎo zài 1874 nián yíng dé duì nèi shí xíng zì zhì de quán lì , ā 'ěr tíng chéng wéi lì fǎ jī gòu bìng zhì dìng zì jǐ de xiàn fǎ , dàn yī qiē zhòng dà wèn tí réng xū bào qǐng dān mài zhèng fǔ pī zhǔn。 1903 nián bīng dǎo cái dān dú shè lì zhèng fǔ lái chù lǐ guó nèi shì wù。 19 shì jì mò bīng dǎo dú lì dǎng jiàn lì。 1916 nián shè huì mín zhù dǎng hé jìn bù dǎng yě xiāng jì chéng lì。 zhè xiē zhèng dǎng zài zhēng qǔ dú lì de dǒu zhēng zhōng fā huī liǎo zuò yòng。 1918 nián 11 yuè 30 rì dān mài、 bīng dǎo qiān dìng lián méng tiáo yuē , guī dìng bīng dǎo wéi zhù quán guó jiā , dàn wài jiāo shì wù yóu dān mài kòng zhì。 dān mài guó wáng réng wéi bīng dǎo de guó jiā yuán shǒu。 1940 nián 4 yuè dān mài bèi fǎ xī sī dé guó zhàn lǐng hòu , bīng dǎo tóng dān mài de lián xì bèi qiē duàn。 bīng dǎo ā 'ěr tíng xuān bù xíng shǐ wài jiāo quán hé jūn shì fáng yù quán。 5 yuè , yīng guó chū bīng zhàn lǐng liǎo bīng dǎo 。 1941 nián 7 yuè 8 rì , bīng dǎo yǔ měi guó qiān dìng《 zhàn shí fáng wù tiáo yuē》 , měi jūn dài tì yīng jūn jìn zhù bīng dǎo 。 bīng dǎo gòng hé guó shí qī dì 'èr cì shì jiè dà zhàn jié shù qián , bīng dǎo yú 1944 nián 2 yuè 25 rì xuān bù bīng dān lián méng tiáo yuē guò qī。 3 yuè 8 rì , bīng dǎo ā 'ěr tíng tōng guò yī bù xīn xiàn fǎ , jué dìng chéng lì gòng hé guó。 6 yuè 16 rì zhèng shì xuān bù bīng dǎo tuō lí dān bīng lián méng。 6 yuè 17 rì , bīng dǎo gòng hé guó xuān bù chéng lì ,S. bǐ yé sōng rèn dì yī jiè zǒng tǒng。 měi guó zhù bīng dǎo jūn duì yú 1945 nián chè huí , jǐn bǎo liú liǎo kǎi fū lā wéi kè kōng jūn jī dì。 1949 nián bīng dǎo jiā rù liǎo běi dà xī yáng gōng yuē zǔ zhì ,1951 nián tóng měi guó dì jié tiáo yuē , yǐ měi chéng dān bīng dǎo fáng yù zé rèn wéi tiáo jiàn yǔn xǔ měi guó zài bīng dǎo zhù jūn。 1956 nián yǐ qián , bīng dǎo zhèng fǔ dà duō yóu nóng mín jìn bù dǎng hé dú lì dǎng lián hé zǔ gé。 1959 nián hòu dà duō yóu shè huì mín zhù dǎng hé dú lì dǎng lián hé zǔ gé。 měi guó jūn shì jī dì wèn tí cháng qī chéng wéi bīng dǎo rén mín suǒ guān qiē de zhèng zhì wèn tí ,1971 nián yóu rén mín lián méng hé zuǒ pài zì yóu lián méng děng zhèng dǎng lián hé zǔ gé de bīng dǎo zhèng fǔ yào qiú měi guó chè huí zhù jūn。 tóng nián 12 yuè 8 rì , bīng dǎo yǔ zhōng guó jiàn lì wài jiāo guān xì。 bīng dǎo jīng cháng yù dào de lìng yīchóng dà wèn tí shì bǔ yú qū huá jiè wèn tí。 1958 nián bīng dǎo jué dìng jiāng bǔ yú qū kuò dà dào 12 hǎi lǐ , yīng guó zài sān fǎn duì , liǎng nián hòu cái yú chéng rèn。 60 nián dài guó jì yú yè bù jǐng qì , bīng dǎo wéi bǎo hù mín zú lì yì ,1972 nián jiāng bǔ yú qū kuò dà dào 50 hǎi lǐ。 yīng guó、 lián bāng dé guó duì cǐ tí chū qiáng yìng kàng yì , yīng guó hái chū dòng jūn jiàn wéi yīng guó yú chuán hù háng , bìng yǔ bīng dǎo de xún luó tǐng fā shēng duō cì jiū fēn , xíng chéng liǎo kuàng rì chí jiǔ de bīng yīng bǔ yú zhàn。 hǎi yá guó jì fǎ tíng yú 1974 nián pàn jué jù jué rèn kě bīng dǎo xuān bù de 50 hǎi lǐ bǔ yú qū。 bīng dǎo yú 1974 nián yòu xuān bù jiāng bǔ yú qū kuò dà zhì 200 hǎi lǐ。 bīng、 yīng liǎng guó yú 1976 nián duàn jué wài jiāo guān xì , jīng 3 gè yuè tán pàn yīng guó chéng rèn liǎo bīng dǎo 200 hǎi lǐ bǔ yú qū , bìng yǔ bīng dǎo fù jiāo。 1980 nián 8 yuè 1 rì ,V. fēn bó 'ā duō dì 'ěr chéng wéi shì jiè shàng dì yī wèi mín xuǎn nǚ zǒng tǒng ,1984 nián 8 yuè 1 rì lián rèn。
guó jiā zhèng zhì
zhèng zhì： shí xíng gòng hé zhì， yì huì hé zǒng tǒng gòng tóng zhí zhǎng lì fǎ quán， fǎ yuàn zhí zhǎng sī fǎ quán， zǒng tǒng hé zhèng fǔ gòng tóng yōng yòu xíng zhèng quán。 zǒng tǒng wèiguó jiā yuán shǒu， tōng guò zhí jiē xuǎn jǔ chǎn shēng， duì zhèng fǔ de xíng wéi xiǎng yòu fǒu jué quán， rèn qī sì nián， kě lián xuǎn lián rèn。 yì huì yuán fēn shàng xià liǎng yuàn，１９９１ nián１０ yuè hé bìng wéi yī yuàn， gòng yòu yì yuán６３ míng， rèn qī sì nián。 bīng dǎo bù jiàn lì jūn duì。
guó jiā jīng jì
jīng jì： yú yè shì jīng jì zhī zhù， gōng yè yǐ yú chǎn pǐn jiā gōng hé liàn lǚ děng gāo néng hào gōng yè wéi zhù。 wài mào yǐ cún dù dà。 yú yè、 shuǐ lì hé dì rè zī yuán fēng fù， qí tā zì rán zī yuán kuì fá， shí yóu děng chǎn pǐn xū yào jìn kǒu。 kě kāi fā de nián shuǐ lì fā diàn liàng wéi６４０ yì dù， dì rè néng nián fā diàn liàng kě dá７２ yì dù。 gōng yè jī chǔ bó ruò， chú yú chǎn pǐn jiā gōng hé zhēn zhì děng qīng gōng yè wài， gōng yè yǐ liàn lǚ děng gāo néng hào gōng yè wéi zhù。 yú yè shì bīng dǎo guó mín jīng jì de zhī zhù chǎn yè， zhù yào yú zhǒng yòu máo lín yú、 xuě yú hé qīng yú， jué dà bù fēn yú chǎn pǐn chū kǒu， yú chǎn pǐn chū kǒu zhàn shāng pǐn chū kǒu zǒng 'é de jìn７０％。 bīng dǎo de yú chuán duì zhuāng bèi jīng liáng， yú lèi jiā gōng jì shù zài shì jiè shàng zhàn lǐng xiān dì wèi。 suǒ chù wěi dù gāo , rì zhào liàng shǎo， jǐn nán bù jǐ gè nóng chǎng nián chǎn４００ ～ ５００ dūn nóng zuò wù。 kě gēng dì miàn jī１０００ píng fāng gōng lǐ， zhàn quán guó zǒng miàn jī de１％。 xùmù yè zhàn jiào zhù yào dì wèi， dà bù fēn nóng yè yòng dì bèi yòng zuò sì liào cǎo chǎng。 xiāng yìng de máo fǎng yè hé zhì gé yè bǐ jiào fā dá。 ròu、 nǎi、 dàn zìjǐ yòu yú， liáng shí、 shū cài、 shuǐ guǒ jī běn yǐ kào jìn kǒu。 wēn shì péi yù xī hóng shì、 huáng guā chǎn liàng kě mǎn zú guó nèi７０％ de xiāo fèi。 fú wù yè zài guó mín jīng jì zhōng zhàn zhòng yào dì wèi， bāo kuò shāng yè、 yínháng、 bǎo xiǎn hé gōng gòng fú wù děng， qí chǎn zhí yuē zhàn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí de yī bàn， cóng yè rén shù zhàn zǒng láo lì de sān fēn zhī 'èr qiáng。１９８０ nián qǐ dà lì fā zhǎn lǚ yóu shì yè。 zhù yào lǚ yóu diǎn yòu dà bīng chuān、 huǒ shān dì mào、 dì rè pēn quán hé pù bù děng。 bīng dǎo de rén jūn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí jìn３ wàn měi yuán， míng liè shì jiè qián máo。 nà lǐ de kōng qì yǔ shuǐ yuán de qīng xīn chún jìng zài shì jiè shàng kān chēng dì yī。 rén de píng jūn shòu mìng dá dào nǚ８２．２ suì， nán７８．１ suì。 quán mín wén huà chéng dù jiào gāo， zǎo zài１００ duō nián qián bīng dǎo jiù xiāo miè liǎo wén máng。１９９９ nián bīng dǎo yǐ chéng wéi shì jiè shàng yí dòng diàn huà pǔ jí shuài zuì gāo de guó jiā。
guó jiā jūn shì
jūn shì： gēn jù xiàn fǎ， bīng dǎo bù shè lì jūn duì。１９４９ nián jiā rù běi dà xī yáng gōng yuē zǔ zhì，１９５１ nián tóng měi guó qiān dìng fáng wù xié dìng， yóu měi guó fù zé qí fáng wù。 měi zài bīng shè yòu kōng jūn jī dì hé zhù jūn， bìng pèi yòu zhàn dǒu jī、 liè qián fēi jī hé léi dá zhàn děng jūn shì zhuāng bèi hé shè shī。 bīng dǎo yòu yī zhī hǎi yáng xún luó duì， bèi yòu xún luó tǐng hé yī xiē xiǎo xíng fēi jī， fù zé yú qū bǎo hù hé hǎi shàng jiù hù gōng zuò。
duì wài guān xì
yǔ zhōng guó guān xì：１９７１ nián１２ yuè８ rì， bīng dǎo yǔ zhōng guó jiàn lì dà shǐ jí wài jiāo guān xì。１９９６ nián， liǎng guó zhèng fǔ qiān shǔ liǎo zhōng bīng bì miǎn shuāngchóng zhēng shuì xié dìng， zhè shì bīng dǎo yǔ 'ōu zhōu jí běi měi yǐ wài de dì yī gè guó jiā qiān shǔ bì miǎn shuāngchóng zhēng shuì xié dìng。２００２ nián６ yuè， guó jiā zhù xí jiāng zé mín duì bīng dǎo jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn。２００５ nián５ yuè， bīng dǎo zǒng tǒng gé lǐ mǔ sōng duì zhōng guó jìn xíng guó shì fǎng wèn。
guān guāng lǚ yóu
bīng dǎo duì dà duō shù tàn xiǎn 'àihào zhě lái shuō shì yī gè lǐ xiǎng zhī dì， xiàn zài lái zì měi guó de tàn xiǎn zhě shù liàng shì１０ nián qián de liǎng bèi，２００３ nián， zǒng shù dá dào liǎo３０ wàn rén héng héng shì zhè gè guó jiā rén kǒu zǒng shù de liǎng bèi hái duō。 zuì jù shuō fú lì de shì bīng dǎo dāng dì de fú jiā lā bā kè tàn xiǎn zhuāng bèi lǚ yóu gōng sī， měi nián dū yǐ jīng rén de sù dù zhǎo dào xīn de tàn xiǎn lù xiàn。 bǐ rú yī xiē lǜ sè zhǎo zé hé 'ào lā fěi shā mò zhōng de tái yuán dì dài， chūn jì yán rè de 'ā lā sī jiā huǒ shān kǒu hé dà liàng zhī shàn niǎo de jù jí dì wéi sī tè màn nà qún dǎo。 zài bīng dǎo jū mín dà liàng jí zhōng de nán bù hǎi 'àn fù jìn，８０％ de huǒ shān dǎo yǔ bīng hé、 húpō、 shān dòng róng yán hùn zài yī qǐ， jiā shàng zá cǎo cóng shēng， sì hū yǒng yuǎn méi yòu zǒu chū qù de kě néng。
Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland (Icelandic: Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland (names of Iceland); IPA: [ˈliðvɛltɪθ ˈistlant]) is a country in northern Europe, comprising the island of Iceland and its outlying islets in the North Atlantic Ocean between the rest of Europe and Greenland. It is the least populous of the Nordic countries and the second smallest; it has a population of about 316,000 (April 1, 2008 estimate) and a total area of 103,000 km². Its capital and largest city is Reykjavík.
Located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Iceland is volcanically and geologically active on a large scale; this defines the landscape in various ways. The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterized by sand fields, mountains and glaciers, while many big glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Warmed by the Gulf Stream, Iceland has a temperate climate relative to its latitude and provides a habitable environment and nature.
The settlement of Iceland began in 874 when, according to Landnámabók, the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norwegian settler on the island. Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter. Over the next centuries, people of Nordic and Gaelic origin settled in Iceland. Until the twentieth century, the Icelandic population relied on fisheries and agriculture, and was from 1262 to 1918 a part of the Norwegian and later the Danish monarchies. In the twentieth century, Iceland's economy and welfare system developed quickly. In recent decades, Iceland has seen economic reforms, free trade in the European Economic Area, and diversification from fishing to new economic fields in services, finance, and various industries.
Today, Iceland has some of the world's highest levels of economic freedoms as well as civil freedoms. As of 2007, Iceland is the most developed country in the world with fellow Nordic country Norway according to the Human Development Index and one of the most egalitarian, according to the calculation provided by the Gini coefficient. It is also the fourth most productive country per capita. Icelanders have a rich culture and heritage, like cuisine and poetry thus the country itself has many names coined by poets. Iceland is a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA, EEA and OECD, but not of the European Union. The country is a candidate for a non-permanent seat at the UN Security Council.
Topography
Strokkur, a geyser in the process of erupting. Lying on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Iceland is one of the most geologically active areas on Earth.Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean just south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small island of Grímsey off Iceland's northern coast, but not through mainland Iceland. Unlike neighbouring Greenland, Iceland is considered to be a part of Europe, not of North America, though geologically the island belongs to both continents. Because of cultural, economic and linguistic similarities, Iceland in many contexts is also included in Scandinavia. The closest bodies of land are Greenland (287 km) and the Faroe Islands (420 km). The closest distance to the mainland of Europe is 970 km (to Norway).
Iceland, as seen from space
Iceland, as seen from space on January 29, 2004. Source: NASAIceland is the world's 18th largest island, and Europe's second largest island following Great Britain. The country is 103,000 km² (39,768.5 sq mi) in size, of which 62.7% is wasteland. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3%; only 23% is vegetated. The largest lakes are Þórisvatn (Reservoir): 83–88 km² (32–34 sq mi) and Þingvallavatn: 82 km² (32 sq mi); other important lakes include Lögurinn and Mývatn. Öskjuvatn is the deepest lake at 220 m (722 ft).
A map of Iceland with major towns marked.Many fjords punctuate its extensive coastline, which is also where most settlements are situated because the island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand and mountains. The major towns are the capital Reykjavík, Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður, Reykjanesbær, where the international airport is located, and Akureyri. The island of Grímsey on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland.
Iceland has four national parks: Jökulsárgljúfur National Park, Skaftafell National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park, and Þingvellir National Park.
Geological activity
A geologically young land, Iceland is located on both the Iceland hotspot and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it. This combined location means that geologically the island is extremely active, having many volcanoes, notably Hekla, Eldgjá, and Eldfell. The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population; the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months after the eruption.
There are also many geysers in Iceland, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived. With this widespread availability of geothermal power, and because many rivers and waterfalls are harnessed for hydroelectricity, most residents have hot water and home heat cheaply. The island itself is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism like Hawaii. But Iceland has various kinds of volcanoes, many of which produce more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite.
Dettifoss, the most powerful waterfall in Europe, is located in north-eastern Iceland.Iceland controls Surtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world. It rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between November 8, 1963 and June 5, 1968.
Climate
The climate of Iceland's coast is cold oceanic. The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. The winters are mild and windy while the summers are damp and cool. Regions in the world with similar climate include the Aleutian Islands, Alaska Peninsula and Tierra del Fuego although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969.
There are some variations in the climate between different parts of the island. Very generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter and windier than the north. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the most arid. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than the south. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country.
The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the south-eastern coast. The lowest was -38 °C (-36.4 °F) on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the northeast hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are 24.8 °C (76.6 °F) on 11 August 2004, and -24.5 °C (-12.1 °F) on 21 January 1918.
Mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures (°C) (1961–1990) Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec All
Reykjavík 1.9 2.8 3.2 5.7 9.4 11.7 13.3 13.0 10.1 6.8 3.4 2.2 High 7.0
-3.0 -2.1 -2.0 0.4 3.6 6.7 8.3 7.9 5.0 2.2 -1.3 -2.8 Low 1.9
Akureyri 0.9 1.7 2.1 5.4 9.5 13.2 14.5 13.9 9.9 5.9 2.6 1.3 High 6.7
-5.5 -4.7 -4.2 -1.5 2.3 6.0 7.5 7.1 3.5 0.4 -3.5 -5.1 Low 0.2
Flora and fauna
An Icelandic sheepThe short time since the last ice age, 10,000 years ago, has mostly prevented plants and animals from migrating to the island or evolving locally. There are around 1,300 known species of insects in Iceland, which is rather low compared with other countries (about 925,000 are known in the world). The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the arctic fox, which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. There are no native reptiles or amphibians on the island.
Phytogeographically, Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Iceland belongs to the ecoregion of Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra. Approximately three-quarters of the island are barren of vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland which is regularly grazed by livestock. The only tree native to Iceland is the northern birch Betula pubescens, which formerly formed forest over much of southern Iceland. Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion, greatly reducing the ability of birches to grow back. Today, only a few small birch stands exist in isolated reserves. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests include new foreign species.
The animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep, cattle, and the sturdy Icelandic horse. Many varieties of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a main contributor to Iceland’s economy, accounting for more than half of its total exports. Wild mammals include the arctic fox, mink, mice, rats, rabbits and reindeer. Before and around the 1900s polar bears occasionally visited the island, traveling on icebergs from Greenland. Birds, especially sea birds, are a very important part of Iceland's animal life. Puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs. Though Iceland no longer has a commercial whaling fleet (as of August, 2007) it still allows scientific whale hunts, which are not supported by the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (IWC).
History
A 19th century depiction of a meeting of the Alþingi at Þingvellir.
Age of settlement
See also Settlement of Iceland and Icelandic Commonwealth.
The first people thought to have inhabited Iceland were Irish monks or hermits who came in the eighth century, but left with the arrival of Norsemen, who systematically settled Iceland in the period circa AD 870-930. The first known permanent Norse settler was Ingólfur Arnarson, who built his homestead in Reykjavík in 874. Ingólfur was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Norsemen and their Irish slaves. By 930, most arable land had been claimed and the Althing, a legislative and judiciary parliament, was founded as the political hub of the Icelandic Commonwealth. Christianity was adopted in 1000. The Commonwealth lasted until 1262, when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains.
Middle Ages to the Early Modern Era
The internal struggles and civil strife of the Sturlung Era led to the signing of the Old Covenant, which brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed to Denmark-Norway in the late 14th century when the kingdoms of Norway and Denmark were united in the Kalmar Union. In the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries in Europe. Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society whose subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland in 1402–1404 and 1494–1495, each time killing approximately half the population.
Jón Sigurðsson, leader of the Icelandic independence movementAround the middle of the 16th century, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. The last Catholic bishop in Iceland was beheaded in 1550, and the country subsequently became fully Lutheran. Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion. In the 1600s and 1700s, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland, while pirates from England, Spain and Algeria raided its coasts. A great smallpox epidemic in the 18th century killed around one-third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. The years following the eruption, known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin), saw the death of over half of all livestock in the country, with ensuing famine in which around a quarter of the population died.
Independence and recent history
In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel. Iceland remained a Danish dependency. A new independence movement arose under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, inspired by the romantic and nationalist ideologies of mainland Europe. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland home rule, which was expanded in 1904. The Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on December 1, 1918, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state under the Danish king. During the last quarter of the 19th century many Icelanders emigrated to North America, largely Canada, in search of better living conditions.
Iceland during World War II joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After the German occupation of Denmark on April 9, 1940, Iceland's parliament declared that the Icelandic government should assume the Danish king's authority and take control over foreign affairs and other matters previously handled by Denmark on behalf of Iceland. A month later, British military forces occupied Iceland, violating Icelandic neutrality. In 1941, responsibility for the occupation was taken over by the United States Army. Allied occupation of Iceland lasted throughout the war.
On December 31, 1943 the Act of Union agreement expired after 25 years. Beginning on May 20, 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the union with Denmark and establish a republic. The vote was 97% in favor of ending the union and 95% in favor of the new republican constitution. Iceland formally became an independent republic on June 17, 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as the first President. The Allied occupation force left in 1946. Iceland became a member of NATO on March 30, 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots and on May 5, 1951, a defense agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland and remained throughout the Cold War until autumn 2006.
The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by industrialization of the fishing industry and Marshall aid and Keynesian government management of the economies of Europe, all of which promoted trade. The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars – several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits. The economy was greatly diversified and liberalized following Iceland's joining of the European Economic Area in 1992.
Government
Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, called "Alþingi" (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish king. It was widely seen as a reestablishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and suspended in 1799. It currently has sixty-three members, each of whom is elected every four years.
The president of Iceland is a largely ceremonial office that serves as a diplomat, figurehead and head of state, but who can also block a law voted by the parliament and put it to a national referendum. The current president is Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson. The head of government is the prime minister, who, together with the cabinet, takes care of the executive part of government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after general elections to Althing; however, this process is usually conducted by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed, under the condition that it has a majority support in Althing. Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves in reasonable time does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet himself. This has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 the regent of the country (Sveinn Björnsson, who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941) did appoint a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Sveinn in fact became the country's first president in 1944.
Stjórnarráðið, the seat of the executive branchThe governments of Iceland have almost always been coalitions with two or more parties involved, due to the fact that no single political party has received a majority of seats in Althing in the republic period. The extent of the political powers possessed by the office of the president is disputed by legal scholars in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers but other provisions and traditions suggest differently. In 1980, Icelanders elected Vigdís Finnbogadóttir as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state. She retired from office in 1996.
Elections for the office of town councils, parliament and presidency are each held every four years. The next elections are scheduled for 2010, 2011 and 2008, respectively.
Subdivisions
The Althing in Reykjavík, with the cathedral on the left.Iceland is divided into regions, constituencies, counties, and municipalities. There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division. Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliament elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:
Reykjavík North and Reykjavík South (city regions);
Southwest (four geographically separate suburban areas around Reykjavík);
Northwest and Northeast (north half of Iceland, split); and,
South (south half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs).
The redistricting change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country, since a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists.
Iceland's twenty-three counties are, for the most part, historical divisions. Currently, Iceland is split up among twenty-six magistrates (sýslumenn) that represent government in various capacities. Among their duties are tax collection, administering bankruptcy declarations, and performing civil marriages. After a police re-organization in 2007, which combined police forces in multiple counties, about half of them are in charge of police forces.
There are seventy-nine municipalities in Iceland which govern local matters like schools, transportation and zoning. These are the actual second-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one.
Politics
Iceland has a left-right multi-party system. The biggest party is the right wing Independence Party (’’Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn’’), while the second largest one is the social democratic Alliance (‘’Samfylkingin’’). Following the May 2007 parliamentary elections, these two formed a coalition, enjoying a strong majority in Althing, with 43 out of 63 members supporting it.
Other political parties that have a seat in Althing are the centrist Progressive Party (‘’Framsóknarflokkurinn’’), which had been in government with the Independence Party for 12 years before the 2007 election, the Left-Green Movement (‘’Vinstrihreyfingin - grænt framboð’’), founded in 1999, and the Centre-right Liberal Party. Many other parties exist on the municipal level, most of which only run locally in a single municipality.
Foreign relations
Iceland maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the US, and the other NATO nations are particularly close. Icelanders remain especially proud of the role Iceland played in hosting the historic 1986 Reagan-Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over fishing rights. Conflict with Britain led to a series of so-called Cod Wars in 1952-1956 as a result of the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from 3 to 4 nautical miles (6 to 7 km), 1958-1961 following a further extension to 12 nautical miles (22 km), 1972-1973 with another extension to 50 nautical miles (93 km) and in 1975-1976: another extension to 200 nautical miles (370 km).
Iceland has no standing army. The U.S. Air Force maintained four to six Interceptors at the Keflavík base, until 30 September 2006 when they were withdrawn. Iceland supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite much controversy and condemnation in Iceland, deploying an Coast Guard EOD team to Iraq which was replaced later by members of the Icelandic Crisis Response Unit. Iceland has also participated in the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan and the 1999 bombing of Yugoslavia.
Demographics
Citizenship of Iceland residents (1.1.2008) Total 313,376
Iceland 291,942
Poland 8,488
Lithuania 1,332
Germany 984
Denmark 966
Portugal 890
Philippines 743
Ex-Yugoslavia 651
United States 598
Thailand 545
Latvia 431
United Kingdom 420
Sweden 407
China (PRC) 379
Ex-Czechoslovakia 365
Norway 301
others 3,934
total (without Icelanders) 21,434
The original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Celtic origin. This is evident from literary evidence dating from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type and genetic analyses. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Celtic origin.
Suburban Reykjavík. Over 60% of Icelanders live in the Reykjavík Metropolitan AreaIceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 1600s and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical company deCODE Genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database which attempts to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants. It sees the database, called Íslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.
The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ashfall from volcanic eruptions, and bubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times. The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the Laki volcano during 1783–1784 the population reached a low of about 40,000. Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in population since the mid-19th century - from about 60,000 in 1850 to 316,000 in 2008.
In December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population) who were living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. 19,000 people (6% of the population) held foreign citizenship. Poles make up the far largest minority nationality (see table on the right for more details), and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce. About 9,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them in Reyðarfjörður where they make up 75 percent of the workforce who are building the Fjarðarál aluminium plant.. The recent surge in immigration has been credited to a labor shortage because of the booming economy while restrictions on the movement of people from the Eastern European countries that joined the EU/EEA in 2004 have been lifted. Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Project) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary.
The south-west corner of Iceland is the most densely populated region. It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost capital in the world. The largest towns outside the greater Reykjavík area are Akureyri and Reykjanesbær, although the latter is relatively close to the capital.
10 most populous towns in Iceland
List of ten most populous towns in Iceland. The population census is April 1, 2008 (estimate).
Reykjavík - 118,861
Kópavogur - 30,000
Hafnarfjörður - 25,107
Akureyri - 17,304
Reykjanesbær - 13,686
Garðabær - 10.139
Mosfellsbær - 8,317
Árborg - 7,693
Akranes - 6,419
Fjarðabyggð - 5,000
Language
Iceland's official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse. It has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages, has preserved more verb and noun inflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from English. It is the only living language to retain the runic letter Þ. The closest living language to Icelandic is Faroese. In education, the use of Icelandic Sign Language for Iceland's deaf community is regulated by the National Curriculum Guide.
English is widely spoken as a secondary language, and many Icelanders speak it at an almost native level. Danish is also widely understood. Studying both these languages is a mandatory part of the compulsory school curriculum. Other commonly spoken languages are German, Norwegian and Swedish. Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians – it is often referred to as "Scandinavian" in Iceland.
In addition to Icelandic, many immigrants speak their respective native languages.
Religion
Icelanders enjoy freedom of religion under the constitution, though there is no separation of church and state. The National Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body, is the state church. The national registry keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2005, Icelanders divided into religious groups as follows:
82.1% members of the National Church of Iceland.
4.7% members of the Free Lutheran Churches of Reykjavík and Hafnarfjörður.
2.6% not members of any religious group.
2.4% members of the Roman Catholic Church, which has a Diocese of Reykjavík (see also Bishop of Reykjavik (Catholic))
5.5% members of unregistered religious organisations or with no specified religious affiliation
The remaining 2.7% is mostly divided between around 20–25 other Christian denominations and sects, and less than 1% are in non-Christian religious organisations. The largest non-Christian denomination is Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið, a neopagan group.
Religious attendance is relatively low, as in other Nordic countries. The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious organizations and not the actual belief demographics of the population of Iceland.
Economy and infrastructure
Akureyri is the largest town in Iceland outside of the greater Reykjavík area. Most rural towns are based on the fishing industry, which provides 40% of Iceland's export.
The Blue Lagoon,a geothermal spa located near Reykjavík.
Gay parade in Iceland. Iceland has high economic liberties as well as civil liberties. Iceland is described as creative class hotspot by Richard Florida.Iceland is the fourth most productive country in the world by nominal gross domestic product per capita (54,858 USD), and the fifth most productive by GDP at purchasing power parity (40,112 USD). Except for its abundant hydro-electric and geothermal power, Iceland lacks natural resources; historically its economy depended heavily on the fishing industry, which still provides almost 40% of export earnings and employs 8% of the work force. The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks and drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Although the Icelandic economy still relies heavily on fishing, its importance is diminishing as the travel industry and other service, technology and various other industries grow. Economic growth slowed from 2000 to 2002, but the economy expanded by 4.3% in 2003 and 6.2% in 2004. The unemployment rate of ~1.0% (2007 est.) is among the lowest in the European Economic Area.
Although Iceland is a very developed country, it is still one of the most newly-industrialized ones in Europe. Until the 20th century, it was probably the poorest country in Western Europe. The fast economic growth that it has experienced in the last decades is only recently allowing for upgrading of infrastructure such as transportation. The government coalition plans to continue its generally neo-liberal policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatising state-owned industries. The government remains opposed to EU membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources.
Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, including software production, biotechnology, and financial services. The tourism sector is expanding, with the recent trends in ecotourism and whale-watching. Iceland's agriculture industry consists mainly of potatoes, turnips, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton and dairy products. The financial center is Borgartún in Reykjavik, hosting a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.
The primary currency of Iceland is the Icelandic Króna (ISK). Iceland's then foreign minister Valgerður Sverrisdóttir said in an interview on 15 January 2007 that she seriously wished to look into whether Iceland can join the Euro without being a member of the EU. She believes it is difficult to maintain an independent currency in a small economy on the open European market. An extensive poll, released on 11 September 2007, by Capacent Gallup showed that 53% of respondents were in favour of adopting the euro, 37% opposed and 10% undecided.
Iceland ranked 5th in the Index of Economic Freedom 2006 and 14th in 2008. Iceland has a flat tax system. The main personal income tax rate is a flat 22.75 percent and combined with municipal taxes the total tax rate is not more than 35.72%, and there are many deductions. The corporate tax rate is a flat 18 percent, one of the lowest in the world. Other taxes include a value-added tax and a net wealth tax. Employment regulations are relatively flexible. Property rights are strong and Iceland is one of the few countries where they are applied to fishery management. Taxpayers pay various subsidies to each other, similar to European countries with welfare state, but the spending is less than in most European countries. Despite low tax rates, overall taxation and consumption is still much higher than countries such as Ireland. According to OECD, agricultural support is the highest among OECD countries and an impediment to structural change. Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor return by OECD measures. OECD Economic survey of Iceland 2008 highlights Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy.
Iceland is the most developed society in the world, ranked first on the United Nations’ Human Development Index. Icelanders are the second longest-living nation with a life expectancy at birth of 81.8 years. Iceland is one of the most egalitarian countries in the world, according to the calculation provided by the Gini coefficient.
Transportation
The social structure of Iceland is very dependent upon the personal automobile. Icelanders have one of the highest levels of cars per capita: on average one car per inhabitant older than 17 years,. Most Icelanders travel by car to work, school or other activities.
The main mode of transport in Iceland is road. Iceland has 13,034 km of administered roads, of which 4,617 km are paved and 8,338 km are not. Until the second half of the 20th century, Iceland could only afford to pave roads near the biggest towns. Today, roads are being improved throughout the country and freeways are being built in and around Reykjavík. Iceland currently has no railways.
Route 1 or the Ring Road (Icelandic: Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur) is a main road in Iceland that runs around the island and connects all inhabited parts (the interior of the island is uninhabited). The road is 1339 km long (840 miles). It has one lane in each direction, except near larger towns and cities and in the Hvalfjörður Tunnel where it has more lanes. Most smaller bridges on it are single lane and made of wood and/or steel. Most of the road's length is paved with asphalt, but some stretches in the east still have a gravel surface.
The main hub for international transportation is Keflavík International Airport, which serves Reykjavík and the country in general. It is 48km (30mi) to the west of Reykjavík. Domestic and regional flights to Greenland and the Faroe Islands operate out of Reykjavík Airport, which lies in the city centre. There are 86 airport runways in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas.
The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Plant services the Greater Reykjavík Area's hot water needs.
Energy
Renewable energy provides over 70% of the nation's primary energy. Over 99% of the country's electricity is produced from hydropower and geothermal energy, and the country expects to be energy-independent by 2050. Iceland's largest geothermal power plant is located in Nesjavellir, while the Kárahnjúkar dam will be the country's largest hydroelectric power plant.
Yet, Icelanders still emit 10.0 tonnes of CO2 equivalent of greenhouse gasses per capita, higher than France or Spain. This is due to the wide use of personal transport. Iceland is the only country that has filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells. It is also one of only a few countries currently capable of producing hydrogen in adequate quantities at reasonable cost, because of Iceland's plentiful geothermal energy.
A classroom in an Icelandic gymnasium.
Education, science, and technology
The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, the playschools and the primary and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities.
Nursery school or leikskóli, is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years, and is the first step in the education system. The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable so as to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible.
Compulsory education, or grunnskóli, comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months, and begins between 21 August and 1 September, ending between 31 May and 10 June. The minimum number of school days is 170, but after a new teachers’ wage contract, this will increase to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks the Icelandic secondary education as the 27th in the world, significantly below the OECD average.
Upper secondary education or framhaldsskóli follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as gymnasia in English. It is not compulsory, but everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All schools in Iceland are mixed sex schools.
Iceland is a very technologically advanced society. By 1999, 82.3% of Icelanders had access to a computer. Iceland also had 1,007 mobile phone subscriptions per 1,000 people in 2006, the 16th highest in the world.
Iceland is home to European Mars Analog Research Station.
Culture
Icelandic culture has its roots in Norse traditions. Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas which were written around the time of the island’s settlement. Icelanders place relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a European Commission public opinion analysis over 85% of Icelanders found independence to be "very important" contrasted with the EU25 average of 53%, and 47% for the Norwegians, and 49% for the Danes.
Some traditional beliefs remain today; for example, some Icelanders either believe in elves or are unwilling to rule out their existence. Iceland ranks first on the Human Development Index, and was recently ranked the fourth happiest country in the world.
An example from Brennu-Njáls saga. The sagas are a significant part of the Icelandic heritage.Iceland is liberal in terms of lesbian, gay bisexual and transgendered (LGBT) matters. In 1996, Parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships for same-sex couples, covering nearly all the rights and benefits of marriage. In 2006, by unanimous vote of Parliament, further legislation was passed, granting same-sex couples the same rights as different-sex couples in adoption, parenting and assisted insemination treatment.
Literature and the arts
The poet Steinn Steinarr. by Einar Hákonarson.Iceland's best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders' sagas, prose epics set in Iceland's age of settlement. The most famous of these include Njáls saga, about an epic blood feud, and Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga, describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland). Egils saga, Laxdæla saga, Grettis saga, Gísla saga and Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu are also notable and popular Icelanders' sagas.
A great translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century. Important compositions since the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously the Passíusálmar of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhymed epic poems with alliterative verse that consist in two to four verses per stanza, popular until the end of the 19th century. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of which is arguably Halldór Laxness who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1955. Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet.
The distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement to home rule and independence, which was very active in this period.
Contemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Several other Icelandic men and women artists learned in Denmark Academy at that time, including Ásgrímur Jónsson, who together with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style. Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur. These included Jóhannes Kjarval and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir. Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment. Einar Hákonarson is an expressionistic and figurative painter who brought the figure back into Icelandic painting.
Icelandic architecture draws from Scandinavian influences. The scarcity of native trees resulted in traditional houses being covered by grass and turf.
Music
Icelandic music is related to Nordic music, and includes vibrant folk and pop traditions, including medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative rock band The Sugarcubes, singers Björk and Emiliana Torrini; and Sigur Rós. The national anthem of Iceland is "Lofsöngur", written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson .
Björk is one of the most famous people from Iceland.Traditional Icelandic music is strongly religious. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th century. Icelandic music was modernized in the 19th century, when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums.
Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called rímur. Rímur are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to skaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes. The best known rímur poet of the 19th century was Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798-1846). A modern revitalization of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of the organization Iðunn .
Icelandic contemporary music consists of a big group of bands, ranging from pop-rock groups such as Bang Gang, Quarashi and Amiina to solo ballad singers like Bubbi Morthens, Megas and Björgvin Halldórsson. The indie-scene is also very strong in Iceland, bands such as Múm, Sigur Rós and the solo artist Mugison are fairly well-known outside Iceland.
Many Icelandic artists and bands have had great success internationally, most notably Björk and Sigur Rós but also Quarashi, Ampop, Mínus and múm. The main music festival is arguably Iceland Airwaves, a yearly event on the Icelandic music scene, where Icelandic bands along with foreign ones occupy the clubs of Reykjavík for a week.
"Icelandic rímur"
A sample from a rímur cycle performed by Sigurd Bardarson on April 29, 1940 in Carmel, California'
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Media
Iceland’s largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2 and Skjár einn. Smaller stations exist, many of them local. Radio is broadcast throughout the country, including some parts of the interior. The main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2 and Bylgjan. The daily newspapers are Morgunblaðið, Fréttablaðið and 24 stundir. Icelanders are a very technologically advanced nation and a large proportion of them keep a blog. The most popular websites are the news sites Vísir and Mbl.is.
Iceland is home to the television station Nick Jr.'s animated program LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær), a children's television program created by Magnús Scheving. It has become a very popular program for children and adults, and is shown in over 98 countries, including the UK, Canada, Sweden, the US and Latin America. The LazyTown Studios are located in Garðabær.
The puffin is common, especially in the southern part of Iceland, and is a part of Iceland's traditional cuisine.
Cuisine
Most national Icelandic foods are based around fish, lamb and dairy products. Þorramatur is a national food consisting of many dishes and is usually consumed around the month of Þorri. Traditional dishes include skyr, cured ram scrota, cured shark, singed sheep heads and black pudding.
The modern Icelandic diet is very diverse, and includes cuisines from all over the world. Like in other Western societies, fast food restaurants are widespread.
Sports
Sport is an important part of the Icelandic culture. The main traditional sport in Iceland is Glíma, a form of wrestling, thought to have originated in medieval times.
Children and teenagers participate in various leisure activities. Popular sports are football, track and field, handball and basketball. Others are golf, tennis, swimming, chess and horseback riding on Icelandic horses. Team handball is often referred to as a national sport, Iceland's team is one of the top-ranked teams in the world, and Icelandic women are surprisingly good at football compared to the size of the country, the national team ranked the 18th best by FIFA. Iceland has excellent conditions for ice and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking is preferred by the general public. Iceland also has the most Strongman competition wins.
The oldest sport association in Iceland is the Reykjavik Shooting Association, founded 1867. Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century and was heavily encouraged by politicians and others pushing for Icelandic independence. Shooting remains popular and all types of shooting with small arms is practised in the country. |
