英國 金雀花王朝  (1343年～1400年十月25日)

傑弗裏·喬叟

 詩詞： 《鳥兒迴旋麯 The Parlement of Fowls》   《無情美人迴旋麯》   《The Canterbury Tales: General Prologue》   《To Rosemounde》   《Troilus and Criseyde: Book I》   《Troilus and Criseyde: Book I》   《Troilus and Criseyde: Book II》   《Troilus and Criseyde: Book V》    閱讀喬叟 Geoffrey Chaucer在诗海的作品!!!

英國詩歌之父，主要作品是《坎特伯雷故事集》。

傑弗裏·喬叟（英語：Geoffrey Chaucer，1343年－1400年10月25日），英國中世紀作傢，被譽為英國中世紀最傑出的詩人，也是第一位葬在西敏寺詩人角的詩人。

傑弗裏·喬叟為有名的作傢、哲學家、煉金術士及天文學家，曾和十歲的兒子路易斯合著有關星盤的科學論文。傑弗裏·喬叟也擔任過官僚，朝臣和外交官。

傑弗裏·喬叟的代表作《坎特伯雷故事集》擺脫了舊時代詩作的脫離現實，矯揉造作的風格，通過塑造三十多個個性鮮明的人物，揭露了僧侶階層的腐朽，嚴肅的考慮婦女問題，反映了當時各色各樣的人的生活和社會的全貌，因此傑弗裏·喬叟被認為是英國中世紀文學和文藝復興文學之間承上啓下的人物。

生平

早年

喬叟的姓“chaucer”來自於法語“chausseur”意為“鞋匠”，其祖上在伊普斯維奇經商^{:Vol. I p. ix}。喬叟的祖父和父親約翰·喬叟都是倫敦的酒商，並為宮廷供應食品。1324年，約翰·喬叟曾被自己的一位姨媽綁架，目的是讓他和自己的女兒結婚，以保全自己在伊普斯維奇的産業。這位姨媽被捕後被罰款250英鎊，這說明喬叟傢族傢境殷實^:xi–xii。大約在1340年左右，約翰·喬叟和阿格尼絲·考普頓結婚。考普頓的嫁妝包括她叔叔哈默的二十四座店鋪。哈默據說是一位鑄幣商人。

傑弗裏·喬叟的確切出生時間和地點都不清楚。但喬叟從少年時就參與王室事務，使有關他的文獻記錄是當時詩人中最完整的，不像寫《把犁人皮爾斯的幻象》的威廉·蘭格倫那樣於史無徵。在英王愛德華三世的兒媳，第四代阿爾斯特女伯爵伊麗莎白·德·巴勒1357年的家庭紀事册上，第一次出現了喬叟的名字，當時他通過父親的關係，擔任了女伯爵的侍童^:xvii.。1359年，喬叟隨愛德華三世的部隊遠征法國，在蘭斯附近被法軍俘虜。傢人籌錢將其贖回，其中還包括愛德華三世的十六英鎊十三先令四便士。1360年5月喬叟回到英國。

執行外交使命

1360年下半年英法議和，喬叟奉命攜帶文件赴法國。之後的六年沒有喬叟的記載，研究者認為他這一段是在律師學院深造，為自己的行政生涯做準備。大約在1366年，喬叟到過西班牙，此行或與黑王子試圖參與西班牙王位的戰爭有關，可能曾去聖地亞哥-德孔波斯特拉朝聖。同年，喬叟和愛德華三世的皇后艾諾的菲力帕的女侍臣菲利帕·德·洛埃特結婚，菲利帕·洛埃特是和凱瑟琳·斯溫福德是姐妹關係，而斯溫福德後來成了喬叟的護主岡特的約翰的第三任妻子

1367年6月20日喬叟被授予“儀仗衛士”的頭銜，1368年被擢升為“候補騎士”。“候補騎士”沒有明確的任務，主要是到內廷說古道今或彈琴唱歌，喬叟或許在此時已經展現出他的文學才能，纔獲得這一頭銜。之後一段時間喬叟常攜帶信件到外國去。1368年，他有可能參加了在米蘭舉行的安特衛普的萊昂內爾和維奧萊特·維斯孔蒂的婚禮，史學家讓·傅華薩和大詩人彼特拉剋當時也參加了婚禮。研究者認為喬叟此時已經寫完了《公爵夫人之書》，這是一篇輓歌，獻給剛去世的蘭開斯特的布蘭奇。

1369年，喬叟參加軍事行動，到達皮卡第。1372-1373年他首次赴意大利，到過熱那亞和佛羅倫薩，協商通商事宜。很多研究者認為，喬叟在意大利時應該見到了彼特拉剋和薄伽丘，兩人嚮喬叟介紹了人文主義的觀點和意大利的文學創作情況，喬叟的一些作品明顯受到他們的影響。1374年愛德華三世在聖喬治日賜予喬叟“餘生每天一加侖酒”的待遇，這可能是對喬叟詩歌創作的奬賞；愛德華三世還讓他免費居住在阿爾德門。6月喬叟被任命為港務監督，又獲得岡特的約翰賜給的年金，生活富裕起來。1376和1377兩年內，他曾三次被派去法國，目的不明。後來的文獻稱他是去協商理查二世和法國公主結親的事，以期結束百年戰爭。

1378年喬叟再次前往意大利，和米蘭的統治者巴納波·維斯康蒂以及英籍雇傭兵首領約翰·霍剋伍德談判，有人認為《坎特伯雷故事集》中騎士的形象就源自約翰·霍剋伍德。之後的六七年關於喬叟的記載不多，研究者認為他此時可能在專心寫自己的代表作《坎特伯雷故事集》。1385年10月喬叟，被指派為肯特郡的治安法官，主要任務是在法國有可能入侵的形勢下保持肯特郡的和平。1386年8月他被選為下議院議員。1387年喬叟的妻子去世，喬叟陷入痛苦之中；不久伍德斯托剋的托馬斯，第一代格洛斯特公爵掌握大權，打擊國王信任的人，喬叟的年金經過審議後被轉給了別人，他又陷入經濟拮据中。

晚年

1389年理查二世重新掌握了權力。7月12日，喬叟被任命為國王産業管理員，照看國王的城堡和莊園。在喬叟的任期內，他沒有組織大的工程，但的確組織了對威斯敏斯特宮，聖喬治教堂和倫敦塔等地的修繕。這是一份收入頗豐的工作，每天薪水兩先令，大概是他之前工作的三倍。同時喬叟還兼任費肯漢姆森林中的國王木屋的照看人，這主要是個榮譽職位。

1390年9月中的四天內，喬叟三次遭到搶劫，也許因此受傷，這可能是他在次年的6月17日辭去職務的原因。但辭職後不久的6月22日，他就被任命為位於薩默塞特的北伯澤頓的王室森林的林務次官。這一職位並不輕鬆，需要做很多工作來維護森林，但也有機會獲得利益。1394年理查二世賜給喬叟二十英鎊的年金。1399年10月亨利四世登基，將喬叟的年金加了一倍，但這筆錢可能沒有發到喬叟手中。十二月他租用了威斯敏斯特教堂附近的一座住宅。1400年9月，王室賜給喬叟一大桶葡萄酒，之後就沒有記載了。

喬叟據說是於1400年10月25日在倫敦逝世，但這個時間是鎸刻在喬叟死後一百年纔立起的墓碑上的，所以真實性值得懷疑。喬叟的死因不明，英國的中世紀研究專傢特裏·瓊斯曾出了一本書《誰謀殺了喬叟？一個中世紀的神秘事件》，認為他是被理查二世的敵人甚至是亨利四世所謀殺的，但也衹有一些旁證說明此事。喬叟死後以教區成員的身份葬於倫敦西敏寺。1556年他的靈柩被移葬到一個更好的墓穴，隨着多位詩人的葬入，這裏成了著名的“詩人之角”。

影響

喬叟用歐陸重音音節的韻律寫作，這是自十二世紀起開始發展的格式，和盎格魯-撒剋遜的頭韻詩韻律不同。喬叟以創造韻律聞名，創造了rhyme royal，也是英國詩人中頭幾位在作品中使用類似五步抑揚格的five-stress lines的人，在他之前衹有幾個未具名英國詩人的作品曾使用過喬叟會將five-stress lines整理為雙行句，最早是在《賢婦傳說》用到，後來也在許多作品中出現過，後來成為英文詩的標準格式之一。

流行文化

• 鮑威爾和皮斯伯格在1944年上映的電影夜夜春宵一開場就修改了喬叟的坎特伯雷朝聖者，影片發生在往坎特伯雷的路上，當時是在戰時。
• 在魯德亞德·吉卜林的故事《Dayspring Mishandled》中，一個作傢計劃因他以前的朋友羞辱了他愛的女子，因此展開一場精細的復仇，以前的朋友是喬叟的專傢，因此復仇的方式是編造一個中古時期的手稿紙，其中包括一份聲稱是失落的《坎特伯雷故事集》片段，其實是他自己的作品。
• 小行星2984及喬叟月坑都是以喬叟為名。
• 2001年，好萊塢拍了一部名為《騎士風雲錄》（A Knight's Tale）的電影，片名取自《坎特伯雷故事集》中〈騎士的故事〉（"The Knight's Tale"）之名字，而喬叟亦有在電影中出現，由保羅·彼特尼扮演。

主要作品

• 參考文獻《公爵夫人之書》
• 《聲譽之堂》
• 《衆鳥之會》
• 《賢婦傳說》
• 《特洛伊羅斯與剋麗西達》
• 《坎特伯雷故事集》

參考書目

• Ward, Adolphus W. Chaucer. Edinburgh: R. & R. Clark, Ltd. 1907.
• Morley, Henry, A first sketch of English literature, Cassell & Co., 1883, from Harvard University

外部鏈接

• Educational institutions
  古騰堡計劃中Geoffrey Chaucer的作品
• 傑弗裏·喬叟在WorldCat聯合目錄內的著作和相關文獻
• Poems by Geoffrey Chaucer at PoetryFoundation.org
• Hulbert, James Root. Chaucer's official life .... Collegiate Press, G. Banta Pub. Co. 1912: 75 [2011-07-12].
• Early Editions of Chaucer
• eChaucer: Full Texts, Modern Translation, and Easy-To-Use Concordance
• BBC television adaptation of certain of the Canterbury Tales
• "Geoffrey Chaucer Hath a Blog" (A Chaucer parody blog)
• Chaucer at The Online Library of Liberty

• Caxton's Chaucer – Complete digitised texts of Caxton's two earliest editions of the Canterbury Tales from the British Library
• Caxton's Canterbury Tales: The British Library Copies An online edition with complete transcriptions and images captured by the HUMI Project
• Chaucer Metapage – Project in addition to the 33rd International Congress of Medieval Studies
• Chaucer Page by Harvard University
• Three near-contemporary portraits of Chaucer
• Astronomy and astrology in Chaucer's work
• Chaucer and his works: Introduction to Chaucer and his works | Descriptions of books with images

  

Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343 – October 25, 1400?) was an English author, poet, philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and diplomat. Although he wrote many works, he is best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales. Sometimes called the father of English literature, Chaucer is credited by some scholars as being the first author to demonstrate the artistic legitimacy of the vernacular English language, rather than French or Latin.

Life

Chaucer as a pilgrim from the Ellesmere manuscript DBChaucer was born in 1343 in London, although the exact date and location of his birth are not known. His father and grandfather were both London vintners and before that, for several generations, the family were merchants in Ipswich. His name is derived from the French chausseur, meaning shoemaker. In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffrey's father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the twelve year old boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the £250 fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure, upper middle-class, if not in the elite. John married Agnes Copton, who in 1349 inherited property including 24 shops in London from her uncle, Hamo de Copton, who is described as the "moneyer" at the Tower of London.

There are few details of Chaucer's early life and education but compared to his near contemporary poets, William Langland and The Pearl Poet, his life is well documented, with nearly five hundred written items testifying to his career. The first time he is mentioned is in 1357, in the household accounts of Elizabeth de Burgh, the Countess of Ulster, when his father's connections enabled him to become the noblewoman's page. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king, collecting and inventorying scrap metal. In 1359, in the early stages of the Hundred Years' War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeth's husband, as part of the English army. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims, becoming a prisoner of war. Edward contributed £16 as part of a ransom, and Chaucer was released. Chaucer was then known as the prisoner.

After this, Chaucer's life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, and Flanders, possibly as a messenger and perhaps even going on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa (de) Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward III's queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford, who later (ca. 1396) became the third wife of Chaucer's friend and patron, John of Gaunt. It's uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are the numbers most widely agreed upon. His son, Thomas Chaucer, had an illustrious career, chief butler to four kings, envoy to France, and Speaker of the House of Commons. Thomas' great-grandson (Geoffrey's great-great-grandson), John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed. Geoffrey's other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun; Agnes, an attendant at Henry IV's coronation; and another son, Lewis Chaucer.

Chaucer may possibly have studied law in the Inner Temple (an Inn of Court) at about this time, although definite proof is lacking. It is recorded that he became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a varlet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail any number of jobs. His wife also received a pension for court employment. He travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, in Milan. Two other literary stars of the era who were in attendance were Jean Froissart and Petrarch. Around this time Chaucer is believed to have written The Book of the Duchess in honor of Blanche of Lancaster, the late wife of John of Gaunt, who died in 1369.

Chaucer travelled to Picardy the next year as part of the military expedition, and visited Genoa and Florence in 1373. It is on this Italian trip that it is speculated he came into contact with medieval Italian poetry, the forms and stories of which he would use later. One other trip he took in 1377 seems shrouded in mystery, with records of the time conflicting in details. Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage between the future Richard II and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years War. If this was the purpose of their trip, they seem to have been unsuccessful, as no wedding occurred.

In 1378, Richard II sent Chaucer as an envoy/secret dispatch to the Visconti and to Sir John Hawkwood, English Man-at Arms/Soldier for Hire, in Milan. It is on the person of John Hawkwood that Chaucer based his Knight's Character. The Knight, based on his description/dress and appearance, looks exactly like a soldier for hire/mercenary would have looked in the fourteenth century.


A 19th century depiction of Chaucer. For three near-contemporary portraits of Chaucer see here.A possible indication that his career as a writer was appreciated came when Edward III granted Chaucer a gallon of wine daily for the rest of his life for some unspecified task. This was an unusual grant, but given on a day of celebration, St. George's Day, 1374, when artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it is assumed to have been another early poetic work. It is not known which, if any, of Chaucer's extant works prompted the reward but the suggestion of poet to a king places him as a precursor to later poets laureate. Chaucer continued to collect the liquid stipend until Richard II came to power, after which it was converted to a monetary grant on 18 April 1378.

Chaucer obtained the very substantial job of Comptroller of the Customs for the port of London, which Chaucer began on 8 June 1374. He must have been suited for the role as he continued in it for twelve years, a long time in such a post at that period. His life goes undocumented for much of the next ten years but it is believed that he wrote (or began) most of his famous works during this time period. He was mentioned in law papers of 4 May 1380, involved in the raptus of Cecilia Chaumpaigne. What raptus means, rape or possibly kidnapping, is unclear, but the incident seems to have been resolved quickly and did not leave a stain on Chaucer's reputation. It is not known if Chaucer was in the city of London at the time of the Peasants' Revolt (the Tower of London was stormed in 1381).

While still working as comptroller, Chaucer appears to have moved to Kent, being appointed as one of the commissioners of peace for Kent, at a time when French invasion was a possibility. He is thought to have started work on The Canterbury Tales in the early 1380s (the Pilgrims' Way used by his fictional characters on their way to Canterbury Cathedral passes through Kent). He also became a Member of Parliament for Kent in 1386. There is no further reference after this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife, and she is presumed to have died in 1387. He survived the political upheavals caused by the Lords Appellants despite the fact that Chaucer knew well some of the men executed over the affair.

On 12 July 1389, Chaucer was appointed the clerk of the king's works, a sort of foreman organizing most of the king's building projects. No major works were begun during his tenure, but he did conduct repairs on Westminster Palace, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, continue building the wharf at the Tower of London, and build the stands for a tournament held in 1390. It may have been a difficult job but it paid well: two shillings a day, over three times his salary as a comptroller. In September 1390, records say that he was robbed, and possibly injured, while conducting the business, and it was shortly after, on 17 June 1391, that he stopped working in this capacity. Almost immediately, on 22 June, he began as deputy forester in the royal forest of North Petherton, Somerset. This was no sinecure, with maintenance an important part of the job, although there were many opportunities to derive profit. It is believed that Chaucer stopped work on the Canterbury Tales sometime towards the end of this decade.

Soon after the overthrow of his patron Richard II in 1399, Chaucer vanished from the historical record. He is believed to have died of unknown causes on 25 October 1400 but there is no firm evidence for this date, as it comes from the engraving on his tomb, which was built more than one-hundred years after Chaucer's death. There is some speculation—most recently in Terry Jones' book Who Murdered Chaucer?: A Medieval Mystery—that he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or even on the orders of his successor Henry IV. However, as of yet there is no solid evidence to support this claim.

The new king (Henry IV) did renew the grants assigned to Chaucer by Richard, but in The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse, Chaucer hints that the grants might not have been paid. The last mention of Chaucer in the historical record is on 5 June 1400, when some monies owing to him were paid. Chaucer was buried in Westminster Abbey in London, as was his right owing to the jobs he had performed and the new house he had leased nearby on 24 December 1399. In 1556 his remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making Chaucer the first writer interred in the area now known as Poets' Corner.


Works
Chaucer's first major work, The Book of the Duchess, was an elegy for Blanche of Lancaster (who died in 1369). It is possible that this work was commissioned by her husband John of Gaunt, as he granted Chaucer a £10 annuity on 13 June 1374. This would seem to place the writing of The Book of the Duchess between the years 1369 and 1374. Two other early works by Chaucer were Anelida and Arcite and The House of Fame. Chaucer wrote many of his major works in a prolific period when he held the job of customs comptroller for London (1374 to 1386). His Parlement of Foules, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde all date from this time. Also it is believed that he started work on The Canterbury Tales in the early 1380s. Chaucer is best known as the writer of The Canterbury Tales, which is a collection of stories told by fictional pilgrims on the road to the cathedral at Canterbury; these tales would help to shape English literature.

The Canterbury Tales contrasts with other literature of the period in the naturalism of its narrative, the variety of stories the pilgrims tell and the varied characters who are engaged in the pilgrimage. Many of the stories narrated by the pilgrims seem to fit their individual characters and social standing, although some of the stories seem ill-fitting to their narrators, perhaps as a result of the incomplete state of the work. Chaucer drew on real life for his cast of pilgrims: the innkeeper shares the name of a contemporary keeper of an inn in Southwark, and real-life identities for the Wife of Bath, the Merchant, the Man of Law and the Student have been suggested. The many jobs Chaucer held in medieval society—page, soldier, messenger, valet, bureaucrat, foreman and administrator—probably exposed him to many of the types of people he depicted in the Tales. He was able to shape their speech and satirize their manners in what was to become popular literature among people of the same types.

Chaucer's works are sometimes grouped into, first a French period, then an Italian period and finally an English period, with Chaucer being influenced by those countries' literatures in turn. Certainly Troilus and Criseyde is a middle period work with its reliance on the forms of Italian poetry, little known in England at the time, but to which Chaucer was probably exposed during his frequent trips abroad on court business. In addition, its use of a classical antiquity|classical subject and its elaborate, courtly language sets it apart as one of his most complete and well-formed works. In Troilus and Criseyde Chaucer draws heavily on his source, Boccaccio, and on the late Latin philosopher Boethius. However, it is The Canterbury Tales, wherein he focuses on English subjects, with bawdy jokes and respected figures often being undercut with humour, that has cemented his reputation.

Chaucer also translated such important works as Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy and The Romance of the Rose by Guillaume de Lorris (extended by Jean de Meun). However, while many scholars maintain that Chaucer did indeed translate part of the text of The Romance of the Rose as Roman de la Rose, others claim that this has been effectively disproved. Many of his other works were very loose translations of, or simply based on, works from continental Europe. It is in this role that Chaucer receives some of his earliest critical praise. Eustache Deschamps wrote a ballade on the great translator and called himself a "nettle in Chaucer's garden of poetry". In 1385 Thomas Usk made glowing mention of Chaucer, and John Gower, Chaucer's main poetic rival of the time, also lauded him. This reference was later edited out of Gower's Confessio Amantis and it has been suggested by some that this was because of ill feeling between them, but it is likely due simply to stylistic concerns.

One other significant work of Chaucer's is his Treatise on the Astrolabe, possibly for his own son, that describes the form and use of that instrument in detail. Although much of the text may have come from other sources, the treatise indicates that Chaucer was versed in science in addition to his literary talents. Another scientific work discovered in 1952, Equatorie of the Planetis, has similar language and handwriting compared to some considered to be Chaucer's and it continues many of the ideas from the Astrolabe. The attribution of this work to Chaucer is still uncertain...


Influence

Linguistic

Portrait of Chaucer from Thomas Hoccleve, who personally knew Chaucer, so it is probably an accurate depictionChaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic metre, a style which had developed since around the twelfth century as an alternative to the alliterative Anglo-Saxon metre. Chaucer is known for metrical innovation, inventing the rhyme royal, and he was one of the first English poets to use the five-stress line, a decasyllabic cousin to the iambic pentameter, in his work, with only a few anonymous short works using it before him. The arrangement of these five-stress lines into rhyming couplets, first seen in his Legend of Good Women, was used in much of his later work and became one of the standard poetic forms in English. His early influence as a satirist is also important, with the common humorous device, the funny accent of a regional dialect, apparently making its first appearance in The Reeve's Tale.

The poetry of Chaucer, along with other writers of the era, is credited with helping to standardize the London Dialect of the Middle English language from a combination of the Kentish and Midlands dialects. This is probably overstated; the influence of the court, chancery and bureaucracy—of which Chaucer was a part—remains a more probable influence on the development of Standard English. Modern English is somewhat distanced from the language of Chaucer's poems owing to the effect of the Great Vowel Shift some time after his death. This change in the pronunciation of English, still not fully understood, makes the reading of Chaucer difficult for the modern audience, though it is thought by some that the modern Scottish accent is closely related to the sound of Middle English. The status of the final -e in Chaucer's verse is uncertain: it seems likely that during the period of Chaucer's writing the final -e was dropping out of colloquial English and that its use was somewhat irregular. Chaucer's versification suggests that the final -e is sometimes to be vocalised, and sometimes to be silent; however, this remains a point on which there is disagreement. When it is vocalised, most scholars pronounce it as a schwa. Apart from the irregular spelling, much of the vocabulary is recognisable to the modern reader. Chaucer is also recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary as the first author to use many common English words in his writings. These words were probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest manuscript source. Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless, army, arrogant, arsenic, arc, artillery and aspect are just some of those from the first letter of the alphabet.


Literary
Chaucer's early popularity is attested by the many poets who imitated his works. John Lydgate was one of earliest imitators who wrote a continuation to the Tales. Many of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain material from these admiring poets and the later romantic era poets' appreciation of Chaucer was coloured by their not knowing which of the works were genuine. 17th and 18th century writers, such as John Dryden, admired Chaucer for his stories, but not for his rhythm and rhyme, as few critics could then read Middle English and the text had been butchered by printers, leaving a somewhat unadmirable mess. It was not until the late 19th century that the official Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon; largely as a result of Walter William Skeat's work. One hundred and fifty years after his death, The Canterbury Tales was _select_ed by William Caxton to be one of the first books to be printed in England.


Chaucer's English
Although Chaucer's language is much closer to modern English than the text of Beowulf, it differs enough that most publications modernise (and sometimes bowdlerise) his idiom. Following is a sample from the prologue of the "Summoner's Tale" that compares Chaucer's text to a modern translation:

Line Original Translation
This frere bosteth that he knoweth helle, This friar boasts that he knows hell,
And God it woot, that it is litel wonder; And God knows that it is little wonder;
Freres and feendes been but lyte asonder. Friars and fiends are seldom far apart.
For, pardee, ye han ofte tyme herd telle For, by God, you have ofttimes heard tell
How that a frere ravyshed was to helle How a friar was taken to hell
In spirit ones by a visioun; In spirit, once by a vision;
And as an angel ladde hym up and doun, And as an angel led him up and down,
To shewen hym the peynes that the were, To show him the pains that were there,
In al the place saugh he nat a frere; In the whole place he saw not one friar;
Of oother folk he saugh ynowe in wo. He saw enough of other folk in woe.
Unto this angel spak the frere tho: To the angel spoke the friar thus:
Now, sire, quod he, han freres swich a grace "Now sir", said he, "Do friars have such a grace
That noon of hem shal come to this place? That none of them come to this place?"
Yis, quod this aungel, many a millioun! "Yes", said the angel, "many a million!"
And unto sathanas he ladde hym doun. And the angel led him down to Satan.
--And now hath sathanas,--seith he,--a tayl He said, "And Satan has a tail,
Brodder than of a carryk is the sayl. Broader than a large ship's sail.
Hold up thy tayl, thou sathanas!--quod he; Hold up your tail, Satan!" he said.
--shewe forth thyn ers, and lat the frere se "Show forth your arse, and let the friar see
Where is the nest of freres in this place!-- Where the nest of friars is in this place!"
And er that half a furlong wey of space, And before half a furlong of space,
Right so as bees out swarmen from an hyve, Just as bees swarm from a hive,
Out of the develes ers ther gonne dryve Out of the devil's arse there were driven
Twenty thousand freres on a route, Twenty thousand friars on a rout,
And thurghout helle swarmed al aboute, And throughout hell swarmed all about,
And comen agayn as faste as they may gon, And came again as fast as they could go,
And in his ers they crepten everychon. And every one crept back into his arse.
He clapte his tayl agayn and lay ful stille. He shut his tail again and lay very still.


Monuments and tributes
The poet Thomas Hoccleve, who may have met Chaucer and considered him his model, hailed Chaucer as "the firste fyndere of our fair langage." Both an asteroid 2984 Chaucer, and a lunar crater have been named for Chaucer.


Historical reception and representation

Manuscripts and Audience
The large number of surviving manuscripts of Chaucer's works is testimony to the enduring interest in his poetry prior to the arrival of the printing press. There are 83 surviving manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales (in whole or part) alone, along with sixteen of Troilus and Criseyde, including the personal copy of Henry IV. Given the ravages of time, it is likely that these surviving manuscripts represent hundreds since lost. Chaucer's orignal audience was a courtly one, and would have included women as well as men of the upper social classes. Yet even before his death in 1400, Chaucer's audience had begun to include members of the rising literate, middle and merchant classes, which included many Lollard sympathizers who may well have been inclined to read Chaucer as one of their own, particularly in his satirical writings about friars, priests, and other church officials. In 1464, John Baron, a tenant farmer in Agmondesham, was brought before John Chadworth, the Bishop of Lincoln, on charges he was a Lollard heretic; he confessed to owning a "boke of the Tales of Caunterburie" among other suspect volumes.


Printed editions
William Caxton, the first English printer, was responsible for the first two folio editions of The Canterbury Tales were published in 1478 and 1483. Caxton's second printing, by his own account, came about because a customer complained that the printed text differed from a manuscript he knew; Caxton obligingly used the man's manuscript as his source. Both Caxton editions carry the equivalent of manuscript authority. Caxton's edition was reprinted by his successor, Wynkyn de Worde, but this edition has no independent authority.

Richard Pynson, the King's Printer under Henry VIII for about twenty years, was the first to collect and sell something that resembled an edition of the collected works of Chaucer, introducing in the process five previously printed texts that we now know are not Chaucer's. (The collection is actually three separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together as one volume.) There is a likely connection between Pynson's product and William Thynne's a mere six years later. Thynne had a successful career from the 1520s until his death in 1546, when he was one of the masters of the royal household. His editions of Chaucers Works in 1532 and 1542 were the first major contributions to the existence of a widely recognized Chaucerian canon. Thynne represents his edition as a book sponsored by and supportive of the king who is praised in the preface by Sir Brian Tuke. Thynne's canon brought the number of apocryphal works associated with Chaucer to a total of 28, even if that was not his intention. As with Pynson, once included in the Works, pseudepigraphic texts stayed within it, regardless of their first editor's intentions.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Chaucer was printed more than any other English author, and he was the first author to have his works collected in comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer canon began to cohere. Some scholars contend that that sixteenth-century editions of Chaucer's Works set the precedent for all other English authors in terms of presentation, prestige and success in print. These editions certainly established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated process of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's biography and the canonical list of works attributed to him.

Probably the most significant aspect of the growing apocrypha is that, beginning with Thynne's editions, it began to include medieval texts that made Chaucer appear as a proto-Protestant Lollard, primarily the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale. As "Chaucerian" works that were not considered apocryphal until the late nineteenth century, these medieval texts enjoyed a new life, with English Protestants carrying on the earlier Lollard project of appropriating existing texts and authors who seemed sympathetic--or malleable enough to be construed as sympathetic--to their cause. The official Chaucer of the early printed volumes of his Works was construed as a proto-Protestant as the same was done, concurrently, with William Langland and Piers Plowman. The famous Plowman's Tale did not enter Thynne's Works until the second, 1542 edition. Its entry was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of Thomas Usk's Testament of Love in the first edition. The Testament of Love imitates, borrows from, and thus resembles Usk's contemporary, Chaucer. (Testament of Love also appears to borrow from Piers Plowman.) Since the Testament of Love mentions its author's part in a failed plot (book 1, chapter 6), his imprisonment, and (perhaps) a recantation of (possibly Lollard) heresy, all this was associated with Chaucer. (Usk himself was executed as a traitor in 1388.) Interestingly, John Foxe took this recantation of heresy as a defense of the true faith, calling Chaucer a "right Wiclevian" and (erroneously) identifying him as a schoolmate and close friend of John Wycliffe at Merton College, Oxford. (Thomas Speght is careful to highlight these facts in his editions and his "Life of Chaucer.") No other sources for the Testament of Love exist--there is only Thynne's construction of whatever manuscript sources he had.

John Stow (1525-1605) was an antiquarian and also a chronicler. His edition of Chaucer's Works in 1561 brought the apocrypha to more than 50 titles. More were added in the seventeenth century, and they remained as late as 1810, well after Thomas Tyrwhitt pared the canon down in his 1775 edition. The compilation and printing of Chaucer's works was, from its beginning, a political enterprise, since it was intended to establish an English national identity and history that grounded and authorized the Tudor monarchy and church. What was added to Chaucer often helped represent him favourably to Protestant England.


Engraving of Chaucer from Speght's editionIn his 1598 edition of the Works, Speght (probably taking cues from Foxe) made good use of Usk's account of his political intrigue and imprisonment in the Testament of Love to assemble a largely fictional "Life of Our Learned English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer." Speght's "Life" presents readers with an erstwhile radical in troubled times much like their own, a proto-Protestant who eventually came around the king's views on religion. Speght states that "In the second year of Richard the second, the King tooke Geffrey Chaucer and his lands into his protection. The occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by favouring some rash attempt of the common people." Under the discussion of Chaucer's friends, namely John of Gaunt, Speght further explains:

Yet it seemeth that [Chaucer] was in some trouble in the daies of King Richard the second, as it may appeare in the Testament of Loue: where hee doth greatly complaine of his owne rashnesse in following the multitude, and of their hatred of him for bewraying their purpose. And in that complaint which he maketh to his empty purse, I do find a written copy, which I had of Iohn Stow (whose library hath helped many writers) wherein ten times more is adjoined, then is in print. Where he maketh great lamentation for his wrongfull imprisonment, wishing death to end his daies: which in my iudgement doth greatly accord with that in the Testament of Love. Moreover we find it thus in Record.
Later, in "The Argument" to the Testament of Love, Speght adds:

Chaucer did compile this booke as a comfort to himselfe after great griefs conceiued for some rash attempts of the commons, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to loose the fauour of his best friends.
Speght is also the source of the famous tale of Chaucer being fined for beating a Franciscan friar in Fleet Street, as well as a fictitious coat of arms and family tree. Ironically--and perhaps consciously so--an introductory, apologetic letter in Speght's edition from Francis Beaumont defends the unseemly, "low", and bawdy bits in Chaucer from an elite, classicist position. Francis Thynne noted some of these inconsistencies in his Animadversions, insisting that Chaucer was not a commoner, and he objected to the friar-beating story. Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support for popular religious reform, associating Chaucer's views with his father William Thynne's attempts to include The Plowman's Tale and The Pilgrim's Tale in the 1532 and 1542 Works.

The myth of the Protestant Chaucer continues to have a lasting impact on a large body of Chaucerian scholarship. Though it is extremely rare for a modern to scholar to suggest Chaucer supported a religious movement that didn't exist until more than a century after his death, the predominance of this thinking for so many centuries left it for granted that Chaucer was at least extremely hostile toward Catholicism. This assumption forms a large part of many critical approaches to Chaucer's works, including neo-Marxism.

Alongside Chaucer's Works, the most impressive literary monument of the period is John Foxe's Acts and Monuments.... As with the Chaucer editions, it was critically significant to English Protestant identity and included Chaucer in its project. Foxe's Chaucer both derived from and contributed to the printed editions of Chaucer's Works, particularly the pseudepigrapha. Jack Upland was first printed in Foxe's Acts and Monuments, and then it appeared in Speght's edition of Chaucer's Works. Speght's "Life of Chaucer" echoes Foxe's own account, which is itself dependent upon the earlier editions that added the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale to their pages. Like Speght's Chaucer, Foxe's Chaucer was also a shrewd (or lucky) political survivor. In his 1563 edition, Foxe "thought it not out of season... to couple... some mention of Geoffrey Chaucer" with a discussion of John Colet, a possible source for John Skelton's character Colin Clout.

Probably referring to the 1542 Act for the Advancement of True Religion, Foxe says he "marvel[s] to consider... how the bishops, condemning and abolishing all manner of English books and treatises which might bring the people to any light of knowledge, did yet authorise the works of Chaucer to remain still and to be occupied; who, no doubt, saw into religion as much almost as even we do now, and uttereth in his works no less, and seemeth to be a right Wicklevian, or else there never was any. And that, all his works almost, if they be thoroughly advised, will testify (albeit done in mirth, and covertly); and especially the latter end of his third book of the Testament of Love.... Wherein, except a man be altogether blind, he may espy him at the full: although in the same book (as in all others he useth to do), under shadows covertly, as under a visor, he suborneth truth in such sort, as both privily she may profit the godly-minded, and yet not be espied of the crafty adversary. And therefore the bishops, belike, taking his works but for jests and toys, in condemning other books, yet permitted his books to be read."

It is significant, too, that Foxe's discussion of Chaucer leads into his history of "The Reformation of the Church of Christ in the Time of Martin Luther" when "Printing, being opened, incontinently ministered unto the church the instruments and tools of learning and knowledge; which were good books and authors, which before lay hid and unknown. The science of printing being found, immediately followed the grace of God; which stirred up good wits aptly to conceive the light of knowledge and judgment: by which light darkness began to be espied, and ignorance to be detected; truth from error, religion from superstition, to be discerned."

Foxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and amorous writing, insisting that it all testifies to his piety. Material that is troubling is deemed metaphoric, while the more forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken literally.

John Urry produced the first edition of Chaucer in Latin font, published posthumously after his death in 1715.


List of works
The following major works are in rough chronological order but scholars still debate the dating of most of Chaucer's output and works made up from a collection of stories may have been compiled over a long period.


Major works
Translation of Roman de la Rose, possibly extant as The Romance of the Rose
The Book of the Duchess
The House of Fame
Anelida and Arcite
Parlement of Foules
Translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy as Boece
Troilus and Criseyde
The Legend of Good Women
The Canterbury Tales
Treatise on the Astrolabe

Short poems
An ABC
Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn
The Complaint unto Pity
The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse
The Complaint of Mars
The Complaint of Venus
A Complaint to His Lady
The Former Age
Fortune
Gentilesse
Lak of Stedfastnesse
Lenvoy de Chaucer a Scogan
Lenvoy de Chaucer a Bukton
Proverbs
To Rosemounde
Truth
Womanly Noblesse

Poems dubiously ascribed to Chaucer
Against Women Unconstant
A Balade of Complaint
Complaynt D'Amours
Merciles Beaute
The Visioner's Tale
The Equatorie of the Planets - A rough translation of a Latin work derived from an Arab work of the same title. It is a description of the construction and use of what is called an 'equatorium planetarum', and was used in calculating planetary orbits and positions (at the time it was believed the sun orbited the Earth). The similar Treatise on the Astrolabe, not usually doubted as Chaucer's work, plus Chaucer's name as a gloss to the manuscript are the main pieces of evidence for the ascription to Chaucer. However, the evidence Chaucer wrote such a work is questionable, and as such is not included in The Riverside Chaucer. If Chaucer did not compose this work, it was probably written by a contemporary.

Works mentioned by Chaucer, presumed lost
Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde, possible translation of Innocent III's De miseria conditionis humanae
Origenes upon the Maudeleyne
The Book of the Leoun - The Book of the Leon is mentioned in Chaucer's retraction at the end of The Canterbury Tales. It is likely he wrote such a work; one suggestion is that the work was such a bad piece of writing it was lost, but if so, Chaucer would not have included it in the middle of his retraction. Indeed, he would not have included it at all. A likely source dictates it was probably a 'redaction of Guillaume de Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' a story about courtly love, a subject about which Chaucer scholars frequently agree he wrote (Le Romaunt de la Rose).

Pseudepigraphia and works plagiarizing Chaucer
The Pilgrim's Tale -- Written in the sixteenth-century with many Chaucerian allusions
The Plowman's Tale AKA The Complaint of the Ploughman -- A Lollard satire later appropriated as a Protestant text
Pierce the Ploughman's Crede -- A Lollard satire later appropriated by Protestants
The Ploughman's Tale -- Its body is largely a version of Thomas Hoccleve's "Item de Beata Virgine"
"La Belle Dame Sans Merci" -- Richard Roos' translation of a poem of the same name by Alain Chartier
The Testament of Love -- Actually by Thomas Usk
Jack Upland -- A Lollard satire
God Spede the Plow -- Borrows parts of Chaucer's Monk's Tale

Chaucer in popular culture
In the movie A Knight's Tale, Paul Bettany plays Chaucer, as a gambling addicted writer who becomes the herald for the title character's knight in Medieval jousting tournaments.
In Neil Gaiman's The Sandman story Men of Good Fortune (collected in The Doll's House), Chaucer appears briefly in a tavern in fourteenth-century England. He is listening to a companion dismiss The Canterbury Tales as "filthy tales in rhyme about pilgrims".
Comedian Bill Bailey does a 'three men go into a pub' joke in the style of Geoffrey Chaucer called "Chaucer Pubbe Gagge".
The plot of the detective novel Landscape with Dead Dons by Robert Robinson centres on the apparent rediscovery of The Book of the Leoun, and a passage from it (eleven lines of good Chaucerian pastiche) turn out to be the vital murder clue as well as proving that the 'rediscovered' poem is an elaborate, clever forgery by the murderer (a Chaucer scholar).

References
^ Skeat, W.W., The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, Vol. I p. ix.
^ Skeat, op. cit., pp. xi-xii.
^ Skeat, op. cit., p. xvii.
^ Power, Eileen (1988), Medieval English Nunneries, C. 1275 to 1535, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, pp. 19, ISBN 0819601403, . Retrieved on 19 December 2007
^ Coulton, G. G. (2006), Chaucer and His England, Kessinger Publishing, pp. 74, . Retrieved on 19 December 2007
^ "From The Preface to Fables Ancient and Modern". The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Stephen Greenblatt. 8th ed. Vol. C. New York, London: Norton, 2006. 2132-33. pg. 2132
^ Original e-text available online at the University of Virginia website, trans. Wikipedia.
^ Thomas Hoccleve,The Regiment of Princes, TEAMS website, Rochester University http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/hoccfrm.htm
^ Benson, Larry, The Riverside Chaucer (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), p. 1118.
^ Potter, Russell A., "Chaucer and the Authority of Language: The Politics and Poetics of the Vernacular in Late Medieval England", Assays VI (Carnegie-Mellon Press, 1991), p. 91.

Sources
Skeat, W.W., The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899.
The Riverside Chaucer, 3rd ed. Houghton-Mifflin, 1987 ISBN 0395290317
Chaucer: Life-Records, Martin M. Crow and Clair C. Olsen. (1966)
Speirs, John, "Chaucer the Maker", London: Faber and Faber, 1951