 伊利亚特
tè luò yī zhàn zhēng hé shǐ shī xì liè
jiǔ shì de suì yuè gěi tè luò yī zhàn zhēng méng shàng liǎo yī céng shén mì de sè cǎi。 dàn shì， bāo kuò xī luó duō dé hé xiū xī dǐ dé zài nèi de lì shǐ xué jiā men yī bān dōubù fǒu rèn zhè chǎng zhàn zhēng de zhēn shí xìng， suī rán duì tā jìn xíng de nián dài， zì gǔ yǐ lái biàn méi yòu yī zhǒng tǒng yī de dìng shuō。 àn xī luó duō dé tuī cè， tè luò yī zhàn zhēng jìn xíng de nián dài yuē zài gōng yuán qián 1250 nián zuǒ yòu， [ ● ] ér gēn jù MorPchum de jìzǎi， xī là rén gōng xiàn tè luò yī de shí jiān yìng zài qián 1290 héng 8 nián jiān。 jìn dài mǒu xiē xué zhě jiāng pò chéng shí jiān gū fàng zài qián 1370 nián zuǒ yòu。 xī là xué zhě 'è lā tuō sài nài sī（ Eratosthenes， shēng yú qián 275 nián） de kǎo zhèng hé tí fǎ dé dào yī pī xué rén de zàn tóng héng héng tā de dìng qǔ shì qián 1193 héng 84 nián。 dà tǐ shuō lái， xī fāng xué shù jiè yī bān qīng xiàng yú jiāng tè luò yī zhàn zhēng de jìn xíng nián dài nǐ dìng zài gōng yuán qián shí sān dào shí 'èr shì jì， jí mù kǎi nài（ huò mài xī ní） wáng cháo（ qián 1600 héng 1100 nián） de hòu qī。
●《 lì shǐ》 huò《 xī bō zhàn zhēng shǐ》 2·145·4。
gēn jù gù shì hé chuán shuō， tè luò yī（ jí yī lì 'áng） shì yī zuò fù yòu de chéng bǎo， zuò luò zài xiǎo yà xì yà de xī běi bù， bīn lín hè lè sī páng tè de shuǐ liú。 guó wáng pǔ lǐ 'ā mó sī zhī zǐ pà lǐ sī（ jí yà lì kè shān dé luó sī） céng chū yóu yuǎn yáng， dǐ sī bā dá， bèi shòu wáng zhě mò nài láo sī de kuǎn dài。 qí hòu， tā jiāng mò nài láo sī zhī qī hǎi lún dài chū sī bā dá， fǎn huí tè luò yī。 xī là（ bāo kuò tā de “ zhí mín dì ”） gè dì de wáng zhě hé shǒu lǐng men yú shì fēng jù yún jí， yì yù jìn bīng tè luò yī， duó huí hǎi lún。 jiàn duì huì jù 'ào lì sī， yóu mù kǎi nài guó wáng 'ā gā mén nóng tǒng lǐng。 jīng guò yī fān zhōu zhé， xī là lián jūn dēng 'àn tè luò yī， bīng lín chéng xià， dàn yī lián jiǔ nián bù dé pò huò。 zài dì shí nián lǐ， ā gā mén nóng hé lián jūn zhōng zuì hǎo de zhàn jiāng 'ā jī liú sī fā shēng zhēng zhí， hòu zhě yóu cǐ bà bīng bù zhàn， shǐ tè luò yī rén（ yóu hè kè tuō 'ěr tǒng lǐng） jié jié huò shèng， bīng dǐ xī là rén de hǎi chuán hé yíng péng。 hè kè tuō 'ěr zhèn shā pà tè luó kè luò sī hòu， ā jī liú sī chóngfǎn zhàn chǎng， bī huí tè luò yī jūn wǔ， zhàn shā hè kè tuō 'ěr。 qí hòu， ā jī liú sī yì zhàn sǐ jiāng chǎng。 àn zhào shén yì， ā kāi yà rén（ jí xī là rén） zuì zhōng gōng xià tè luò yī， dàng jié liǎo zhè zuò chéng bǎo。 shǒu lǐng men lì jīng mó nán， huí fǎn jiā yuán， miàn duì xīn de tiǎo zhàn， xīn de shēng huó。
rú guǒ shuō tè luò yī zhàn zhēng shì yī jiàn què yòu qí shì de shǐ shí， shì dài xiāng chuán de kǒu shù hé bù kě bì miǎn de“ chuàng xīn” yǐ shǐ tā chéng wéi yī gè nèi róng fēng fù、 wǔ cǎi bīn fēn、 chōng mǎn shén huà hé chuán qí de gù shì huò gù shì xì liè。 jì hé mǎ yǐ hòu， shī rén men yòu yǐ tè luò yī zhàn zhēng wéi bèi jǐng， chuàng zuò liǎo yī xì liè shǐ shī， gòu chéng liǎo yī gè yòu xì tǒng de shǐ shī qún tǐ， jí yòu guān tè luò yī zhàn zhēng（ huò yǐ tā wéi bèi jǐng） de shǐ shī xì liè。 [● ]“ xì liè” zhōng，《 kù pǔ lì yà》（ Kypria， shí yī juàn） miáo xiě zhàn zhēng de qǐ yīn， jí fā shēng zài《 yī lì yà tè》 zhī qián de shì jiàn；《 āi xī 'é pī sī》（ Aethiopis， wǔ juàn） hé《 xiǎo yī lì yà tè》（ IliasMikra， sì juàn） yǐ jí《 tè luò yī shī xiàn》（ Niupersis， liǎng juàn） xù bǔ《 yī lì yà tè》 yǐ hòu de shì jiàn；《 huí guī》（ Nosti， wǔ juàn） xù jiǎng fǎn háng qián 'ā gā mén nóng hé mò nài láo sī guān yú huí fǎn lù xiàn de zhēng zhí， yǐ jí xiǎo 'āi 'ā sī zhī sǐ hé 'ā gā mén nóng huí jiā hòu bèi qī zǐ kè lǔ tài nài sī tè lā hé 'āi jí suǒ sī móu hài děng nèi róng。 hěn míng xiǎn， zhè sān bù shǐ shī tián bǔ liǎo《 yī lì yà tè》 hé《 ào dé sài） zhī jiān de“ kòngquē”。 jǐn jiē zhe 'é dǐ xiū sī huí guī de gù shì（ jí《 ào dé sài》）， kù ruì nài shī rén 'ōu gā méng（ Eugamon） chuàng zuò liǎo《 tè lè gē ní yà》（ Telegonia， liǎng juàn）， jiǎng shù 'é dǐ xiū sī hé jī 'ěr kǎi zhī zǐ tè lè gē nuò sī wài chū xún fù bìng zuì zhōng wù shā qí fù， yǐ hòu yòu hūn qǔ péi nài luó pèi děng shì jiàn。《 kù pǔ lì yà》 hé《 xiǎo yī lì yà tè》 děng shǐ shī nèi róng wú zá， jié gòu sōng sàn， quē shǎo bì yào de gài kuò hé tí liàn， qí yì shù chéng jiù yuǎn bù rú hé mǎ de《 yī lì yà tè》 hé《 ào dé sài》。 yà lǐ sī duō dé rèn wéi， shǐ shī shī rén zhōng， wéi yòu hé mǎ bǎi tuō liǎo lì shǐ de jú xiàn， zhuóyì yú mó fǎng yī gè wán zhěng de xíng dòng， bì miǎn liǎo“ liú shuǐ zhàng” shì de píng pū zhí xù， bìn qì liǎo“ sǎnshā yī pán” shì de zhěng tǐ bù jú。 [● ] cóng shí jiān shàng lái kàn，《 kù pǔ lǐ yà》 děng míng xiǎn de wǎn yú hé mǎ chuàng zuò de nián dài， tā men suǒ miáo shù de yī xiē qíng jié kě néng qǔ cái yú hé mǎ qù shì hòu kāi shǐ liú xíng de chuán shuō。
● chú liǎo hé mǎ de《 yī lì yà tè》 hé《 ào dé sài》 wài， qí tā shǐ shī jūn yǐ shī chuán。 cǐ wài， zhè xiē zuò pǐn huò shǐ shī zhǐ shì gǔ xī là shǐ shī xì liè（ epikoskuklos） zhōng de yī bù fēn。 wèile biàn yú qū fēn hé duì bǐ， chuán tǒng shàng， rén men yī bān bù bǎ hé mǎ shǐ shī liè rù epiccycle de fàn wéi。
●《 shī xué》 8·1451a16 héng 30， 26·1462B8 héng 11。
hé mǎ
lì shǐ shàng shì fǒu què céng yòu guò hé mǎ qí rén， xī là rén de huí dá shì kěn dìng de。 shēng huó zài gōng yuán qián qī shì jì shàng bàn yè de 'è fěi suǒ sī shī rén kǎ lì nuò sī（ Callinos） céng tí jí shǐ shī《 sài bài dé》， rèn wéi tā shì hé mǎ de zuò pǐn； shēng huó zài qián liù shì jì de sè pǔ fǎ nài sī（ Xenophanes） hé kāi 'é sī shī rén xī mó ní dé sī（ Simonides， yuē qián 556 héng 468 nián） yě céng tí jí hé mǎ de míng zì。
xī là rén xiāng xìn， hé mǎ（ Homeros） chū shēng zài xiǎo yà xì yà， kě néng zài yī 'é ní yà（ Ionia）， yě kě néng zài 'āi 'é lì sī（ Aeolis）。 gǔ shí hòu， zhì shǎo yòu qī gè dì fāng huò chéng shì jìng xiāng zhēng duó hé mǎ de“ suǒ yòu quán”， bāo kuò hé xiǎo yà xì yà gé hǎi xiāng wàng de yǎ diǎn hé 'ā 'ěr gē sī。 zài zhòng duō de jìng zhēng zhě zhōng， rén men jiào wéi qīng xiàng yú jiē shòu de yòu liǎng gè， jí yī 'é ní yà de jī 'é sī（ Chios） hé 'āi 'é lì yà de sī mù 'ěr nà（ Smuma）。 kāi 'é sī shī rén xī mó ní dé sī chēng hé mǎ wéi Chiosaner（ jī 'é sī rén） [● ]， pǐn dá zé rèn wéi jī 'é sī hé sī mù 'ěr nà tóng wéi hé mǎ de gù xiāng。 [● ] zhé xué jiā 'ā nà kè xī mò nài sī（ Anaximenes） rèn dìng hé mǎ de jiā xiāng zài jī 'é sī； shǐ xué jiā 'ā kù xī láo sī（ Acusilaos） hé hè lā ní kē sī（ Hellanikos） yě biǎo shì guò tóng yàng de yì xiàng。 cǐ wài， zài gǔ shí guī yú hé mǎ míng xià de“ ā bō luó sòng” lǐ， zuò zhě chēng zì jǐ shì gè“ máng rén”， lái zì“ shān shí lín xún de jī 'é sī。” [● ]
● piàn duàn 85， Bergk； lìng jiàn piàn duàn 8， West
● gǔ shí hòu， rén men chuán tǒng shàngjiàng sī mù 'ěr nà dìng wéi hé mǎ de chū shēng dì， ér jiāng jī 'é sī kàn zuò shì tā chuàng biān《 yī lì yà tè》 de dì fāng， jí《 yī lì yà tè》 de“ gù xiāng”。
●《 hé mǎ shī sòng》，“ ā bō luó sòng” 172。
sà mó sī shǐ xué jiā 'ōu gā 'áng（ Eugaion） xiāng xìn hé mǎ wéi sī mù 'ěr nà rén， hé mǎ wèn tí zhuān jiā、 sà suǒ sī rén sī tè xīn bó luó tuō sī（ Stesimbrotos， shēng huó zài qián wǔ shì jì） bù jǐn rèn dìng hé mǎ shì sī mù 'ěr nà rén， ér qiě hái shuō nà lǐ yòu shī rén de cí kān， shòu dào rén men xiàng jìng shén bān de chóng yǎng。 zài zǎo yǐ shī chuán de《 lùn shī rén》 lǐ， yà lǐ sī duō dé chēng hé mǎ zú yú xiǎo dǎo yī 'é sī（ Ios）， zhè yī tí fǎ kě néng qǔ zì dāng shí liú xíng de chuán wén。
àn xī luó duō dé tuī suàn（ yǐ měi bǎi nián sān dài rén jì）， hé mǎ de shēng huó nián dài，“ jù jīn zhì duō bù chāo guò sì bǎi nián”， huàn yán zhī， dà yuē zài gōng yuán qián 850 nián zuǒ yòu。 [● ] xī luó duō dé jiāng hé mǎ hé hēi xī 'é dé guī wéi tóng shí dài de shī rén， [● ] ér sè nuò fǎ nài sī zé yǐ wéi hé mǎ de huó dòng nián dài zǎo yú hēi xī 'é dé。 [● ] xiū xī dǐ dé duì cǐ yòu guò jiànjiē de tí shù， rèn wéi hé mǎ shēng huó zài tè luò yī zhàn zhēng zhī hòu， qí jiān bù huì yòu tài jiǔ yuǎn de nián xì。 [● ] zhì chí zài gōng yuán qián qī zhì liù shì jì， yǐ yòu rén yǐn yòng hé mǎ de shī jù； zhì qián wǔ shì jì， hé mǎ yǐ shì jiā yù hù xiǎo de míng zì。 yóu cǐ kě jiàn， jiāng hé mǎ de shēng huó nián dài tuī dìng zài gōng yuán qián bā shì jì（ zhì qī shì jì chū）， yīngdāng bù néng suàn shì tài guò cǎo shuài de。 yī bān rèn wéi，《 yī lì yà tè》 de chuàng biān shí jiān kě néng zài gōng yuán qián 750 zhì 675 nián jiān。
●《 lì shǐ》 2·53·2。
●《 lì shǐ》 2·53·2。
● piàn duàn B13， Diels héng Kranz。
●《 bó luó bēn ní sǎ zhàn zhēng shǐ》 l·3·3。
《 yī lì yà tè》
hé mǎ jì bù shì gǔ xī là wéi yī de、 yě bù shì zuì zǎo de shǐ shī shī rén。《 yī lì yà tè》 jī běn shàng qǔ yòng gǔ lǎo de yī 'é ní yà fāng yán， tóng shí yì bāo róng dà liàng de 'āi 'é lì sī fāng yán de yòng yǔ、 biàn gé hé qí tā yǔ fǎ tè zhēng， yòu de shèn zhì kě yǐ zhuī sù dào gǔ lǎo de mù kǎi nài shí dài。 cǐ wài， ā 'ěr kǎ dǐ yà yī sài pǔ lù sī fāng yán yě zài《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng liú xià liǎo tā de yìn jì。 hěn míng xiǎn， guān yú tè luò yī zhàn zhēng de shǐ shī qǐ yuán yú gǔ yuǎn de nián dài，（ kě néng） yǐ bù tài cháng de gù shì xíng shì liú chuán yú gōng tíng、 jūn yíng hé mín jiān。 hé mǎ de gōng jì， bù zài yú shǒu chuàng miáo shù tè luò yī zhàn zhēng de gù shì huò shǐ shī， ér zài yú guǎng zhēng bó cǎi， qiǎo zhì jīng biān， tái qián rén zhī cháng， bì zhòng jiā zhī duǎn， yǐ dà shī rén de qíng huái， dà yì shù jiā de gōng lì， chuàng zuò liǎo《 yī lì yà tè》 hé《 ào dé sài》 zhè liǎng bù bù xiǔ de shī piān。
Ilaias， jí《 yī lì yà tè》， yì wéi“ guān yú yī lì 'áng de gù shì” huò“ yī lì 'áng shī jì”， zuò wéi shī míng， zuì zǎo jiàn zhī yú xī luó duō dé de zhù zuò。《 yī lì yà tè》 gòng 'èr shí sì juàn（ xì hòu rén suǒ fēn）， 15,693（ ±） xíng， gè juàn de cháng dù cóng 429 dào 999 xíng bù děng。 hé mǎ shǐ shī cǎi yòng liù yīn bù cháng duǎn duǎn gé（ jí yáng yì yì gé）， qǔ qí qián cháng hòu duǎn de xià chōng zhī shì。 dàn shì， hé mǎ shǐ shī yòu bù shì cháng duǎn duǎn gé de“ yī tǒng tiān xià”。 shí jì shàng， chú dì wǔ yīn bù wài， qí tā yīn bù yì kě jiē shòu cháng cháng gé（ jí yáng yáng gé）； cǐ wài， dì liù yīn bù gèng shì cháng duǎn duǎn gé de“ jìn qū”， yī bān yòng cháng duǎn gé（ jí yáng yì gé） qǔ 'ér dài zhī。 zhè yàng， wǒ men kě yòng xià liè fú hào huò fú hào zǔ hé， biǎo shì hé mǎ shǐ shī（ huò liù yīn bù cháng duǎn duǎn gé xù shì shī， yīng xióng shǐ shī） de gé lǜ huò jié zòu xíng shì：
héng UUI héng UUI héng UUI héng UUI héng UUI héng UUI héng U
hé mǎ shì yī wèi yín sòng shī rén（ aoides）， shēng huó zài yī gè hái méi yòu shū miàn wén zì， huò shū miàn wén zì yǐ jīng shī chuán、 shàng wèi fù xīng huò chóngxīn shū rù（ zhì shǎo shàng bù guǎng fàn liú xíng） de shí dài。 suǒ yǐ，《 yī lì yà tè》 shǒu xiān shì yī bù kǒu tóu wén xué zuò pǐn。 kǒu sòng shǐ shī de yī gè gòng tóng hé xiǎn zhù de tè diǎn shì cǎi yòng yī zhěng tào gù dìng huò xiāng duì gù dìng de shì cí、 duǎn yǔ hé duàn luò。 xiǎn rán， zhè yī chuàng zuò fāng shì yòu zhù yú shī rén de gòu zhì。 jì yì yǐ jí nán dù hěn dà de lín chǎng yín sòng hé bù kě bì miǎn de jí xīng fā huī。 zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， ā gā mén nóng shì“ jūn duì de tǒng shuài”（ huò“ bīng zhòng de shǒu lǐng”）， mò nài láo sī shì“ xiào hǒu zhàn chǎng de” zhàn jiāng； wǒ men dú dào“ chén léi yuǎn bō de” zhòu sī。“ bái bì bǎng de” hè lā、“ zú zhì duō móu de” é dǐ xiū sī、“ tóu kuī shǎn liàng de” hè kè tuō 'ěr、“ jié zú de” ā jī liú sī、“ jìng jiá jiān gù de” ā kāi yà rén、“ jiǔ lán sè de” dà hǎi hé“ tǔ dì féi wò de” tè luò yī。 zhè xiē chéng shì huà yòng yǔ（ form ． lae） bù jǐn diǎn chū liǎo bèi xiū shì zhě（ míng cí， rén huò wù） de mǒu gè huò mǒu xiē tè diǎn。 shǔ xìng hé pǐn lèi， ér qiě yòu zhù yú xuàn rǎn hé mò shì shǐ shī níng zhòng、 hóng wěi hé sù mù de shī pǐn tè zhēng。 yīng xióng men“ gāo dà”、“ kuí wěi”、“ yīng jùn”， zài mǎn zú liǎo chī hē de yù wàng hòu xióng biàn tāo tāo， sòng tù“ cháng liǎo chì bǎng de huà yǔ”， huò tǎng xià xiǎng shòu shuì mián de xiāng tián。 yīng xióng men gǎn zuò gǎn wéi， shèng nù shí“ è hěn hěn dì dīng zhe” duì shǒu， zhèn wáng hòu cuì rán dǎo dì，“ hōng rán yī shēng， kǎi jiá zài shēn shàng kēng qiāng zuò xiǎng”。 tā men xiān shì quán fù wǔ zhuāng， jiē zhe chōng shàng zhàn chǎng， tiào xià zhàn chē， hé duì shǒu hù mà yī tōng， liào dǎo shù míng zhàn jiāng， bǎ dí rén gǎn dé huáng huáng bēn táo， rán hòu zì jǐ shòu cuò fù shāng， jǔ shǒu qiú gào shén yòu， chóngxīn huò dé yǒng qì hé lì liàng， jì xù zhàn dǒu， zhèn shā dí fāng de yóu shǒu。 jiē zhe， liǎng jūn wéi zhe shī tǐ zhǎn kāi 'è zhàn， shāng wáng cǎn zhòng， píng jiè shén de zhù yòu， cóng qiāng lín jiàn yǔ xià jiù chū zhèn wáng de jiànglǐng hé bàn yǒu。《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng miáo shù liǎo wǔ cì zhè yàng de“ zhuàng jǔ”（ aristeiai）， yòng liǎo lèi sì de mó shì， suī rán zài mǒu xiē dān xiàng shàng lüè yòu chū rù。 dà duàn de fù shù（ rú 2·11 héng 15， 23 héng 33， 60 héng 70， 9·123 héng 57， 354 héng 99 děng） yòu zhù yú jiǎn qīng shī rén de láo dòng qiáng dù， jiā cháng shǐ shī de piān fú， shēn huà tīng zhòng duì mǒu xiē nèi róng de yìn xiàng。
chéng shì huà yòng yǔ de xíng chéng hé fā zhǎn jīng lì liǎo màn cháng de suì yuè。 mǒu xiē yòng yǔ， yóu qí shì mǒu xiē shén zhī de zhǐ chēng， rú 'ā 'ěr jí fēng tè sī（ hè 'ěr mò sī）、 ā tè lǔ tuō nài（ yǎ diǎn nà） děng， zài hé mǎ shēng huó de nián dài kě néng yǐ shì“ huà shí” huò“ gǔ dǒng”。 zuò wéi shì cí，“ niú yǎn jīng de” kě néng chǎn shēng yú chóng bài tú téng de shí dài， zài hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ yǐ shī qù tā de zì miàn yì yì， chéng wéi“ měi lì de”、“ piào liàng de” tóng yì yǔ。
yī wèi shén huò yīng xióng wǎng wǎng yòu yī gè yǐ shàng、 shèn zhì jǐ shí gè shì cí huò chéng shì huà yòng yǔ。 shī rén kě yǐ gēn jù gé lǜ hé yīn bù de xū yào xuǎn yòng hé shì de shì cí。 yǐ duì zhòu sī wéi lì， zài bù tóng de shàng xià wén hé gé lǜ zǔ hé lǐ， shī rén yòng liǎo bù tóng de xiū shì chéngfèn， bāo kuò“ duō móu shàn duàn de”、“ huì jù wū yún de”、“ chén léi yuǎn bō de” děng děng。 tóng yàng， gēn jù gé lǜ hé yīn lǜ de xū yào， shī rén yòu shí yòng“ cháng fā de”， yòu shí zé yòng“ jìng jiá jiān gù de”， ǒu 'ěr yě yòng“ shēn pī tóng jiá de” xiū shì 'ā kāi yà rén。 gé lǜ hé yīn lǜ yuán zé zhì yuē zhe shī rén de yòng cí， tóng shí yě fēng fù liǎo shǐ shī de yǔ yán， zēng qiáng liǎo tā de biǎo xiàn lì。 zhòng duō de shì cí shǐ shī rén yòu kě néng bù jǐn gēn jù gé lǜ de yào qiú， ér qiě hái néng zhào gù dào yì sī huò yǔ yì de xū yào， xuǎn yòng hé shì de yòng yǔ。 dāng 'ā jī liú sī chóu bèi pà tè luó kè luò sī de zàng lǐ shí， tā jiù bù zài shì“ jié zú de” yīng xióng， ér shì“ xīn xiōng háo zhuàng de” huǒ bàn， yīn wéi zài zhè yī yǔ jìng zhōng， hòu zhě sì hū bǐ qián zhě gèng jù zhuāng zhòng sù mù de sè cǎi。 rán 'ér， yòu shí， wèile zhào gù gé lǜ hé jù shì de guī zhěng， yě wéi liǎo wéi hù shǐ shī zhōng chéng shì huà yòng yǔ de wěn dìng xìng， shī rén yì huì yòu yì shí dì“ hū lüè” shì cí de yuán yì， ér bǎ tā men dàngzuò chún cuì de gé lǜ chéngfèn， fù jiā zài míng cí huò bèi xiū shì chéngfèn zhī shàng。 lì rú， wǒ men yī bān bù huì bǎ 'è mó bō lǔ fěi mó sī kàn zuò shì“ shén yī yàng de”（《 ào dé sài》 l·70） yīng xióng， yě bù huì qīng xiàng yú rèn wéi“ zūn guì de mǔ qīn” fú hé qǐ gài yī luó sī niàn qīn de shēn fèn（《 ào dé sài 10·5）。 yòu de chéng shì huà shì cí míng xiǎn dì bù fú hé bèi xiū shì chéngfèn dāng shí de zhuàng tài hé chǔjìng。 bǐ rú， ā fú luó dǐ tè zài yuān sù shí réng rán shì“ huān xiào de”（ 5·375）， bái rì de qíng kōng shì“ duō xīng de”（ 8·46）， ér 'āng zàng de yī fú zhào jiù shì“ shǎn guāng de”（《 ào dé sài》 6·26） děng děng。
hé mǎ shì yī wèi gōng dǐ shēn hòu、 xiǎng xiàng fēng fù、 shàn yú chuàng xīn de yǔ yán dà shī。《 yī lì yà tè》“ cí zhāng huá lì， miào yǔ dié chū， jīng cǎi、 shēng dòng de yòng cí hé bǐ yù fǔ shí jiē shì。 hé mǎ zhī yòng 'àn yù（ rú“ zhàn dǒu de píng zhàng”（ yù shàn zhàn de zhuàng yǒng）。“ yáng qún de mǔ qīn”（ yù shān dì）， dàn què gèng wéi shú xī， yě gèng shàn shǐ yòng míng yù。《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng de míng yù fēn liǎng lèi， yī lèi wéi jiǎn dān xíng， lìng yī lèi zé shì cóng jiǎn dān xíng de jī chǔ shàng fā zhǎn 'ér lái de fù zá xíng。 jiǎn dān xíng míng yù de jié gòu tè zhēng shì A xiàng B。 āi 'ā sī de zhàn dùn“ xiàng yī dǔ qiáng”， bīng yǒng men xiàng láng huò shī zǐ sì dì zhàn dǒu。 ā bō luó cóng 'é lín bō sī shàng xià lái，“ xiàng hēi yè yī bān”（ l·47）； sài tí sī cóng hǎi lǐ chū lái，“ xiàng yī céng bó wù”（ l·359）。 cǐ lèi míng yù， hé mǎ yòng lái dé xīn yìng shǒu， yùtiē zì rú， qí jì qiǎo kě wèi yǐ dá lú huǒ chún qīng de dì bù。
lìng yī lèi míng yù， jí fù zá xíng míng yù， zài qí tā mín zú zǎo qī de shǐ shī zhōng jué shǎo chū xiàn， dàn zài hé mǎ shǐ shī zhōng què shì gè yòng lì zhòng duō、 qū yú pǔ tōng de yǔ yán xiàn xiàng。 cǐ lèi míng yù de jié gòu tè zhēng shì zài A xiàng B zhī hòu fù jiā yī zhěng duàn wán zhěng de nèi róng， qí xiū shì huò jiě shuō duì xiàng bù shì jiē shòu yù shì de A， ér shì zuò wéi yù xiàng wù de B。 lì rú：
rú tóng yī wèi mài 'é ní yà huò kǎ lǐ yà fù nǚ， yòng xiān hóng de yán liào
tú qī xiàng yá， zhì zuò yù mǎ de jiá piàn， jìn guǎn xǔ duō yù shǒu
wéi zhī tuò xián yù dī， tā què jìng jìng dì tǎng zài
lǐ wū， zuò wéi wáng zhě de jiā bǎo， shòu dào shuāngchóng de
zhēn 'ài， jì shì mǎ de shì wù， yòu néng wéi yù zhě zēng tiān róng guāng。（ 4·141 － 45）
tōng cháng， shī rén yǐ“ jiù xiàng zhè yàng ……” jié shù míng yù， jì xù gù shì de jìn chéng：
jiù xiàng zhè yàng， mò nài láo sī， xiān xuè jìn rǎn liǎo nǐ qiáng jiàn de
dà tuǐ， nǐ de xiǎo tuǐ hé xiàn tiáo fēn míng de huái gǔ。（ 4·146 héng 47）
yī bān shuō lái， shǐ shī shǔ xù shì shī de fàn chóu。《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng de xù shù fēn liǎng zhǒng， yī zhǒng shì shī rén yǐ jiǎng xù zhě de shēn fèn suǒ zuò de xù shù， lìng yī zhǒng shì shī rén yǐ rén wù de shēn fèn suǒ jìn xíng de biǎo shù、 biǎo bái hé duì huà。 yà lǐ sī duō dé chēng dì yī zhǒng xíng shì wéi“ miáo shù”， chēng dì 'èr zhǒng xíng shì wéi“ biǎo yǎn”。 [● ]《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng， zhí jiē yǐn yǔ yuē zhàn yī bàn zuǒ yòu， ér zhí jiē yǐn yǔ jí wéi rén wù de xù shù（ bāo kuò fù shù）， jìn sì yú jù zhōng rén（ dramafispersonae） de huà bái。 háo wú yí wèn， cǐ lèi yǔ yán xíng shì wéi biǎo yǎn shì xù shù tí gōng liǎo xiàn chéng de cái liào。 cóng zhè gè yì yì shàng lái shuō，《 yī lì yà tè》 shì jiè yú chún cuì de xù shì shī（ jí shī rén wán quán huò jī běn shàng yǐ jiǎng shù zhě de shēn fèn xù shù） hé xì jù（ shī） zhī jiān de yī zhǒng shī gē xíng shì。 bólātú rèn wéi， hé mǎ shǐ shī shǔ yú bēi jù de fàn chóu， [● ] ér hé mǎ shì“ dì yī gè bēi jù shī rén”。 [● ]
●《 shī xué》 3·1448a21 héng 24。
●《 gòng hé guó》 10·595C。
●《 gòng hé guó》 10·607A。
《 yī lì yà tè》 miáo shù liǎo yīcháng hōng hōng liè liè de zhàn zhēng zhōng zuì bēi zhuàng de yī yè。 tā zhǎn shì liǎo zhàn zhēng de bào liè， hé píng de kě guì； shū biǎo liǎo shèng lì de xǐ yuè， shī bài de tòng kǔ； miáo shù liǎo yīng xióng de yè jì， zhēng zhàn de jiān nán。 tā chǎn shì rén hé shén de guān xì， shěn shì rén de shǔ xìng hé jià zhí； tā píng gū rén zài zhàn zhēng zhōng de dé shī， tàn suǒ cuī shǐ rén men xíng dòng de nèi wài yīn sù； zài yī gè shén rén huì zá、 shì shí hé xiǎng xiàng bìng cún、 guò qù hé xiàn zài jiāo róng de wén xué píng miàn shàng duì yǐng xiǎng rén de shēng huó、 jué dìng rén de sī xiǎng、 zhì dǎo rén de xíng wéi de yī xì liè zhòng dà wèn tí， jìn xíng liǎo yán sù de、 rèn zhēn de、 yòu shēn dù de tàn tǎo。
《 yī lì yà tè》 suǒ chù jí de yī gè zuì gēn běn de wèn tí shì rén shēng de yòu xiàn hé zài zhè yī yòu xiàn de rén shēng zhōng rén duì shēng mìng hé cún zài jià zhí de suǒ qǔ。 hé píng shí qī de shēng huó shì měi hǎo de。 niú yáng zài shān pō shàng màn bù， gū niàn men zài quán xī biān huàn xǐ； nián qīng rén chuān suō zài xiào yǔ zhī zhōng， xǐ qì yáng yáng dì cǎi xié fēng chǎn de pú táo。 shī rén tánbō shù qín， dòng qíng de yǐnháng gāo gē； gū niàn xiǎo huǒ men chuānzhuó piào liàng de yī shān， tiào chū huān kuài de wǔ bù（ 18·561 héng 72）。 rán 'ér， jí biàn shì diǎn xíng yì yì shàng de xìng fú shēng huó， yě bù kě bì miǎn dì bāo yùn zhe bēi chóu de zhǒng zǐ， rén de shǔ lèi shǐ tā zuì zhōng wú fǎ bǎi tuō sǐ de pò xié。 rén shì huì sǐ de， bù guǎn tā yuàn bù yuàn yì jiàn dào sǐ de jiàng lín。 rén shēng duǎn zàn， duǎn dé ràng rén bù hán 'ér lì：
liè dì zhī shén， nǐ huì yǐ wèiwǒ tóu nǎo fā rè，
cháng ruò wǒ hé nǐ kāi dǎ， wèile kě lián de fán rén。
tā men xiàng shù yè yī yàng， yī shí jiān fēng huá sēn mào，
rú huǒ de shēng jī， shí yòng dà dì cuī chǎn de shuò guǒ； rán 'ér hǎo jǐng bù cháng，
tā men kū jié shuāi lǎo， tǐ huǐ rén wáng。（ 21·462 héng 6）
rén shēng rú tóng shù yè de cuī fā hé kū wáng； zài dì liù juàn dì 145 héng 49 xíng lǐ， hé mǎ yǐ biǎo shù guò zhè yī sī xiǎng。 zài zhàn zhēng zhōng， zài nǐ sǐ wǒ huó de jiǎo shā zhōng， sǐ wáng měi shí měi kè dōuzài fā shēng； rén men jiān jiào zhe fēn fēn dǎo dì，“ tóu liǎn cháo xià”，“ shǒu zhuā ní chén”。 sǐ shén bǎ chéng bǎi shàng qiān de zhuàng yǒng tuō rén yīn 'àn de dì fǔ； zhàn zhēng zhāng kāi xuè pén dà kǒu， tūn shì nián qīng de dǒu shì， cuì jiáo péng bó de rén shēng。 jí biàn yǒng liè rú 'ā jī liú sī， zuì zhōng yě jiāng zǒu shàng zhàn sǐ jiāng chǎng de xīn suān lù：
dàn xiàn zài， shuí yě béng xiǎng sǐ lǐ táo shēng， cháng ruò shén 3 shì bǎ tā sòng dào
wǒ de shǒu lǐ， zài zhè yī lì 'áng chéng qián…… suǒ yǐ，
wǒ de péng yǒu， nǐ yě bì sǐ wú yí。 jì rú cǐ， nǐ yòu hé bì zhè bān jí shǒu tòng xīn？
pà tè luó kè luò sī yǐ jīng sǐ qù， yī wèi yuǎn bǐ nǐ jié chū de zhàn yǒng。
hái yòu wǒ héng héng méi kàn jiàn má？ cháng dé hé děng gāo dà、 yīng wǔ，
yòu yī wèi xiǎn hè de fù qīn， ér shēng wǒ de mǔ qīn gèng shì yī wèi bù sǐ de nǚ shén。
rán 'ér， jiù lián wǒ yě táo bù tuō sǐ hé qiáng yòu lì de mìng yùn de pò xié，
jiāng zài mǒu yī tiān fú xiǎo、 huáng hūn huò zhōng wǔ，
bèi mǒu yī gè rén fàng dǎo， zài zhàn dǒu zhōng，
yòng tóu qiāng， huò shì lí xián de jiàn zú。（ 21·103 héng 13） bīng yǒng men zhī xiǎo tā men de shǐ mìng， tā men de guī sù； nà shì zhàn dǒu de rén shēng。 zhèng rú 'é dǐ xiū sī kāng kǎi chén cí de nà yàng：…… wǒ men， àn zhe
zhòu sī de yì zhì， lì jīng cán kù de zhàn zhēng， cóng qīng zhuàng
dǎ dào lǎo nián， zhí zhì sǐ wáng， shuí yě bù néng xìng miǎn。（ qiě 485 héng 87） shēng mìng duǎn zàn， zhàn zhēng wú qíng。 dàn shì， zhuàng yǒng men bìng méi yòu bēi guān shī wàng， xiāo jí tuí fèi， yě méi yòu yīn cǐ tān shēng pà sǐ， wèi suō bù qián。 bù cuò， fán rén de shēng jù jiù xiàng shù yè yī yàng， qiū fēng yī qǐ， lái lái luò dì， yī qù bù fǎn。 dàn shì， cháng ruò
…… yī rì
chūn fēng fú qǐ， zhī gān biàn huì chōu fā róng mì de xīn lǜ。
rén tóng cǐ lǐ， xīn de yī dài jué qǐ， lǎo de yī dài sǐ qù。（ 6·147 héng 49）
rén shēng chōng mǎn shēng jī， chōng mǎn chuàng jiàn gōng yè de xī wàng hé xǐ yuè。 shì dài de gēngtì gěi jiā zú dài lái de bù shì bēi shēng yàn shì de qíng xù， bù shì yuàn tiān yóu rén de bēi tàn， bù shì wú suǒ zuò wéi hé mò mò wú wén， ér shì qiāng mǎ chuàng lì de bà yè， hàn xuè jiāo zhù de yīng míng， shì dài xiāng chuán de měi tán。 zhàn yǒng men bù yàn qí fán dì duì zhe dí rén dà duàn dì xuān jiǎng zì jǐ de zōng pǔ， cóng zhōng xiǎng shòu zuò wéi yīng xióng hòu dài de guāng róng hé jiāo 'ào。 zhàn zhēng chéng rán wú qíng， sǐ wáng què shí kě pà， dàn zhàn shì de zé zhí shì xiào mìng jiāng chǎng， zhàn shì de róng yù shì pīn shā lǔ lüè， zhàn shì de xǐ yuè shì qiān gǔ liú fāng：
wǒ de péng yǒu 'ā， yào shì nǐ wǒ néng cóng zhè chǎng zhàn dǒu zhōng shēng hái，
dé yǐ cháng shēng bù sǐ， jù lǎo kàng shuāi， yǔ tiān dì tóng cún，
wǒ jiù zài yě bù huì zhàn zài qián pái lǐ zhàn dǒu，
yě bù huì zài yào nǐ chōng xiàng zhàn chǎng， rén men zhēng dé róng yù de dì fāng。
dàn xiàn zài， sǐ de jīng líng zhèng 'āi zhàn zài wǒ men shēn biān，
shù qiān yīn yǐng， shuí yě táo shēng bù dé， duǒ bù guò tā de jī dǎ héng héng
suǒ yǐ， ràng wǒ men chōng shàng qián qù， yào me wéi zì jǐ zhēng dé róng guāng， yào me bǎ tā
gǒng shǒu ràng gěi dí rén！（ 12·322 héng 28） zài xiàng duì shǒu tiǎo zhàn shí， hè kè tuō 'ěr gāo shēng hǎn dào， cháng ruò ràng tā dé shǒu， tā jiāng bǎ yí tǐ jiāo hái cháng fā de 'ā kāi yà rén， shǐ tā men dé yǐ lǐ zàng sǐ zhě， duī fén zhù mù， zài kào hǎi de dì fāng。 tā yù yán：
jiāng lái， yòu rén lù jīng cǐ dì， jià zhe dài zuò bǎn de hǎi chuán，
pò làng zài jiǔ lán sè de yáng miàn， tiào jiàn zhè gè tǔ duī， biàn huì chū yán gǎn tàn：
“ nà lǐ mái zhe yī gè zhàn sǐ jiāng chǎng de gǔ rén，
yī wèi yǒng gǎn de zhuàng shì， dǎo sǐ zài guāng róng de hè kè tuō 'ěr shǒu xià。”
jiāng lái， yòu rén huì rú cǐ shuō gào， ér wǒ de róng yù jiāng yǔ shì cháng cún。
（ 7·87 héng 91） jīn shēng cōng hū， suǒ yǐ zài suǒ bì zhēng； shēng mìng kě guì， suǒ yǐ bì xū zhēn xī。 cái fù kě yǐ tōng guò lüè jié huò qǔ， dàn rén de hún xī， yī jīng huá chū chǐ xì， jiù wú fǎ“ zài yòng bào jié lüè huí， yě bù néng tōng guò yì jiǎ fù guī”。 ā jī liú sī nìngkě zuò yī gè nóng rén de bāng gōng， yě bù yuàn dāng míng fǔ lǐ guǐ hún de wáng zhě（《 ào dé sài》 12·489 héng 21）。 rán 'ér， duì shēng mìng de zhì 'ài， méi yòu shǐ yīng xióng chéng wéi shēng mìng de nú pú héng héng chú kāi shén de yīn sù， tā men shǐ zhōng shì tā de zhù rén。 míng zhī mìng yùn xiǎn 'è， dàn què jù bù xiàng tā qū fú； míng zhī zhēng zhàn jiān nán， dàn jí shǐ dǎ dào tóu pò xuè liú， yě yào pīn gè nǐ sǐ wǒ huó。 huó yào huó dé yáng méi tù qì， sǐ yào sǐde míng míng bái bái。 zài hēi wù mí màn de zhàn chǎng shàng， tè lā méng zhī zǐ 'āi 'ā sī hǎn chū liǎo bēi fèn de hūháo：
ò， fù qīn zhòu sī， bǎ 'ā kāi yà rén de 'ér zǐ men lā chū mí wù bā！
ràng yáng guāng zhào xiè， shǐ wǒ men chóngjiàn tiān rì！ bǎ wǒ men shā sǐ bā，
shā sǐ zài càn làn de rì guāng lǐ， rú guǒ cǐ shí cǐ kè， huǐ miè wǒ men néng shǐ nǐ huān yuè！
（ 17·645 héng 47） yòng yòu xiàn de shēng mìng kàng jù wú xiàn de kùn kǔ hé mó nán， zài duǎn cù de yī shēng zhōng shǐ shēng mìng zuì dà xiàn duódì huò qǔ hé zhǎn xiàn zì shēn de jià zhí， shǐ tā zài kàng zhēng de zuì chì liè de rè diǎn shàng shǎn shuò chū yǒng lì、 zhì huì hé jìn qǔ de guāng huá。 zhè biàn shì hé mǎ de yǒng shì men de rén shēng， fán rén shì tú chōng pò 'ér yòu wú fǎ chōng pò zì shēn de jú xiàn de bēi zhuàng（ lìng jiàn“ yīng xióng” jié）。 hěn míng xiǎn， zhè shì rén shēng de bēi jù， yě shì rén shēng de zì háo。 suī rán zhè yī zhù tí zài hòu shì de bēi jù zuò jiā、 yóu qí shì suǒ fú kè lè sī de zuò pǐn zhōng dé dào liǎo lín lí jìn zhì de fā huī héng héng wǒ men bù yào wàng jì， shì hé mǎ hé tā de《 yī lì yà tè》 shǒu xiān jiào wǒ men kàn dào rén shēng de bēi kǔ， rén shēng de yīng liè， rén shēng de miǎo xiǎo hé wěi dà。
yīng xióng
àn zhào hé mǎ de guān diǎn， yīng xióng huò zhuàng shì shì shén de hòu yì， tiān zhī jiāo zǐ， fán rén zhōng de chǒng 'ér。 yīng xióng men jù bèi fán rén suǒ xiàn mù de yī qiē， shì 'ā kāi yà rén zhōng de jùn jié（ aristeespanachaion）。 tā men chū shēn gāo guì， rén réndōu yòu xiǎn hè de mén dì， kě zī kuā yào de jiā zú， zuò bà yī fāng， wáng tǒng tiān xià。 tā men xiàngmào jùn měi， yí biǎo táng táng， hè lì jī qún zài yún yún zhòng shēng zhī zhōng。 ā jī liú sī shì nán xìng měi de diǎn fàn（《 ào dé sài》 11·470）。 qián wǎng shú qǔ 'ér zǐ yí tǐ de pǔ lǐ 'ā mó sī， zài“ mǎn zú liǎo chī hē de yù wàng hòu”， níng mù 'ā jī liú sī，
jīng mù tā de jùn měi， gāo dà tǐng bá de shēn qū， jiù xiàng
shén míng yī bān……（ 24·630 héng 31） zài tè luò yī chéng lóu shàng， pǔ lǐ 'ā mó sī wàng zhe 'ā gā mén nóng de xióng zī， kāi kǒu wèn dào（ duì hǎi lún）：
zǒu jìn xiē， gào sù wǒ tā de míng zì， nà gè wěi 'àn de yǒng shì，
tā shì shuí， nà wèi qiáng jiàn、 zhuàng shí de 'ā kāi yà rén？
wǒ cóng wèi jiàn guò rú cǐ chū lèi bá cuì de rén wù，
zhè gǔ gāo háo de qì pài héng héng cǐ rén bì shì yī wèi wáng guì！（ 3·166 héng 70） yīng xióng 'é dǐ xiū sī， suī shuō bǐ 'ā gā mén nóng 'ǎi liǎo yī tóu， dàn tā de jiān bǎng hé xiōng bèi què cháng dé gèng wéi kuān hòu（ 3·193 héng 94）。
yīng xióng men bǎng kuò yāo yuán， lì dà rú niú。 āi 'ā sī de zhàn dùn dà dé xiàng yī miàn wéi qiáng， ér 'ā jī liú sī“ jǐn píng yī jǐ zhī lì， jí kě bǎ tā tǒng rù jiǎn kǒng” de chā gàng， xū yào sān gè 'ā kāi yà rén fāng néng shuān lǒng hé lā kāi（ 24·454 héng 56）。 shuò dà de shí yán， dāng jīn zhī rén， jí biàn zhàn chū liǎng gè， yě mò tā nài hé， ér tú diū sī zhī zǐ dí 'é mò dé sī què jǐn píng yī jǐ zhī lì， qīng sōng dì bǎ tā gāo jǔ guò tóu（ 5·303－ 4）。 hěn zì rán， zài hé mǎ kàn lái， shén de xuè mài， gāo guì de wáng jiā zǐ dì， yào shì méi yòu guò rén de yǒng lì， nà shì huāng táng de。 yīng xióng shì lì liàng de xiàng zhēng。
jìn guǎn zhàn zhēng shì“ kě pà de”、“ kě hèn de”、“ tú rén de”， zhuàng shì men què shì zhàn rú mìng，“ kě wàng zhe” chōng zhàn shā dí， pǐn wèi“ zhàn dǒu de xǐ yuè”。 yǒng gǎn zhàn dǒu shì zǔ chuán de gǔ xùn。 gé láo sī duì qiū 'é mò dé sī rǎng dào： jiā fù
yào wǒ yīng yǒng zuò zhàn， bǐ shuídōu yǒng gǎn， yǐ qiú chū rén tóu dì，
bù zhì rǔ méi wǒ de qián bèi， shēngzhǎng zài 'è fú lā
hé liáo kuò de lǔ jī yà de zuì yǒng gǎn de rén。（ 6·208 héng 10） tā men bù jǐn shì zhàn， ér qiě shàn zhàn héng héng tiān dǐ xià nǎ yòu yīng xióng bù huì dǎ zhàng de dào lǐ？ miàn duì 'āi 'ā sī de wēi xié， hè kè tuō 'ěr（ zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， tā hái bù shì chāo yī liú de zhàn jiāng） zhēn fēng xiāng duì， kāi kǒu zuò liǎo yī fān“ zì wǒ jiè shào”：
wǒ qǐng shú gé zhàn de mén dào， shā rén shì wǒ jīng tōng de jué huó。
wǒ zhī dào rú hé zuǒ dǐ yòu dǎng， yòng niú pí jiān rèn de
zhàn dùn， cǐ nǎi fáng wèi de gāo zhāo。
wǒ zhī dào rú hé jià zhe kuài mǎ， shā rén fēi páo de chē zhèn；
wǒ zhī dào rú hé gōng zhàn， dàng kāi zhàn shén tòu zhe shā qì de wǔ bù。（ 7·237 héng 41） zhuàng shì men bù jǐn shàn shǐ qiāng máo， ér qiě néng yòng kǒu shé。 hé mǎ shǐ shī zhōng de yīng xióng shì kǒu cái chū zhòng de biàn zhě， xíng dòng guǒ gǎn de yǒng shì（ 9·443， lìng jiàn 2·273， 18·105 héng 6， 18·252）。 yǒng měng háo qiáng， xióng biàn tāo tāo， fāng wéi yīng xióng běn sè， fán rén de jiē mó。 huì chǎng， rú tóng zhàn chǎng yī yàng， shì rén men“ zhēng dé róng yù de dì fāng”（ 1·490）。 zuò wéi 'ā jī liú sī de sī rén jiào shī， fú yī ní kè sī fù zé jiào shòu biàn shuō de jì qiǎo huò běn lǐng， yīn wéi xióng biàn“ shǐ rén chū lèi bá cuì”。 néng móu shàn biàn de 'é dǐ xiū sī zhī suǒ yǐ shòu dào quán jūn de 'ài dài， chú liǎo zuò zhàn yǒng gǎn hé shòu dào yǎ diǎn nà de tè bié guān zhào wài， chū zhòng de biàn cái yì shì yī gè bù kě hū lüè de yuán yīn。 tè luò yī zhì zhě 'ān tè nuò 'ěr zàn shǎng mò nài láo sī de biǎo shù， rèn wéi tā yòng cí jīng liàn， chū yán xùn jié， dàn què gèng wéi zàn shǎng 'é dǐ xiū sī de wěn dǔ， zàn mù tā de cí fēng hé wú yǔ lún bǐ de huà biàn：
dàn shì， dāng hóng liàng de shēng yīn chōng chū tā de dān tián， cí jù xiàng dōng tiān de
xuě piàn yī yàng fēn fēn yáng yáng dì piāo lái shí， fán rén zhōng jiù bù huì yòu tā de duì shǒu；
shuí yě bù néng pǐ dí 'é dǐ xiū sī de kǒu cái！（ 3·221 héng 23） wén wǔ shuāng quán de nài sī tuō 'ěr， suī shuō nián jì qīng qīng（ zài tā nián qīng shí dài）， què yǐ néng zhēng zhàn lǔ lüè， huān yuè fù qīn de xīn xiōng（ 11·682 héng 84）； yòng tā de rú huáng zhī shé， dà jiāng bēn shuǐ bān de biàn cái， zhēng dé tóng liáo men de mù 'ài， shǐ tā men qīng tīng tā de yì jiàn， zūn zhòng tā de yán lùn（ 1·273）。 nián qīng de dí 'é mò dé sī jì shì zhàn chǎng shàng de zhù jiāng， yòu shì huì chǎng shàng de jīng yīng， tā de cái huá bó dé liǎo lǎo yīng xióng nài sī tuō 'ěr de chēng zàn：
tú diū sī zhī zǐ， lùn zhàn dǒu， nǐ yǒngguàn quán jūn；
lùn móu biàn， nǐ yì shì tóng líng rén zhōng de jiǎo jié。
ā kāi yà rén zhōng， shuí yě bù néng qīng shì nǐ de yì jiàn，
fǎn bó nǐ de yán lùn……
…… nǐ， miàn duì 'ā 'ěr jí wéi rén de
wáng zhě， shuō huà tóu tóu shì dào， tiáo lǐ fēn míng。（ 9·53 héng 59） bù guò， dí 'é mò dé sī de biàn cái hái méi yòu zhēn dá dēng fēng zào jí de shuǐ píng， yīn wéi tā hái nián qīng héng héng lùn nián líng， kě zuò nài sī tuō 'ěr de 'ér zǐ，“ zuì xiǎo de 'ér zǐ”。
yīng xióng shì jiè de jià zhí guān de zhōng xīn nèi róng shì time（ róng yù、 shēng yù、 miàn zǐ）。 tā men bǎ gè rén de róng yù hé zūn yán kàn zuò shì bǐ shēng mìng gèng zhòng yào， yīn 'ér shì gèng kě guì de dōng xī。 sǔn hài zhuàng shì de time， duó zǒu yīnggāi shǔ yú tā de suǒ yòu， yì wèi zhe mò dà de cì jī hé mào fàn。 wéi hù zì jǐ de time yì jí wéi hù zì jǐ de rén gé、 jiā zú de míng yù hé rén jì guān xì de gōng zhèng， jí dike。 xiǎn rán， rú guǒ fā zhǎn bù dāng， wù rù qí tú， time shì bǎ yīng xióng tuī xiàng at6 hé hubris（ jiàn xià wén） de yī gè zhòng yào de jià zhí guān fāng miàn de yīn sù。 yǒng lì hé biàn cái shì yīng xióng shǒu zhōng de liǎng zhǒng wǔ qì； tōng guò tā men， zhuàng tǔ wéi zì jǐ hé jiā zú zhēng dé tǔ dì、 cái fù hé zūn róng， wéi chí、 gǒng gù hé hàn wèi yǐ yòu de shè huì dì wèi、 fēn pèi gé jú hé jì dé lì yì。
wú yōng zhì yí， yīng xióng bù shì wán rén de tóng yì cí。 tā men（ zhì shǎo tā men zhōng de xǔ duō rén） kùn yú rén shēng de jú xiàn， shòu yù niàn de zhī pèi hé time de cuī jī， yòu zhe bǐng xìng huò xìng gé shàng de ruò diǎn huò quē diǎn。 yóu yú 'ā gā mén nóng de kuáng bào， duó zǒu 'ā jī liú sī de nǚ bàn， cóng 'ér dǎo zhì zhè wèi lián jūn zhōng zuì jié chū de zhuàng yǒng xié nù bà zhàn， shǐ xī là rén zāo shòu cǎn zhòng de shāng wáng。 dāng pà lā sī · yǎ diǎn nà cóng tiān shàng xià fán， shì tú zǔ zhǐ 'ā jī liú sī hé 'ā gā mén nóng huǒ bìng shí， péi liú sī zhī zǐ kāi kǒu zé wèn dào：
dài 'āi jí sī de zhòu sī de hái zǐ， wèihé xiàn shí jiàng lín？ xiǎng kàn kàn
ā tè róu sī zhī zǐ， kàn kàn 'ā gā mén nóng de jiāo héng bá hù（ hubris） má？
（ l·202－ 3） nài sī tuō 'ěr pī píng 'ā gā mén nóng bèi gāo 'ào hé kuáng nù méng zhù liǎo shuāng yǎn， qū rǔ liǎo quán jūn zuì hǎo de zhàn yǒng； ā gā mén nóng jiē shòu tā de zhǐ zé， chéng rèn“ wǒ shì fēng liǎo…… xiā liǎo yǎn， tīng rèn 'è nù de qū shǐ”（ 9·116 héng 19）， bìng yuàn ná chū fēng hòu de cháng lǐ， mí bǔ guò shī。 tā gǎn tàn dào， shì kè luó nuò sī zhī zǐ bǎ tā tuī rù liǎo kuáng máng（ ate） de xiàn jǐng（ 9·18）。 tóng yàng， ā jī liú sī de bēi jù yě yòu tā zì shēn fāng miàn de yuán yīn。 tā gù zhí、 gāng bì、 kuáng mán， lián shēn biān zuì qīn mì de bàn yǒu duì tā yì bù wú wēi yán， shuō tā“ gāng liè、 cū bào， shèn zhì kě duì yī gè wú gū zhī rén dòng nù fā huǒ”（ 11·654）。“ cǐ rén quán rán bù gù lǐ miàn” héng héng 'ā bō luó mà dào héng héng“ xīn xiōng kuáng mán， piān wán zhíniù， xiàng yī tóu shī zǐ， chén nì yú zì jǐ de yǒng lì hé gāo 'ào”（ 24·40 héng 42）。 miàn duì 'ā jī liú sī chóngxīn chū zhàn de yán kù jú miàn， tóu nǎo lěng jìng de pǔ lǔ dá mǎ sī quàn shuō hè kè tuō 'ěr tuì bīng chéng bǎo， yǐ biàn zài chéng nèi kàng jī 'ā kāi yà rén de jìn gōng， dàn hè kè tuō 'ěr bù dàn bù tīng zhōng gào， fǎn 'ér“ è hěn hěn dì dīng zhe tā”， bǎ tā mà dé gǒu xuè pēn tóu。 hè kè tuō 'ěr de mánhèng hé bào nüè zào chéng liǎo yán zhòng de hòu guǒ； tā zàng huǐ liǎo jūn duì de qián chéng， duàn sòng liǎo zì jǐ de xìng mìng。
shén
hé mǎ miáo shù liǎo yī gè hàodòu de、 shàn yú cí lìng 'ér bù huì huò hěn shǎo jìn hángdào dé shuō jiào de shén de qún tǐ。 hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ de zhòng shén， bù shì pǔ dù zhòng shēng de pú sà， yě bù shì zuò wéi dào dé jiē mó de jī dū， yì bù shì zuò wéi fán rén de jīng shén jì tuō de mù hǎn mò dé。 gǔ xī là shī rén yǐ rén de xíng xiàng、 xìng qíng、 xīn tài hé xíng wéi fāng shì wéi yuán xíng， chuàng zào huò sù zào liǎo yī gè shén de qún tǐ。 zài hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ， shén men 'àn rén de xīn lǐ dòng jī sī kǎo hé xíng dòng， yòu zhe rén de qī qíng liù yù， yán yòng rén de shè qún tè diǎn， rén de jiāo jì mó shì。 shén men fēn xiǎng rén de ruò diǎn hé dào dé fāng miàn de bù wán shàn héng héng shén shì bù sǐ de fán rén。 zài nà gè shí dài， shén hé rén de jiāo wǎng shì zhí jiē 'ér jù tǐ de。 shén de cānyù guàn chuānzhuó zhěng bù《 yī lì yà tè》 de jìn chéng。 shén kě yǐ zài tā huò tā xū yào de rèn hé shí hòu（ chú fēi shòu dào zhòu sī de zǔ zhǐ） xià dào fán jiān， xún zhǎo rèn hé yī gè yào zhǎo de fán rén， tán lùn rèn hé xiǎng yào tán lùn de shì qíng。 zuò wéi yī zhǒng gōu tōng de fāng shì， fán rén kě yǐ tōng guò qí dǎo qiú dé shén de bāng zhù。
hé fán rén yī yàng， shén yǐ jiā tíng huò jiā zú de xíng shì cún zài， ér zhòu sī shì shén jiè de jiāzhǎng huò lǚ cháng。 shén jiè de quán wēi shèn zhì bǐ rén jiān gèng míng xiǎn dì qǔ jué yú dān chún de、 bù jiā yǎn shì de lì huò tǐ lì。 píng jiè wú yǔ lún bǐ de shén lì， zhòu sī tuī fān liǎo fù qīn kè luó nuò sī de tǒng zhì， duó dé shén jiè de wáng wèi。 é lín bō sī zhòng shén zhōng shuí yě bù gǎn hé tā kàng héng， mèng xiǎng hé tā zhēng bà， yīn wéi zhòu sī de yǒng lì yuǎn fēi qí tā zhū shén suǒ néng qǐ jí。 tā shòu jǐng gào duō guǎn xián shì de hè lā， yòng cí xiāng dāng cū bào、 yán lì：
bì shàng nǐ de zuǐ， jìng jìng dì zuò dào yī biān qù。 àn wǒ shuō de bàn héng héng
fǒu zé， dāng wǒ zǒu guò qù， duì nǐ shuǎi kāi wǒ de shuāng bì， zhǎn shì bù kě dǐ yù de
shén lì shí，
é lín bō sī shān shàng de zhòng shén， jiù shì quán bù chū dòng， yě bāng bù liǎo nǐ de máng！
（ 1·565 héng 67）
zhè shì gè chì luǒ luǒ de lì de shì jiè。 dāng rán， zhòu sī bù shì gè yòu yǒng wú móu de mǎng hàn。 tā shì“ gōng yú xīn jì de” kè luó nuò sī de 'ér zǐ， yǐ“ néng móu shàn biàn” zhù chēng。 é lín bō sī zhòng shén fēn zuò liǎng pài， yī pài zhī chí 'ā kāi yà rén， yǐ hè lā hé yǎ diǎn nà wéi gǔgàn； lìng yī pài bāng zhù tè luò yī rén， yǐ 'ā bō luó hé 'āi 'ā sī wéi hé xīn。 zhòu sī shí 'ér piān tǎn zhè yī fāng， shí 'ér fàng zòng nà yī fāng， cóng zhōng xiǎng shòu quán shì dài lái de xǐ yuè。 tā céng yán lì jǐng gào hè lā， yě céng yī běn zhèng jīng dì wēi xié bō sài dōng， yǎn rán yī fù líng jià yú liǎng pài zhī shàng de shén zhù múyàng。 rán 'ér， tā cóng lái bù xiǎng rèn zhēn jiě jué liǎng pài zhī jiān de zhēng duān。 tā xǐ huān yuǎn lí zhòng shén， jìng jìng dì zuò zài 'é lín bō sī huò yī dá de fēng jǐ， yǐ cǐ biǎo shì zì jǐ de dú tè hé chāo qún héng héng bù shì má， yǔ zhòu de gū zhù， jì bù tóng wū yú fán rén， yě bù hé liú yú tā suǒ tǒng guǎn de shén qún。“ tā yuǎn yuǎn dì zuò zài nà lǐ， jì bù guān xīn wǒ men， yě bù bǎ wǒ men fàng zài yǎn lǐ”（ 15·105 héng 6）。 xīng zhì shàng lái shí， tā shèn zhì kě yǐ jiù zhe mǒu jiàn shì yóu， zhǐ lìng shén jiè de liǎng pài dà dǎ chū shǒu， jiǎo gè tiān hūn dì 'àn， yú yuè tā de xīn huái（ 20·22 héng 25）。 zhè， huò xǔ jiù shì shén jiè de zhèng zhì， ér《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng de zhòu sī shì gè dǒng dé rú hé yùn yòng quán shù hé shàn gǎo zhèng zhì píng héng de hángjiā。
tóng xìng fú de shén zhī xiāng bǐ， fán rén shì“ kě lián de” huò“ kě bēi de”。 rén de yī gè chéng shì huà yòng yǔ shì deiloisibrotoisi（ bēi kǔ de zhòng shēng）。 shén de shēng huó， yóu yú chāo yuè liǎo sǐ de jìn xiàn， yīn 'ér jì méi yòu rén shēng de jiān nán， yě quē shǎo rén shēng de yán sù hé hòu zhòng。 àn zhào shī rén de guān diǎn， shén men lǐ suǒ dāng rán dì yōng yòu jǐ rén xiǎng yào 'ér yòu bù nà me róng yì dé huò de dōng xī， bìng bǎ tā men zèng sòng gěi kě lián de、 zài tǐ lì、 xīn lì hé zhì lì fāng miàn dū shòu dào jí dà jú xiàn de fán rén。 duì zhè xiē bù xìng de cāng shēng， shén shì yǒng lì、 zhì huì hé quán wēi de cì zào zhě。 ā jī liú sī píng zhe shén de cì zhù 'ér yǒngguàn qún xióng， ā gā mén nóng zé píng jiè shén fù de quán zhàng dé yǐ wáng tǒng 'ā 'ěr jí wéi rén。 rú guǒ shuō mǒu rén tè bié cōng míng， nà shì yīn wéi shén gěi liǎo tā zhì huì； xiāng fǎn， cháng ruò yòu rén gān chū shǎ shì， nà jiù kě néng shì yīn wéi shén men duó zǒu liǎo tā de ruì zhì。 shén gěi liǎo hè 'ěr kǎ sī bǔ zhàn de qí shù（ 1·71）， gěi liǎo fěi ruì kè luò sī zhì zuò de jué yì（ 5·59 héng 61）， shǐ fěi mí 'é sī huò dé chàng shī de líng gǎn（《 ào dé sài》 22·347）。 hǎo liè shǒu de jì yì dé zhī yú 'ā 'ěr tè mí sī de jiào huì， hǎo shè shǒu de qiáng gōng dé zhī yú 'ā bō luó de kuì zèng。
hé mǎ de shǐ shī shì jiè lǐ bù cún zài“ máng mù”、“ ǒu rán” huò hé shì tài de zhèng cháng jí yī bān zhuàng tài duì bǐ 'ér yán de“ ǒu fā xiàn xiàng”。 zì rán jiè hé rén shì jiān de yī qiē shì duān hé xiàn xiàng， rú guǒ bù shì rén wéi de， biàn shì shén de shǒu bǐ。 léi diàn shì zhòu sī sòng lái de， dì zhèn shì bō sài dōng zhì dǎo de， xìng 'ài shì 'ā fú luó dǐ tè qū sǒng de。《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ méi yòu shénme bù néng jiě shì de shì qíng。 duì rén wù zuò chū de zhòng dà jué dìng， hé mǎ yī bān cǎi yòng“ shuāngchóng dòng yīn” de jiě fǎ（ cóng zhōng wǒ men yì kě kàn dào rén de zuò yòng； zài hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ， rén， jìn guǎn duō zāi duō nán， dàn jué bù shì wú zú qīng zhòng de）。 ā jī liú sī zuò chū duó qǔ 'ā jī liú sī nǚ bàn de jué dìng， yī zé yīn wéi zì jǐ shēng xìng gāng mán， èr zé yě yīn wéi shòu dào shén lì de qū shǐ（ 19·86 héng 90）。 tóng yàng， yǎ diǎn nà de quàn zǔ hé 'ā jī liú sī de jué zé shǐ tā bì miǎn liǎo hé 'ā gā mén nóng de huǒ bìng（ 1·188 héng 218）。 zài dì jiǔ juàn lǐ， dí 'é mò dé sī yù yán 'ā jī liú sī jiāng chóngfǎn zhàn chǎng， shòu（ tā zì jǐ） xīn líng de qū shǐ， shén míng de cuī dū（ 703）。 duì yī xiē zhòng dà zhàn shì（ hé sài shì） de chǔlǐ， hé mǎ yì cháng cháng yán yòng zhè yī fāng fǎ。 pà tè luó kè luò sī sǐ yú shén lì hé fán rén zhàn lì de hùn hé； tóng yàng， hè kè tuō 'ěr de sǐ wáng guī zhī yú 'ā jī liú sī de xiāo yǒng hé yǎ diǎn nà de bāng máng。
àn zhào hé mǎ de shén xué guān， chú liǎo shén yǐ wài， rén shēng hái shòu dào lìng yī zhǒng chāo zì rán de lì liàng， jí mìng yùn huò mìng xiàn（ moira， aisa） de zhì yuē hé bǎi bù。 duì mìng yùn， hé mǎ yī bān bù zuò rén gé huà de miáo shù； cǐ wài， moira yì méi yòu jiā pǔ， bù xiàng yī bān shén zhī hé shén líng nà yàng， kě yǐ zhǎo chū zǔ zōng sān dài。 Moira de lì liàng zhù yào zài yú xiàn dìng rén shēng de cháng dù huò xiàn dù； fán rén zài chū shēng de nà yī kè jí yǐ dài shàng sǐ wáng de yīn yǐng（ 20·127 héng 28， 23·78 héng 79， 24·209 héng 10）。 fán rén yī bān bù néng tōng guò qí dǎo jiě tuō mìng yùn de shù fù。 zhì shǎo cóng lǐ lùn shàng lái shuō， mìng yùn shì kě yǐ zài yī dìng chéng dù shàng bèi chōng pò huò chāo yuè de。 zài dì 'èr shí juàn lǐ， zhòu sī duì zhòng shén shuō dào， xié zhe yóu pà tè luó kè luò sī zhī sǐ yǐn fā de bào nù， ā jī liú sī kě néng chōng pò mìng yùn de zhì yuē， gōng pò chéng bǎo（ 29 héng 30）。 zuò wéi“ shén hé rén de fù qīn”， wú suǒ bù néng suí zhòu sī zì rán wò yòu chōng pò mìng yùn de shén lì。 zài 'ài zǐ sà 'ěr péi dōng sǐ qián， zhòu sī céng kǎo lǜ bǎ tā jiù lí zhàn chǎng， zhǐ shì yīn wéi zāo dào hè lā de qiáng liè fǎn duì 'ér zuò bà：
nǐ dǎ suàn bǎ tā jiù chū bēi cǎn de sǐ wáng， yī gè fán rén，
yī gè mìng lǐ zhù dìng yào sǐ de fán rén？
zuò qù bā， zhòu sī， dàn wǒ děng zhòng shén jué bù huì yī zhì zàn tóng。（ 16·441 héng 43） kě jiàn， rú guǒ yuàn yì， zhòu sī kě yǐ jiù chū sà 'ěr péi dōng， dàn zhè me zuò kě néng huì yǐn qǐ zhòng shén de fǎn gǎn， dài chū yī xì liè lián suǒ fǎn yìng， pò huài tiān tǐ de hé xié， chǎn shēng nán yǐ yù qī de jiēguǒ。
chéng bǎo jí bīng mín
hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ de hé xīn shè qū dān wèi shì chéng bǎo huò chéng zhèn（ polis， astu， Ptoliethron）。 Polis jì shì bīng mín de jí huì dì diǎn， yòu shì kàng yù dí rén jìn fàn de bǎo lěi； jì shì shè huì huó dòng de zhōng xīn， yòu shì jìn xíng mào yì hé jǔ xíng zōng jiào yí shì de chǎng suǒ。 ā jī liú sī de zhàn dùn shàng zhù zhe liǎng zuò chéng shì， jí zhōng fǎn yìng liǎo bīng mín men zài zhàn zhēng jí hé píng shí qī de liǎng zhǒng bù tóng de shēng huó jǐng zhuàng。 chéng bǎo de wài wéi yòu yī piàn nóng yě huò xiāng cūn dì qū， jí agros huò erga； chéng shì hé xiāng cūn yī qǐ zǔ chéng“ qū yù” huò“ dì yù”（ demos， gaia）。 guǎng yì shàng de polis wǎng wǎng bāo kuò chéng zhèn、 jiāo qū hé chéng lǐ chéng wài de rén mín héng héng yóu cǐ zǔ chéng hé mǎ shǐ shī zhōng de yī gè jī běn de zhèng zhì shí tǐ。
chéng bǎo de tǒng zhì zhě shì basileus（ guó wáng、 wáng zhě）； mǒu xiē wáng zhě huò tǒng zhì zhě（ rú 'ā gā mén nóng děng） yōng yòu yī gè yǐ shàng de chéng zhèn， ér yǐ wáng zhě jū zhù de chéng bǎo wéi zhèng zhì、 jūn shì hé wén huà de zhōng xīn。 zhàn shí， basileus shì běn bù bīng mín de tǒng shuài， xià shè ruò gān fēn duì， yóu tóu lǐng men guǎn dài（ 1·171 héng 72）。 zhòng yào de shè huì hángdāng bāo kuò xìn shǐ、 jì sī děng。 zài hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ， xiān zhī、 yī zhě、 mù jiàng hèshī rén tóng shǔ“ gōng zuò zhě”（ demiourgoi） de fàn chóu（《 ào dé sài》 17·383 héng 85）， jí yòng zì jǐ de shǒu yì huò běn lǐng wèimín zhòng fú wù de rén。 hé mǎ yòng laos、 laoi、 plethus、 demos biǎo shì yī bān mín zhòng（ huò bīng dīng）， jí lái zì chéng bǎo de“ gōng mín”。 lái zì wài bāng de dìng jū zhě jiào metanastes huò xeinos（ kè mín）。 wú yè yóu mín（ thetes） sì hū yì shǔ zì yóu rén jiē céng， méi yòu zì jǐ de tǔ dì， yǐ bāng gōng wéi shēng。 cǐ wài， zài yī gè yǐ jūn shì mín zhù zhì wéi tè zhēng de gǔ dài shè huì lǐ， dāng rán bù huì méi yòu nú lì（ dmoes， dmoai）。 rú tóng fēn dé de qí tā zhàn lǐ（ zhàn lì pǐn） yī yàng， nú lì yī bān guī shǔ gè rén suǒ yòu。
wáng zhě、 biàn yì huì、 jí huì
zuò wéi guì zú de zǐ dì hé dài biǎo， wáng zhě shì chéng bāng huò shǔ dì nèi de zuì gāo jūn zhèng shǒu cháng。 zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， ā gā mén nóng yǐ xī là lián jūn tǒng shuài de shēn fèn xióng jū zhòng wáng zhī shàng， bǐ hòu zhě gèng jù jué cè de quán wēi。“ nǐ tǒng lǐng zhe hào hào dàng dàng de dà jūn” héng héng nài sī tuō 'ěr shuō dào héng héng“ zhòu sī bǎ wáng zhàng jiāo zài nǐ de shǒu lǐ， shǐ nǐ yòu liǎo jué duàn de quán lì， dé yǐ xùn dǎo huī xià de bīng dīng”（ 998 héng 99）。 dí 'é mò dé sī chéng rèn， ā gā mén nóng yōng yòu“ bié rén bù kě qǐ jí de zūn róng”（ 9·37）。 nài sī tuō 'ěr quàn wèi shèng nù zhōng de 'ā jī liú sī bù yào hé 'ā gā mén nóng zhēng chǎo，“ zài róng yù de zhàn yòu shàng， bié rén dé bù dào tā de fèn zǐ”（ 1·278）。 é dǐ xiū sī gèng shì zhí jié liǎo dāng dì jǐng gào huáng huáng bēn páo de bīng yǒng： ā kāi yà rén bù néng gè gèdōu shì wáng zhě，“ wáng zhě zhòng duō bù shì yī jiàn hǎo shì héng héng zhè lǐ zhǐ yīngyǒu yī gè tǒng zhì zhě， yī gè dà wáng”（ 2·203 héng 5）。 wáng zhě yōng yòu shàng hǎo de fèn dì（ temenos）， xiǎng yòu shuài xiān tiǎo qǔ zhàn lǐ（ geraas） de tè quán， jiē shòu zhǔmín de lǐ wù hé gòng fèng。 zài yàn huì shàng， tā men xiǎng zuò zūn wèi， chī yòng tè fèn de ròu shí， hē yǐn mǎn bēi de chún jiǔ。 zuò wéi duì quán lì de píng héng， wáng zhě yòu yì wù yàn qǐng gòng shì de shǒu lǐng hé quán guì。 zài dì jiǔ juàn lǐ， nài sī tuō 'ěr héng héng zài zuò guò yī fān míng zhì de quàn yì hòu héng héng duì 'ā gā mén nóng shuō dào： xiàn zài
yìng yóu nǐ， ā gā mén nóng， zuò wéi zuì gāo guì de wáng zhě， xíng shǐ tǒng shuài de zhí quán。
bǎi kāi yàn xí， zhāo dài gè wèi shǒu lǐng； zhè shì nǐ de yì wù， hé nǐ de
shēn fèn xiāng fú。……（ 9·69 héng 71）
hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ de wáng zhě jìn guǎn gāng 'ào bù jī、 cū mǎng kuáng liè， dàn què bù shì diǎn xíng yì yì shàng de bào jūn。 shì shí shàng， zài zhèng zhì、 sī fǎ， shèn zhì zài jūn shì fāng miàn， zuì gāo tǒng shuài de quán lì dū shòu dào biàn yì huì（ Boulegeronton） de chè zhǒu。 yùhuì de gerontes（ shǒu lǐng） tōng cháng běn shēn jí shì wáng zhě héng héng zhàn chǎng shàng， tā men shì tǒng bīng de jiàngshuài。 tā men xiǎng yòu hěn gāo de wēi wàng， yán xíng jǔ zú qīng zhòng。 ā gā mén nóng bì xū rèn zhēn qīng tīng tā men de yì jiàn， àn zuì hǎo de bàn fǎ xíng shì（ 9·74 héng 75）。
biàn yì huì shàng shāng tǎo guò de shì qíng， rú guǒ shì guān zhòng dà， hái yào tí jiāo dà huì huò jí huì（ agore huò agora） de tǎo lùn hé tōng guò。 zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， ā kāi yà rén de jí huì kuò dà dào pǔ tōng de laioi； ér tè luò yī rén de jí huì hái bāo kuò nián lǎo tǐ ruò de fēi zhàn dǒu rén yuán。 yòu dì wèi de fā yán zhě yī bān yào shǒu wò wáng zhàng， yǐ dé tǐ de fāng shì jiǎng huà。 shǒu lǐng men zūn cóng“ yán lùn zì yóu” de yuán zé； zài jí huì shàng， cǐ nǎi tā men de quán lì（ 9·33）。 Gerontes kě duì rèn hé rén tí chū pī píng（ shèn zhì mán mà）， bāo kuò duì zuì gāo jūn shì shǒu cháng 'ā gā mén nóng。 bù guò， duì dì wèi bǐ jiào dī xià de rén， qíng kuàng zé bù jìn xiāng tóng。 bǔ zhě kǎ 'ěr kǎ sī dān xīn tā de zhēn yán huì zhāo lái 'ā gā mén nóng de bào fù， zhǐ shì zài dé dào 'ā jī liú sī de chéng nuò hòu， fāng cái dào chū 'ā bō luó wèihé fā nù de yuán yīn。 duì yī gè shēn fèn bù gòu“ chī zhòng” de rén， zé rǔ wáng zhě zhǐ néng tì zì jǐ zhāo lái má fán hé bù xìng。 bīng zhòng men tōng guò hū hǎn biǎo shì tā men de qīng xiàng hé yì zhì héng héng shì zàn chéng， hái shì fǎn duì。
chuān dài
zài hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ， rén men chuānzhuó shí fēn jiǎn dān。 nán zǐ men jīn shēn chuān yòng yī jiàn yòng yà má bù zhì zhì de yī shān（ huò xǔ kě chēng zhī wéi tào shān）， jí chiton， rán hòu， rú guǒ xū yào de huà， zhào shàng yī jiàn（ huò yī tiáo） yī péng huò pī péng（ chlaina， pharos）。 yī bān rèn wéi， chiton shì gè wài lái cí， qǔ zì jìn lín shǎn mǐ tè rén de yòng yǔ。 Chiton kǎ jí xī shàng fù xià， duǎn xiù。 zài dì 'èr juàn lǐ， ā gā mén nóng qǐ shēn hòu， chuān shàng yī jiàn cù xīn de chiton hé yī lǐng shuò dà de pharos。 ā kāi yà rén cóng pǔ lǐ 'ā mó sī jìn sòng de shú lǐ zhōng liú chū yī jiàn chiton hé yī jiàn pharos， zuò wéi zhē guǒ yí tǐ de yòng wù（ 24·588）。 fù zhàn qián， yǎ diǎn nà chuān shàng fù qīn de chiw， rán hòu kòu shàng xiōng jiá chlainai qǔ liào yáng máo， fēn dān céng hé jiā céng（ shuāng céng） liǎng zhǒng， yòng shì zhēn huò gōu kòu lián xì（ 10·133）。 pī péng shàng kě zhì chū jīng měi de tú wén， bìng kě rǎn chéng shēn hóng、 jiàng zǐ děng shì gǎn zhuāng zhòng de sè cǎi。 Chlainai hé pharos de jù tǐ qū bié， jīn rén bù dé 'ér zhī； dàn yòu yī diǎn kě yǐ kěn dìng， jí 'èr zhě dōukě zuò pū gài zhī yòng。 ā jī liú sī de pú shǔ men yòng chlainai wéi pǔ lǐ 'ā mó sī bèi chuáng（ 24·646）； mù 'ěr mí dōng bīng yǒng men jiāng pà tè luó kè luò sī tái shàng shī chuáng， gài shàng yī céng báobáo de yà má bù， yòng yī tiáo bái sè de pharos zhào yǎn quán shēn（ 18·352 héng 53）。 shèn zhì kě zuò fēng fān de yòng liào（《 ào dé sài》 5·258）。 zài zhè xiē shàng xià wén lǐ， chlaina hé pharos sì hū hé dà piàn de zhì bù méi yòu shénme liǎng yàng。 bīng yǒng men yī bān zú dèng tiáo xié， kě néng qǔ liào jiān rèn de niú pí。
fù nǚ men tōng cháng shēn zhe qún shān（ peplos， heanos）， bìng hé nán zǐ yī yàng， chuān yòng pharos。 Peplos duǎn xiù， xū yòng shì zhēn bié lián。 yà má bù qún shān cháng qǔ qí bái liàng de běn sè， yì kě zhì chū gè zhǒng tiáo wén， rǎn chū duō zhǒng sè cǎi（ kě néng xì yáng máo zhì liào） héng héng hé mǎ yòng“ lí míng dǒu kāi jīn hóng sè de qún páo”（ 8·1） biǎo xiàn shǔ guāng pū xiè dà dì de guī lì jǐng sè。 qún shān yī bān cháng chuí zhí xiè， hebewi（ cháng qún piāo bǎi de） shì hǎo de yī gè chéng shì huà shì yǔ。 fù nǚ men jīhū wú lì wài dì shǐ yòng yāo dài， zhā zài peplos。 wài miàn héng héng“ shù yāo jǐn shēn de” hé“ shù yāo xiù měi de” zhèng shì duì zhè yī zhuāng shù xí guàn de tiē qiē 'ér yòu fù yòu shī yì de xiě zhào。
fù nǚ men tōng cháng dài yòng tóu jīn（ kredemnon， kaluptre）， kě néng xì yī zhǒng yà má bù zhì wù。 Kredemon cóng tóu dǐng zhē jí bó xiàng， shèn zhì kě néng chuí guò jiān tóu。 cháng ruò xū yào， yòng zhě kě jiāng tóu jīn yǎn qǐ liǎn miàn， rú tóng péi nài luó pèi zài zǒu rù qiú hūn zhě men de tīng táng。
hòu qì、 kǎi jiá
hé mǎ běn shēn méi yòu jīng lì guò tè luò yī zhàn zhēng。 hé mǎ shǐ shī shì chuán tǒng hé tiān cái chuàng zuò de chǎn wù， ér bù shì yán gé yì yì shàng de lì shǐ。 xiàng duì qí tā yī xiē shì wù、 zhuàng tài hé xiàn xiàng de miáo shù yī yàng， hé mǎ duì bīng xiè de miáo shù yě dài yòu“ kuà shí dài” de tè zhēng。 tā suǒ tí jí de jiá xiè， yòu de shǔ yú mù kǎi nài shí qī de yòng wù， yòu de zé kě néng chū xiàn zài yǐ hòu， shèn zhì wǎn zhì hé mǎ shēng huó de nián dài。 suǒ wèi shǐ shī， shì shī hé shǐ de jié hé， kě yǐ， ér qiě yīnggāi yòu yī xiē bù hé shǐ shí、 shèn zhì píng kōng xiǎng xiàng chū lái de chéngfèn。
（ 1） jìng jiá
“ jìng jiá jiān gù de”（ euknemides） shì xíng róng 'ā kāi yà shì bīng de zuì cháng yòng de chéng shì huà shì yǔ， zài《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng chū xiàn liǎo sān shí yī cì。 zǎo qī de jìng jiá kě néng yòng shēng niú pí（ shèn zhì cū bù） zhì chéng， lèi sì lāi 'ěr tè sī zài pú táo yuán lǐ gōng zuò shí suǒ yòu de pí zhì hù tuǐ（《 ào dé sài》 24·228 héng 29）。 zài mù kǎi nài shí dài， tóng jìng jiá de shǐ yòng bìng bù pǔ biàn。 cóng yuán wén kàn， knemis（ jìng jiá） běn shēn bìng bù bāo hán“ jīn shǔ” de yì sī。 zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ，“ jìng jiá qīng tóng de（ chalkoknemides） ā kāi yà rén” jǐn chū xiàn yī cì（ 7·41）。 hè fǎ yī sī tuō sī yòng bái xī wéi 'ā jī liú sī dǎ guò yī fù jìng jiá， dàn zhè shì shén gōng de zhù pǐn， kě néng yǔ zhòng bù tóng。 jìng jiá shàng 'ān zhe yín zhì de bàn kòu， wéi xì zài jiǎo huái biān。 jìng jiá de gōng yòng yī kě dǎng yù dí rén de jī shè， èr kě bǎo hù xiǎo tuǐ bù shòu dùn pái（ zhē yǎn quán shēn de jù dùn， jiàn“ dùn pái” jié） de cā shāng。 gōng zhàn zhě yī bān yòng tǐ jī jiào xiǎo de yuán dùn， suǒ yǐ cháng cháng bù dài jìng jiá。
（ 2） xiōng jiá
jìn guǎn dào mù qián wéi zhǐ， kǎo zhàn xué jiā men hái ná bù chū yī jiàn shí wù， zhèng míng mù kǎi nài wáng cháo de wǔ shì men héng héng zhèng rú hé mǎ suǒ miáo shù de nà yàng héng héng shì“ shēn pī tóng jiá de”， dàn jiàn yú shī rén yī 'ér zài、 zài 'ér sān dì shǐ yòng zhè yī chéng shì huà tào yǔ（ bù shǎo yú 'èr shí sì cì） de xiàn shí， wǒ men hěn yòu bì yào zài zhè gè wèn tí shàng cǎi qǔ yán sù、 jǐn shèn de tài dù。“ shēn pī tóng jiá de” yuán wén zuò chalkochitones（ chuān qīng tóng chiton de）； Chiton zài bǐ yù“ jiá” huò“ jiá yī”。 hé mǎ sì hū háo bù huái yí 'ā kāi yà yǒng shì shì“ shēn pī tóng jiá de”（ chaleorekon）。 hè fǎ yī sī tuō sī tì 'ā jī liú sī dǎ guò yī fù tóng jiá， ōu mò luò sī yì shōu shòu guò yī fù tóng jiá de shǎng lǐ。 rú guǒ shuō zhè liǎng fù tóng jiá yī fù shì shén gōng zhì zuò de jīng pǐn， lìng yī fù shì kuì zèng de lǐ wù 'ér bù zú yǐ shuō míng pǔ tōng xiōng jiá de zhì dì， nà me， zài lìng yī xiē jiào wéi yī bān de chǎng hé， hé mǎ miáo shù de thorekes（ xiōng jiá） yì tóng yàng míng xiǎn dì bāo róng“ jīn shǔ zhì zuò” de hán yì。 shī rén de yòng cí bāo kuò“ shǎn liàng de”、“ cā dé zèng liàng de” děng děng。 xiǎo 'āi 'ā sī hé tè luò yī rén 'ān fěi 'é sī chuān yòng yà má bù xiōng jiá（ zhōng jiān kě néng yòu suǒ chōng tián）， dàn tā men bìng bù shì yī liú de zhàn jiāng。 zài mǒu xiē shàng xià wén lǐ， hé mǎ hái tí jí yī zhǒng jiào zuò guala de dōng xī（ 15·530）， kě néng zhǐ xiōng jiá qián hòu de tóng piàn， zhuì qiàn zài pí gé huò qí tā zhì liào de jiá miàn shàng， yǐ zēng qiáng thorekes de fáng hù néng lì。
（ 3） dùn pái
Sakose hé aspis kě néng yuán zhǐ liǎng zhǒng bù tóng de zhàn dùn。 Aspis tōng cháng shì“ dùn miàn tū gǔ de”（ omphaloessa）、“ liù yuán de”（ pantoseise， ér cháng cháng shì“ shuò dà、 jiān gù de”（ mpgatestibaronte）、“ yòng qī céng niú pí zhì zuò de”（ haptaboeion）、 hé“ qiáng miàn shìde” huò“ tǎ yī bān de”（ eutepurgos）。 dào liǎo hé mǎ shēng huó de nián dài， aspis hé sakos hěn kě néng yǐ chéng wéi kě yǐ hù huàn de tóng yì cí。
jù kǎo gǔ fā xiàn， mù kǎi nài shí dài de zhàn yǒng men shǐ yòng liǎng zhǒng tǐ jī shuò dà、 jǐ kě zhē yǎn quán shēn de pí dùn， yī zhǒng wéi cháng fāng xíng de、 shuāng biān nèi juàn de gǒng dùn， lìng yī zhǒng shì zhōng yāo nèi shōu、 chéng 8 zì xíng de hù dùn。 èr zhě dōuyòu dùn dài（ telamon）， bèi kuà yú zuǒ jiān zhī shàng， héng guàn yú yòu yè zhī xià； bù yòng shí， kě yǐ shuǎi zhì bèi hòu。《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng duō cì tí jí cǐ lèi céng miàn shuò dà de zhàn dùn。 āi 'ā sī shēn bèi“ qiáng miàn shìde” jù dùn（ 7·219）， ér hè kè tuō 'ěr de dùn pái kě yǐ zhē yǎn bó zǐ yǐ xià、 jiǎo huái yǐ shàng de shēn tǐ bù wèi（ 15·646）。 hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ de zhàn hòu tōng cháng shì“ shǎn liàng de” huò“ shǎn guāng de”， cǐ lèi shì yǔ míng xiǎn dì yù zhǐ dùn miàn huò pí miàn shàng de tóng céng。 mù kǎi nài wáng cháo de hòu qī shì fǒu chū xiàn dài tóng miàn de pí dùn， dào mù qián wéi zhǐ， wǒ men hái bù néng zuò chū què qiē de dá fù。
yuán xíng zhàn dùn tǐ jī jiào xiǎo， zhōng xīn tū gǔ， dài tú wén， yòu bēidài， chū xiàn yú mù kǎi nài wáng cháo de hòu qī， kě néng yì shì gōng yuán qián jiǔ zhì qī shì jì de shǐ shī shī rén men zài shēng huó zhōng cháng jiàn de dùn shì。
（ 4） tóu kuī
hé mǎ yòng korus、 kunee、 truphaleia hé pelex děng cí biǎo shì tóu mào huò mào kuī。 zhè xiē cí yuán lái kě néng fēn zhǐ bù tóng de kuī yàng， dàn zài hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ yǐ jù tōng yòng de xìng zhì。 hé mǎ kě zài tóng yī gè shàng xià wén lǐ， yòng shàng shù míng cí（ bù shì quán bù） zhǐ chēng tóng yī dǐng tóu kuī。 shàng shù sì cí zhōng， qián 'èr zhě gèng jiào cháng yòng。
zǎo qī de tóu kuī yī bān wéi pí liào zhì pǐn， zhē gài tóu dǐng、 qián 'é hé tài yáng xué， yóu kuī dài jǐn kòu xià hé； guān dǐng chā zhuì mǎ zōng（ què qiē dì shuō， yìng wéi mǎ máo， bāo kuò mǎ zōng hé mǎyǐ）， yòu de hái dài jiǎo zhì de huò jīn shǔ de tū jiǎo（ Phalos）。
zài hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ， tóu kuī yī bān yòng liào jīn shǔ， huò dài yòu jīn shǔ de hù piàn。 mǒu xiē shì cí， rú chalkeres（ tóng guāng shǎn shuò de） hé phaeinos（ zhèng liàng de） děng， míng xiǎn dì gào shì tóu kuī de jīn shǔ xìng zhì。 zài ruò gān shàng xià wén lǐ， hé mǎ gān cuì zài tóu kuī qián hòu jiā shàng“ tóng” zì， chēng qí wéi“ tóng kuī”（ chalkeiekorus， kuneepagchalkos）。 jiān hū chū xiàn de chalkopareios děng cí biǎo míng tóu kuī dài yòu qīng tóng de jiá piàn。 zì gǔ yǐ lái， xué zhě men duì phalos de suǒ zhǐ nán néng qǔ dé yī zhì de jiě shì： yòu de bǎ tā jiě zuò“ tū jiǎo” huò mǒu zhǒng xíng shì de tū chū wù， yòu de zé qǔ“ guān jǐ”， hái yòu de bǎ tā děng tóng yú“ jiá piàn”。 tóu kuī de yòng liào hé shì yàng dāng bù zhǐ xiàn yú yī zhǒng。 lì rú， zài dì shí juàn lǐ， sī lā sū mò dé sī gěi liǎo dí 'é mò dé sī yī dǐng mào kuī，“ niú pí zuò jiù， wú jiǎo， yě méi yòu kuī guān”（ 257 héng 58）； ér mò lǐ 'é nài sī zé gěi 'é dǐ xiū sī dài shàng yī dǐng pí kuī，“ wài miàn shì yī pái pái xuě bái de yá piàn”，“ zhōng jiān diàn zhe yī céng róng zhān”（ 262 héng 65）。 cǐ zhǒng pí lǐ yá piàn miàn de tóu kuī zài chū tǔ de mù kǎi nài wén wù zhōng yǐ yòu fā xiàn。
（ 5） jiàn
Xiphos、 aor hé phasganon sān cí jūn yù“ jiàn”， yì sī shàng méi yòu míng xiǎn de qū bié。 zài tóng yī gè shàng xià wén lǐ， hé mǎ céng yòng zhè sān gè cí biǎo zhǐ tóng yī bǐng lì jiàn。 zài hé mǎ shǐ shī lǐ， jiàn zhàn de chǎng hé bù duō， yì méi yòu dà duàn de miáo shù。“ qiàn zhuì yín dīng de”（ arguloelon） yī cí bǎ wǒ men dài dào yáo yuǎn de mù kǎi nài shí dài。 zhàn jiàn qīng tóng， dài qiào， yòu bēidài， kě xié kuà jiān tóu。
（ 6） qiāng máo
cháng qiāng shì《 yī lì yà tè》 zhōng de zhù yào bīng qì。 zài chéng shì huà de“ wǔ zhuāng fù zhàn” chǎng jǐng zhōng， ā jī liú sī cāo tí yīgǎn cháng qiāng（ egchos）， ér 'ā gā mén nóng hé pà tè luó kè luò sī zé gè ná liǎng zhī qiāng máo（ doUle）。 EgChO6 jiào wéi cū zhòng， cháng yǐ“ shuò dà、 cū cháng、 chén zhòng（ de）” wéi shì cí。 zài dì shí liù juàn lǐ， pà tè luó kè luò sī chuān qǐ 'ā jī liú sī de kǎi jiá， dàn què bù céng zhuā wò tā de qiāng máo，“ nà wán yì……（ chú liǎo 'ā jī liú sī） ā kāi yà rén zhōng shuí yě tí ná bù dé”（ 141 héng 42）。 yī bān rèn wéi， egchos yòng zhù yào yòng yú jìn zhàn cì tǒng， ér douree zé zhù yào yòng yú yuǎn jù lí de tóu shè。 bù guò， zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， zhè liǎng gè cí tōng cháng kě yǐ hù huàn shǐ yòng， qí“ zì yóu” chéng dù bù xià yú xiphos hé phasganon de tì huàn。
（ 7） gōng jiàn（ hé gōng shǒu）
hé mǎ duì gōng de miáo shù bù duō。 zài dì sì juàn lǐ， tā gào sù wǒ men， pān dá luó sī de wān gōng qǔ zì yī tóu zì dǎ de yě shān yáng de chā jiǎo（ 105 héng 6）。 zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， yóu qí shì zài tè luò yī méng jūn fāng miàn， gōng（ toxon） de shǐ yòng xiāng dāng pǔ biàn。 zài rén yuán páng zá de bīng duì lǐ， agkulotoxoi（ gōng shǒu） sì hū yǐ shì yī gè zhuān mén de bīng zhǒng。 lǔ jī yà rén、 kǎ lǐ yà rén hé mài 'é ní yà réndōu shì shǐ gōng de bīng yǒng， ér lǔ jī yà shǒu lǐng pān dá luó sī gèng shì yī wèi zhī míng de hǎo gōng shǒu。 tè luò yī rén zhōng， pà lǐ sī。 hè lè nuò sī hé duō lóng děngdōu shì xié gōng de zhàn jiāng。 ā kāi yà rén shàn shǐ cháng qiāng， gōng shǒu xiāng duì xī shǎo， zhù yào yòu fěi luò kè tè tè sī、 mò lǐ 'é nài sī hé diū kè luó sī。 zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， gōng jiàn sì hū shì yī zhǒng xiāng duì gǔ jiù de bīng qì； shī rén xiǎn rán yǐ wéi“ shǒu duì shǒu” de gōng zhàn gèng néng biǎo xiàn yīng xióng bó shā de zhuàng liè。 zài dì shí yī juàn lǐ， dí 'é mò dé sī duì shǐ gōng de pà lǐ sī sì hū pō yòu wēi cí（ 385）。
jiàn shǐ yī bān wéi tóng tóu， dàn pān dá luó sī de yǔ jiàn què yǐ tiě wéi zú。
（ 8） zhàn chē
zhàn chē（ diphros） yī bān wéi mù jià jié gòu， biān wéi hé dǐ miàn yòng pí tiáo bǎng zhā， jì kě jiǎn qīng chē shēn de zhòng liàng（ yī rén jí kě dǐng tái， 10·504 héng 5）， yòu kě xiāo huǎn páo dòng shí de diān bǒ。 zhàn chē zuò gōng jīng zhì， yòu de shèn zhì dài yòu jīn yín de xiāng shì（ 10·438）。 shén yòng de diphros， rú hè lā de zhàn chē， jīhū shì jīn、 yín、 tóng de pīn hé（ 5·722 héng 31）。
zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， zhàn chē de zuò yòng xiāng dāng yú jīn tiān de bīng chē。 yù mǎ jiāng zhàn chē lā zhì zhàn dì， zhuàng shì（ tōng cháng zhǐ yòu yī rén） cóng chē shàng tiào xià， tú bù jiè rù zhàn dǒu， ér yù shǒu zé lè mǎ liú zài hòu miàn， děng dài zhàn yǒng de huí guī。 zuò wéi yī zhǒng dìng xíng de zhàn shì， tā de chǎn shēng dà gài duō shǎo dài yòu shī rén“ chuàng zuò” de chéngfèn。 hé mǎ yīnggāi bù huì bù zhī dào diphros de zuò zhàn gōng yòng（ chú liǎo yùn bīng yǐ wài）， dàn zài《 yī lì yà tè》 lǐ， tā duì zhè fāng miàn de miáo shù què zhǐ yòu jué wú jǐn yòu de yī lì。 zài dì sì juàn lǐ， lǎo bèi rén wù nài sī tuō 'ěr mìng zhǔ tā de bù shǔ： shuí yě bù xǔ dān dú chū jī huò tuì què； jiāo shǒu shí， chē shàng de dǒu shì yào yòng cháng qiāng cì tǒng dí rén（ 303 héng 7）。 nài sī tuō 'ěr xuān chēng， guò qù， zhè shì yī zhǒng xiāng dāng chéng gōng de zhàn shì。
The Iliad is, together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient Greek epic poems traditionally attributed to Homer. The poem is commonly dated to the 8th or 7th century BC, and many scholars believe it is the oldest extant work of literature in the ancient Greek language, making it the first work of European literature. The existence of a single author for the poems is disputed as the poems themselves show evidence of a long oral tradition and hence, possible multiple authors.
The poem concerns events during the tenth and final year in the siege of the city of Ilion, or Troy, by the Greeks (See Trojan War). The word Iliad means "pertaining to Ilion" (in Latin, Ilium), the city proper, as opposed to Troy (in Turkish "Truva", in Greek, Τροία, Troía; in Latin, Troia, Troiae, f.), the state centered around Ilium, over which the names Ilium and Troy are often used interchangeably.
The story of the Iliad
The Iliad begins with these lines:
Sing, goddess, the rage of Achilles the son of Peleus,
the destructive rage that sent countless pains on the Achaeans...
The first word of Homer's Iliad is the ancient Greek word μῆνιν (mēnin), rage or wrath. This word announces the major theme of the Iliad: the wrath of Achilles. When Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek forces at Troy, dishonors Achilles by taking Briseis, a slave woman given to Achilles as a prize of war, Achilles becomes enraged and withdraws from the fighting until Book XIX. Without him and his powerful Myrmidon warriors, the Greeks suffer defeat by the Trojans, almost to the point of losing their will to fight. Achilles re-enters the fighting when his cousin, Patroclus, is killed by the Trojan prince Hector. Achilles slaughters many Trojans and kills Hector. In his rage, he then refuses to return Hector's body and instead defiles it. Priam, the father of Hector, ransoms his son's body, and the Iliad ends with the funeral of Hector.
Homer devotes long passages to frank, blow-by-blow descriptions of combat. He gives the names of the fighters, recounts their taunts and battle-cries, and gruesomely details the ways in which they kill and wound one another. Often, the death of a hero only escalates the violence, as the two sides battle for his armor and corpse, or his close companions launch a punitive attack on his killer. The lucky ones are sometimes whisked away by friendly charioteers or the intervention of a god, but Homeric warfare is still some of the most bloody and brutal in literature.
The Iliad has a very strong religious and supernatural element. Both sides in the war are extremely pious, and both have heroes descended from divine beings. They constantly sacrifice to the gods and consult priests and prophets to decide their actions. For their own part, the gods frequently join in battles, both by advising and protecting their favorites and even by participating in combat against humans and other gods.
The Iliad's huge cast of characters connects the Trojan War to many ancient myths, such as Jason and the Argonauts, the Seven Against Thebes, and the Labors of Hercules. Many ancient Greek myths exist in multiple versions, so Homer had some freedom to choose among them to suit his story. See Greek mythology for more detail.
The action of the Iliad covers only a few weeks of the tenth and final year of the Trojan War. It does not cover the background and early years of the war (Paris' abduction of Helen from King Menelaus) nor its end (the death of Achilles and the fall of Troy). Other epic poems, collectively known as the Epic Cycle or cyclic epics, narrated many of these events; these poems only survive in fragments and later descriptions. See Trojan War for a summary of the events of the war.
Synopsis
As the poem begins, the Greeks have captured Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest Chryses, and given her as a prize to Agamemnon. In response, Apollo has sent a plague against the Greeks, who compel Agamemnon to restore Chryseis to her father to stop the sickness. In her place, Agamemnon takes Briseis, whom the Achaeans had given to Achilles as a spoil of war. Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, follows the advice of his goddess mother, Thetis, and withdraws from battle in revenge.
In counterpoint to Achilles' pride and arrogance stands the Trojan prince Hector, son of King Priam, a husband and father who fights to defend his city and his family. With Achilles on the sidelines, Hector leads successful counterattacks against the Greeks, who have built a fortified camp around their ships pulled up on the Trojan beach. The best remaining Greek fighters, including Odysseus and Diomedes, are wounded, and the gods favor the Trojans. Patroclus, impersonating Achilles by wearing his armor, finally leads the Myrmidons back into battle to save the ships from being burned. The death of Patroclus at the hands of Hector brings Achilles back to the war for revenge, and he slays Hector in single combat. Hector's father, King Priam, later comes to Achilles alone (but aided by Hermes) to ransom his son's body, and Achilles is moved to pity; the funeral of Hector ends the poem.
Book summaries
Book 1: Nine years into the war, Agamemnon seizes Briseis, the concubine of Achilles, since he has had to give away his own; Achilles withdraws from the fighting in anger; in Olympus, the gods argue about the outcome of the war
Book 2: Agamemnon pretends to order the Greeks home to test their resolve; Odysseus encourages the Greeks to keep fighting; Catalogue of Ships, Catalogue of Trojans and Allies
Book 3: Paris challenges Menelaus to single combat over Helen while she watches from the walls of Troy with Priam; Paris is quickly overmatched by Menelaus, but is rescued from death by Aphrodite, and Menelaus is seen as the winner.
Book 4: The truce is broken and battle begins
Book 5: Diomedes has an aristeia (a period of supremacy in battle) and wounds Aphrodite and Ares
Book 6: Glaucus and Diomedes greet each other during a truce; Hector returns to Troy and speaks to his wife Andromache
Book 7: Hector battles Ajax
Book 8: The gods withdraw from the battle
Book 9: Called The Embassy to Achilles. Agamemnon retreats; his overtures to Achilles are spurned
Book 10: Called the Doloneia. Diomedes and Odysseus go on a spying mission, kill the Trojan Dolon.
Book 11: Paris wounds Diomedes; Achilles sends Patroclus on a mission
Book 12: The Greeks retreat to their camp and are besieged by the Trojans
Book 13: Poseidon encourages the Greeks
Book 14: Hera helps Poseidon assist the Greeks; Deception of Zeus
Book 15: Zeus stops Poseidon from interfering
Book 16: Called the Patrocleia. Patroclus borrows Achilles' armour, enters battle, kills Sarpedon and then is killed by Hector
Book 17: The armies fight over the body and armour of Patroclus
Book 18: Achilles learns of the death of Patroclus and receives a new suit of armour. The Shield of Achilles is described at length
Book 19: Achilles is reconciled with Agamemnon and enters battle
Book 20: The gods join the battle; Achilles tries to kill Aeneas
Book 21: Achilles does battle with the river Scamander and encounters Hector in front of the Trojan gates
Book 22: Achilles kills Hector and drags his body back to the Greek camp
Book 23: Funeral games for Patroclus
Book 24: Called The Ransoming of Hector. Priam, the King of the Trojans, secretly enters the Greek camp. He begs Achilles for Hector's body. Achilles grants it to him, and it is taken away and burned on a pyre
After the Iliad
Although the Iliad scatters foreshadowings of certain events subsequent to the funeral of Hector, and there is a general sense that the Trojans are doomed, Homer does not set out a detailed account of the fall of Troy. For the story as developed in later Greek and Roman poetry and drama, see Trojan War. The other Homeric poem, the Odyssey, is the story of Odysseus' long journey home from Troy; the two poems between them incorporate many references forward and back and overlap very little, so that despite their narrow narrative focus they are a surprisingly complete exploration of the themes of the Troy story.
Major characters
The Iliad contains a sometimes confusingly great number of characters. The latter half of the second book (often called the Catalogue of Ships) is devoted entirely to listing the various commanders. Many of the battle scenes in the Iliad feature bit characters who are quickly slain. See Trojan War for a detailed list of participating armies and warriors.
The Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί) - the word Hellenes, which would today be translated as Greeks, is not used by Homer. Also called Danaans (Δαναοί) and Argives ('Aργεĩοι).
The Trojan men
Polydamas, a young Trojan commander who sometimes figures as a foil for Hector by proving cool-headed and prudent when Hector charges ahead. Polydamas gives the Trojans sound advice, but Hector seldom acts on it.
Agenor, a Trojan warrior who attempts to fight Achilles in Book 21. Agenor delays Achilles long enough for the Trojan army to flee inside Troy's walls.
Dolon (Δόλων), a Trojan who is sent to spy on the Achaean camp in Book 10.
Antenor (mythology), a Trojan nobleman, advisor to King Priam, and father of many Trojan warriors. Antenor argues that Helen should be returned to Menelaus in order to end the war, but Paris refuses to give her up.
Polydorus, a Trojan prince and son of Priam and Laothoe.
The Trojan women
Hecuba (Ἑκάβη), Queen of Troy, wife of Priam, mother of Hector, Cassandra, Paris etc
Helen (Ἑλένη), former Queen of Sparta and wife of Menelaus, now espoused to Paris
Andromache (Ἀνδρομάχη), Hector's wife and mother of their infant son, Astyanax (Ἀστυάναξ)
Cassandra (Κασσάνδρα), daughter of Priam, prophetess, first courted and then cursed by Apollo. As her punishment for offending him, she accurately foresees the fate of Troy, including her own death and the deaths of her entire family, but does not have the power to do anything about it.
The Olympian deities, principally Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Hades, Aphrodite, Ares, Athena, Hermes and Poseidon, as well as the lesser figures Eris, Thetis, and Proteus appear in the Iliad as advisers to and manipulators of the human characters. All except Zeus become personally involved in the fighting at one point or another (See Theomachy).
Technical features
The poem is written in dactylic hexameter. The Iliad comprises 15,693 lines of verse. Later ancient Greeks divided it into twenty-four books, or scrolls, and this convention has lasted to the present day with little change.
Themes
Nostos
Nostos (Greek: νόστος) (pl. nostoi) is the ancient Greek word for homecoming. The word νόστος is used seven times in the Iliad (2.155,251, 9.413,434,622, 10.509, 16.82) and the theme is heavily explored throughout Greek literature, especially in the fortunes of the Atreidae returning from the Trojan War. The Odyssey, dealing with the return of Odysseus, is the most famous of these stories, but many surrounding other characters such as Agamemnon and Menelaus exist as well. In the Iliad, nostos cannot be obtained without the sacking of Troy, which is the driving force behind Agamemnon's will to win at any cost.
Kleos
Kleos (Greek: κλέος) is ancient Greek concept of glory that is earned through battle.[1] For many characters, most notably Odysseus, their kleos comes with their victorious return home (Nostos).[2] However, Achilles must choose between the two. In one of the most poignant scenes in the Iliad (9.410-416), Achilles tells Odysseus, Phoenix, and Ajax about the two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας 9.411) he must choose between.[3]. The passage reads:
μήτηρ γάρ τέ μέ φησι θεὰ Θέτις ἀργυρόπεζα (410)
διχθαδίας κῆρας φερέμεν θανάτοιο τέλος δέ.
εἰ μέν κ’ αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι,
ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται•
εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ’ ἵκωμι φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν,
ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν, ἐπὶ δηρὸν δέ μοι αἰὼν (415)
ἔσσεται, οὐδέ κέ μ’ ὦκα τέλος θανάτοιο κιχείη.[1]
Richmond Lattimore, the renowned classical scholar, translates the passage as follows:
For my mother Thetis the goddess of silver feet tells me
I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Either,
if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans,
my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting;
but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers,
the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life
left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.
[2]
Here Achilles acknowledges that he must lose his nostos in order to obtain his kleos. However, Achilles is not offered just kleos, but kleos aphthiton (Greek: κλέος ἄφθιτον), or "fame imperishable."[4] The word ἄφθιτον is used five other times throughout the Iliad (2.46, 5.724, 13.22, 14.238, 18.370), each time describing an immortal object, specifically Agamemnon's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe's chariot, the house of Poseidon, Zeus's throne, and the house of Hephaistos, respectively.Lattimore translates the word to mean 'immortal forever' or 'imperishable forever.' Achilles is the only mortal to ever be referred to in this way, which highlights the immense glory that awaits him if he stays and fights at Troy.
Timê
Related to kleos is the concept of timê (Greek: тιμή), usually translated as "respect" or "honor". One's timê is properly determined by one's station in life, or one's accomplishments (e.g., on the battlefield). The Greeks' troubles begin when Agamemnon dishonors (Book 1.11) the priest Chryses' attempt to ransom back his captive daughter; this insult prompts Chryses to call a plague down on the Achaeans. Later, Achilles' ruinous anger with Agamemnon stems from the disrespect (1.171) he feels the Argive king has shown him despite Achilles' obvious value to the Greek army.
The Wrath of Achilles
As mentioned above, the first word of the Iliad is the Greek μῆνιν (mēnin), meaning rage or wrath. In this Homer is immediately announcing a main theme throughout the epic, the wrath of Achilles. Achilles' rage and vanity, which sometimes seem almost childlike, drive the plot, from the Greeks' faltering in battle and the death of Patroclus to the slaying of Hector and the eventual fall of Troy, which is not explicitly depicted in the Iliad but is alluded to numerous times. The wrath of Achilles is first displayed in Book I in a meeting between the Greek kings and the seer Kalchas. Agamemnon had dishonored Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by taking his daughter Chryseis and refusing to return her even when offered "gifts beyond count."[3] Chryses then prayed to Apollo for help, who rained arrows upon the Greeks for nine days. At the meeting Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being "greediest for gain of all men."[4] At this Agamemnon replies:
"But here is my threat to you.
Even as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis.
I shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own
followers; but I shall take the fair-cheeked Briseis,
your prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well
how much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back
from likening himself to me and contending against me."[5]
After this remark Achilles' anger can only be stayed by Athena and he vows to never take orders from Agamemnon again. Later, Achilles cries to his mother Thetis, who convinces Zeus on Olympus to favor the Trojans until Agamemnon restores Achilles' rights. This dooms the possibility of Greek victory in the near future, and the Trojans under Hector almost push the Greeks back into the sea in Book XII, causing Agamemnon to contemplate a defeated return to Greece.
"The Wrath of Achilles" turns the tide of the war again when his closest friend and possible lover Patrocles is killed in battle by Hector while wearing Achilles' armor. When Nestor informs him, Achilles mourns grievously, tearing out his hair and dirtying his face. During his mourning, his mother Thetis again comes to comfort him. Achilles tells her:
So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me.
Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our
sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us.
Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life,
Hektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever
time Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals.[6]
In his desire for vengeance Achilles is even willing to accept the prospect of his own death as a reasonable price to avenge his lost friend. The rage of Achilles over the death of Patrocles persuaded him to enter battle again, dooming both Hector and Troy. After killing and wounding numerous Trojans, Achilles finds Hector on the battlefield in Book XXII and chases him around the walls of Troy three times before slaying him. Achilles, in his final show of rage, then drags the body on the back of his chariot back to the Greek camp where he mourns for Patroclus. Achilles later returns the body of Hector to the Trojan king Priam when he secretly infiltrates the Greek and begs Achilles for the body of his son.
Fate
Fate is shown to be a driving force behind many of the events of the Iliad. It is obeyed by both gods and men once it is set, and neither seems able (or willing) to change it. The forming of Fate is unknown, but it is told by The Fates and seers such as Calchas, and mentioned by gods and men throughout the epic. It was considered heroic to accept one's fate honorably and cowardly to attempt to avoid it.[5] However, fate does not predetermine all human action. Instead, it primarily refers to the outcome or end, such as a man's life or a city such as Troy.[6] For instance, before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for trying to conquer him in battle. Patroclus retorts:
No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me,
and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer.
And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you.
You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already
death and powerful destiny are standing beside you,
to go down under the hands of Aiakos' great son, Achilleus.[7]
Here Patroclus alludes to his own fate as well as Hector's to die at the hands of Achilles. Upon killing Hector, Achilles is fated to die at Troy as well. All of these outcomes are predetermined, and although each character has free will in his actions he knows that eventually his end has already been set.
In some places it is ambiguous whether the gods, namely [Zeus], have the ability to alter fate. This situation first appears in Book XVI when Zeus' mortal son, Sarpedon, is about to be slain in battle by Patroclus. Zeus says:
'Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon,
must go down under the hands of Menoitios' son Patroclus.[8]
When Zeus mentions his dilemma to Hera, she answers him:
'Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken?
Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since
doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?
Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.[9]
When faced with having to decide between losing his beloved son and abiding by fate, even Zeus, the king of the gods, decides to let the matter pass as it has been already decided. This same motif is used again when Zeus contemplates whether to spare Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, grey-eyed Athena answers him:
'Father of the shining bold, dark misted, what is this you said?
Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since
doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?
Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.[10]
Again Zeus seems able to change fate but does not, choosing instead to abide by the outcomes decided long before that day's events.
Fate, working in the other direction, spares Aeneas from death at the hands of Achilles. Apollo convinced Aeneas to confront Achilles during battle, although Achilles was too strong to be defeated. Seeing Aeneas outmatched and in peril, Poseidon speaks out among the immortals:
But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear
the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus
kills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor,
that the generation of Dardanos shall not die...[11]
Aeneas has been fated to survive the Trojan War and because of this is saved in battle from Achilles. Although it is unclear whether the gods have the power to change fate, they repeatedly make a conscious effort to maintain fate even in opposition to their personal allegiances. This shows that although its origins are mysterious, fate plays a huge role in the outcome of events in the Iliad. It is the one power that lies even above the gods and shapes the outcome of events more than any other force in the epic.
The question of fate also hints at the primeval division of the world by the three sons of Cronus, when they toppled their father. Zeus was given the air and sky, Poseidon the waters and Hades the Underworld, where the dead go. The earth per se was given jointly to all three, hence Poseidon may flood it, or convulse it with earthquakes, and Hades is free to roam it and claim those who are to die and descend to his own domain. Furthermore the Three Fates, deities of obscure and possibly far older origin than the Olympian gods, were often shown as having the only say as to the length of the lives of mortals, a matter over which the gods were unable to intervene.
The Iliad as oral tradition
The Iliad and the Odyssey were considered by Greeks of the classical age, and later, as the most important works in Ancient Greek literature, and were the basis of Greek pedagogy in antiquity. As the center of the rhapsode's repertoire, their recitation was a central part of Greek religious festivals. The book would be spoken or sung all night (modern readings last around 14 hours), with audiences coming and going for parts they particularly enjoyed.
Throughout much of their history, scholars of the written word treated the Iliad and Odyssey as literary poems, and Homer as a writer much like them. However, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, scholars began to question this assumption. Milman Parry, a classical scholar, was intrigued by peculiar features of Homeric style: in particular the stock epithets and the often extensive repetition of words, phrase and even whole chunks of text. He argued that these features were artifacts of oral composition. The poet employs stock phrases because of the ease with which they could be applied to a hexameter line. Specifically, Parry observed that Homer complemented each main character's name with a specific stock epithet such that the two-word unit filled half a line. Therefore, he would only ever have to compose afresh half a line – the other half could be automatically completed with a formulaic phrase like “resourceful Odysseus.”[12] Taking this theory, Parry travelled in Yugoslavia, studying the local oral poetry. In his research he observed oral poets employing stock phrases and repetition to assist with the challenge of composing a poem orally and improvisationally. Parry's line of inquiry opened up a wider study of oral modes of thought and communication and their evolution under the impact of writing and print by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong and others. In fact, Parry's student Albert Lord, in his landmark work The Singer of Tales, detects similarities between the tragic story of Patroclus and the death of Enkidu in the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the book, Lord refutes the idea that the Patroclus story-line upsets the "established" Homeric pattern of "wrath, bride-stealing, and rescue"[13] and says that the structure of the Iliad is dictated by "a careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns."[14]
It should be noted, however, that the use of repetition and stock phrases has not necessarily been interpreted as a restriction on Homer's originality and capacity to rework the story as he saw fit. Professor James Armstrong, in his paper The Arming Motif in the Iliad, argues that even formulaic sections of Homer's text contain enriched meaning through illustrative word choice. He points to what he refers to as the “arming motif;” characters such as Paris, Agamemnon, Patroclus, and Achilles are all described while being armed in a formulaic, long-winded fashion. Armstrong writes that this is needed to “heighten the importance of…an impressive moment” while the repetition “creates an atmosphere of smoothness.” Yet each time, he modifies elements of the passages – for example, when describing Patroclus[15], he changes from a positive to a negative turn of phrase, which Armstrong explains as demonstrating that Patroclus is not Achilles, foreshadowing Patroclus’ death.[16]
One of the effects that oral tradition has had on the Iliad is that the poem sometimes has inconsistency. For example, Aphrodite is described as “laughter-loving” even when she is in pain from the wound given to her by Diomedes (5.375). Oral tradition has also been a reason attributed for the Iliad's break from the view of the gods the Greeks in Homer's time actually had. In the Iliad, Mycenaean elements have become mixed up with Dark Age elements. For example, the most powerful Olympic gods have been compared to the Dark Ages’ hereditary basilees nobles who ruled over lesser social ranks, paralleling lesser gods like Scamander[17].
The relationship of Achilles and Patroclus
The precise nature of the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus has been the subject of some dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the Iliad, it is clear that the two heroes have a deep and extremely meaningful friendship, but the evidence of a romantic or sexual element is equivocal. Commentators from the classical period to today have tended to interpret the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. Thus, in fifth-century Athens the relationship was commonly interpreted as pederastic, since pederasty was an accepted part of Athenian society. Present day readers are more likely to interpret the two heroes either as non-sexual war buddies or as a similarly-aged homosexual couple.
Warfare in the Iliad
Even though Mycene was a maritime power that managed to launch over a thousand ships and Troy at the very least had built the fleet with which Paris took Helen,[18] no sea-battle takes place throughout the conflict and Phereclus, the shipbuilder of Troy, fights on foot.[19]
The heroes of the Iliad are dressed in elaborate and well described armor. They ride to the battle field on a chariot, throw a spear to the enemy formation and then dismount, use their other spear and engage in personal combat. Telamonian Ajax's carried a large tower-shaped shield (σάκος) that was used not only to cover him but also his brother:
Ninth came Teucer, stretching his curved bow.
He stood beneath the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon.
As Ajax cautiously pulled his shield aside,
Teucer would peer out quickly, shoot off an arrow,
hit someone in the crowd, dropping that soldier
right where he stood, ending his life—then he'd duck back,
crouching down by Ajax, like a child beside its mother.
Ajax would then conceal him with his shining shield.
(Iliad 8.267–272, translated by Ian Johnston)
Ajax's shield was heavy and difficult to carry. It was thus more suited for defence than offence. His cousin Achilles on the other hand had a large round shield that he used along with his famous spear with great success against the Trojans. Round or eight-sided was the shield of the simple soldier. Unlike the heroes they rarely had a breast-plate and relied exclusively on the shield for defence. They would form very dense formations:
Just as a man constructs a wall for some high house,
using well-fitted stones to keep out forceful winds,
that's how close their helmets and bossed shields lined up,
shield pressing against shield, helmet against helmet
man against man. On the bright ridges of the helmets,
horsehair plumes touched when warriors moved their heads.
That's how close they were to one another.
(Iliad 16.213–7, translated by Ian Johnston)
Once Homer actually calls the formation phalanx though the true phalanx formation appears in the 7th century BC.[20] Was this the way that the true Trojan War was fought? Most scholars do not believe so.[21] The chariot was the main weapon in battles of the time, like the Battle of Kadesh. There is evidence from the Dendra armor and paintings at the palace of Pylos that the Mycenaeans used two-man chariots, with the principal rider armed with a long spear, unlike the Hittite three-man chariots whose riders were armed with shorter spears or the two-man chariots armed with arrows used by Egyptians and Syrians. Homer is aware of the use of chariots as a main weapon. Nestor places his charioteers in front of the rest of his troop and tells them:
In your eagerness to engage the Trojans,
don't any of you charge ahead of others,
trusting in your strength and horsemanship.
And don't lag behind. That will hurt our charge.
Any man whose chariot confronts an enemy's
should thrust with his spear at him from there.
That's the most effective tactic, the way
men wiped out city strongholds long ago—
their chests full of that style and spirit.
(Iliad 4.301–309, translated by Ian Johnston)
Mythological Characters in the Iliad
Although gods, goddesses, and demi-gods play a large role in the plot of the Iliad, scholars note that the portrayal of gods by Homer represents a break from the ways in which Greeks actually observed their religion. The gods of the Iliad were crafted to suit the author's needs in telling his story instead of to give an ideal representation of how the Greeks viewed their mythological figures. Herodotus, the classical historian, even went so far as to say that Homer and his contemporary, Hesiod, first named and described the characteristics and appearances of the gods.[22]
In her book, Greek Gods: Human Lives, scholar Mary Lefkowitz discusses the relevance of the gods' actions in the Iliad and attempts to answer the question of whether their actions are applicable for their own sakes or if they are merely a metaphorical representation of human characteristics. Many classic authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, were only interested in the Homeric characters of gods as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth."[23] She argues that, if one looks at the Greek gods as religious elements rather than metaphors, their existence is what allowed Greeks to be so intellectually open. Without any established dogma or single holy book, Greeks could design gods that fit any description of religion.[24]
The Iliad in subsequent arts and literature
Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war.
William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as a source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused the love story of Troilus, a Trojan prince and a son of Priam, and a Trojan woman Cressida. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc.
The 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to America's Washington state in the years after the Spanish-American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act One and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Two.
Christa Wolf's 1983 novel Kassandra is a critical engagement with the stuff of the Iliad. Wolf's narrator is Cassandra, whose thoughts we hear at the moment just before her murder by Clytemnestra in Sparta. Wolf's narrator presents a feminist's view of the war, and of war in general. Cassandra's story is accompanied by four essays which Wolf delivered as the Frankfurter Poetik-Vorlesungen. The essays present Wolf's concerns as a writer and rewriter of this canonical story and show the genesis of the novel through Wolf's own readings and in a trip she took to Greece.
A number of comic series have re-told the legend of the Trojan War. The most inclusive may be Age of Bronze, a comprehensive retelling by writer/artist Eric Shanower that incorporates a broad spectrum of literary traditions and archaeological findings. Started in 1999, it is projected to number seven volumes.
The Washington D.C. based painter, David Richardson, began a series of paintings in 2002 based on the Iliad and titled The Trojan War Series. Each painting in the series is intended to be a monument to a character in the Iliad and bears a name taken from the poem. As of October 2007, Richardson had completed over eighty paintings in the series and was still not finished with the body of work.
Power metal band Blind Guardian composed a 14 minute song about the Iliad, "And Then There Was Silence", appearing on the 2002 album A Night at the Opera.
Power metal band Manowar composed a 28 minute medley "Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts" in their 1992 album, The Triumph of Steel.
An epic science fiction adaptation/tribute by acclaimed author Dan Simmons titled Ilium was released in 2003. The novel received a Locus Award for best science fiction novel of 2003.
A loose film adaptation of the Iliad, Troy, was released in 2004, starring Brad Pitt as Achilles, Orlando Bloom as Paris, Eric Bana as Hector, Sean Bean as Odysseus and Brian Cox as Agamemnon. It was directed by German-born Wolfgang Petersen. The movie only loosely resembles the Homeric version, with the supernatural elements of the story were deliberately expunged, except for one scene that includes Achilles' sea nymph mother, Thetis (although her supernatural nature is never specifically stated, and she is aged as though human).
Though the film received mixed reviews, it was a commercial success, particularly in international sales. It grossed $133 million in the United States and $497 million worldwide, placing it in the 50 top-grossing movies of all time.
S.M. Stirling's Island in the Sea of Time series contains numerous characters who are clearly the "original versions" of those appearing in the Iliad; the twentieth-century characters are quite aware of this and make rather frequent reference to it. One, for example, comments that "a big horse ought to be present at the fall of Troy", and another uses the glory that the poem would have brought its protagonists to turn one of them against his master.
Translations into English
The Iliad has been translated into English for centuries. George Chapman's 16th century translation was praised by John Keats in his sonnet, On First Looking into Chapman's Homer. Alexander Pope's translation into rhymed pentameter was published in 1715. William Cowper's 1791 version in forceful Miltonic blank verse is highly regarded. In his lectures On Translating Homer Matthew Arnold commented on the problems of translating the Iliad and on the major translations available in 1861. In 1870 the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a "simple, faithful" (Van Wyck Brooks) version in blank verse.
There are several twentieth century English translations. Richmond Lattimore's version attempts to reproduce, line for line, the rhythm and phrasing of the original poem. Robert Fitzgerald has striven to situate the Iliad in the musical forms of English poetry. Robert Fagles and Stanley Lombardo both follow the Greek closely but are bolder in adding dramatic significance to conventional and formulaic Homeric language. Lombardo has chosen an American idiom that is much more colloquial than the other translations.
Partial list of English translations
This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad. For a more complete list, see English translations of Homer.
George Chapman, 1598 and 1615 - verse
John Ogilby, 1660
Thomas Hobbes, 1676 - verse
John Ozell, William Broome and William Oldisworth, 1712
Alexander Pope, 1713 - verse: full text
James Macpherson, 1773
William Cowper, 1791: full text
Lord Derby, 1864 - verse: full text
William Cullen Bryant, 1870
Walter Leaf, Andrew Lang and Ernest Myers, 1873 - prose: full text
Samuel Butler, 1898 - prose: full text
A.T. Murray, 1924
Alexander Falconer, 1933
Sir William Marris, 1934 - verse
W.H.D. Rouse, 1938 - prose
E.V. Rieu, 1950 - prose
Alston Chase and William G. Perry, 1950 - prose
Richmond Lattimore, 1951 - verse
Ennis Rees, 1963 - verse
Robert Fitzgerald, 1974
Martin Hammond, 1987
Robert Fagles, 1990
Stanley Lombardo, 1997
Ian Johnston, 2002 - verse: full text
Notes
- Iliad IX 410-416
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 1.13.
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 1.122.
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 1.181-7.
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 18.111-116.
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 16.849-54.
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 16.433-4.
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 16.440-3.
- Homer.The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 22.178-81.
- Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 20.300-4.
- Porter, John. “The Iliad as Oral Formulaic Poetry.” The Iliad as Oral Formulaic Poetry. 8 May 2006. University of Saskatchewan. Accessed 26 November 2007.
- Lord, Albert. The Singer of Tales Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960. p. 190
- Lord, Albert. The Singer of Tales Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960. p. 195
- Iliad XVI 130-154
- Armstrong, James I. The Arming Motif in the Iliad. The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 79, No. 4. (1958), pp. 337-354.
- Toohey, Peter. Reading Epic: An Introduction to the Ancient Narrative. New Fetter Lane, London: Routledge, 1992.
- Iliad 3.45–50
- Iliad 5.59–65
- Iliad 6.6
- Tomas Cahill, Sailing the Wine Dark Sea, Why the Greeks Matter, New York 2003
- Homer's Iliad: Classical Technology Center. http://ablemedia.com/ctcweb/netshots/homer.htm
- Lefkowitz, Mary. Greek Gods: Human Lives. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003
- Oliver Taplin. "Bring Back the Gods." The New York Times. 14 December 2003.
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