yuèdòugē bái ní Nicolaus Copernicuszài百家争鸣dezuòpǐn!!! | |||
哥白尼ní gǔ lā gē bái ní（ lā dīng yǔ míng zì： NicolausCopernicus， bō lán yǔ míng zì： MikołajKopernik， 1473 nián 2 yuè 19 rì ～ 1543 nián 5 yuè 24 rì） shì bō lán tiān wén xué jiā， shì dì yī wèi tí chū tài yáng wéi zhōng xīn héng héng rì xīn shuō de 'ōu zhōu tiān wén xué jiā， yī bān rèn wéi tā zhù de《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》 shì xiàn dài tiān wén xué de qǐ bù diǎn。
gē bái ní（ NicolausCopernicus1473 nián 2 yuè 19 rì ---1543 nián 5 yuè 24 rì） chū shēng yú bō lán wéi sī dù lā hé pàn de tuō lún shì de yī gè fù yù jiā tíng。 18 suì shí jiù dú yú bō lán jiù dū de kè lāi kǎo dà xué， xué xí yī xué qī jiān duì tiān wén xué chǎn shēng liǎo xīng qù。 1496 nián， 23 suì de gē bái ní lái dào wén yì fù xīng de cè yuán dì yì dà lì， zài bó luò ní yà dà xué hé pà duō wǎ dà xué gōng dú fǎ lǜ、 yī xué hé shén xué， bó luò ní yà dà xué de tiān wén xué jiā dé nuò wǎ lā（ denovara， 1454-1540） duì gē bái ní yǐng xiǎng jí dà， zài tā nà lǐ xué dào liǎo tiān wén guān cè jì shù yǐ jí xī là de tiān wén xué lǐ lùn。 hòu lái zài fèi lā lā dà xué huò zōng jiào fǎ bó shì xué wèi。 gē bái ní zuò wéi yī míng yī shēng， yóu yú yī shù gāo míng 'ér bèi rén men yù míng wéi“ shén yī”。 gē bái ní chéng nián de dà bù fēn shí jiān shì zài fèi láo 'ēn yì gé dà jiào táng rèn zhí dāng yī míng jiào shì。 gē bái ní bìng bù shì yī wèi zhí yè tiān wén xué jiā， tā de chéng míng shì zài yè yú shí jiān wán chéng de。 zài yì dà lì qī jiān， gē bái ní jiù shú xī liǎo xī là zhé xué jiā 'ā lǐ sī tǎ kè sī（ qián sān shì jì） de xué shuō， què xìn dì qiú hé qí tā xíng xīng dū wéi rào tài yáng yùn zhuǎn zhè gè rì xīn shuō shì zhèng què de。 tā dà yuē zài 40 suì shí kāi shǐ zài péng yǒu zhōng sàn fā yī fèn jiǎn duǎn de shǒu gǎo， chū bù chǎn shù liǎo tā zì jǐ yòu guān rì xīn shuō de kàn fǎ。 gē bái ní jīng guò cháng nián de guān chá hé jì suàn zhōng yú wán chéng liǎo tā de wěi dà zhù zuò《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》。 tā zài《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》（ derevolutionibusorbiumcoelestium） zhōng guān cè jì suàn suǒ dé shù zhí de jīng què dù shì jīng rén de。 lì rú， tā dé dào héng xīng nián de shí jiān wéi 365 tiān 6 xiǎo shí 9 fēn 40 miǎo， bǐ xiàn zài de jīng què zhí yuē duō 30 miǎo， wù chā zhǐ yòu bǎi wàn fēn zhī yī； tā dé dào de yuè liàng dào dì qiú de píng jūn jù lí shì dì qiú bàn jìng de 60.30 bèi， hé xiàn zài de 60.27 bèi xiāng bǐ， wù chā zhǐ yòu wàn fēn zhī wǔ。
1533 nián， 60 suì de gē bái ní zài luó mǎ zuò liǎo yī xì liè de jiǎng yǎn， tí chū liǎo tā de xué shuō de yào diǎn， bìng wèi zāo dào jiào huáng de fǎn duì。 dàn shì tā què hài pà jiào huì huì fǎn duì， shèn zhì zài tā de shū wán gǎo hòu， hái shì chí chí bù gǎn fā biǎo。 zhí dào zài tā lín jìn gǔ xī zhī nián cái zhōng yú jué dìng jiāng tā chū bǎn。 1543 nián 5 yuè 24 rì qù shì de nà yī tiān cái shōu dào chū bǎn shāng jì lái de yī bù tā xiě de shū。
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní - shēng píng
gē bái ní
gē bái ní（ NicolausCopernicus）， 1473 nián shēng yú bō lán xī bù tuō lún chéng shèng 'ā nà gǎng， sǐ yǔ 1543 nián。 tā de fù qīn shì fù shāng， céng rèn guò shì zhèng guān lì， zài tā 10 suì shí， fù qīn qù shì， yóu jiù fù lù jiā sī · wǎ cí lù dé fǔ yǎng。 wǎ cí lù dé yú 1489 nián kāi shǐ rèn 'ài mǔ lán jiào huì zhù jiào， tā céng liú xué yì dà lì， bó xué duō cái， sī xiǎng kāi lǎng， tí chàng yán jiū shí jì， zhè duì shàonián shí qī de gē bái ní yòu jiào shēn kè de yǐng xiǎng。
gē bái ní 18 suì shí dào bō lán shǒu dū kè lā kē fū de yǎ gài lóng dà xué xué xí。 23 suì shí dào wén yì fù xīng de zhōng xīn yì dà lì qiú xué， 10 nián zhōng， xiān zài bō lún yà dà xué de fǎ lǜ xué yuàn xué xí 3 nián bàn， yòu dào shǒu dū luó mǎ jū zhù 1 nián。 1501 nián dào pà duō wǎ dà xué。 hòu yòu dào fǎ lā là dà xué xué xí。 zài cǐ qī jiān tā céng fǎng wèn guò dá · fēn qí。 1506 nián huí dào bō lán hòu， zài qí jiù fù shēn biān dāng yī shēng。
1512 nián， jiù fù qù shì hòu， gē bái ní kāi shǐ dào bō luó de hǎi zhī bīn de fú luò 'ēn bǎo dà jiào táng rèn shén fǔ， cǐ hòu de 30 yú nián， tā yī zhí zài jiào kuàirèn zhí。 zài zhè yī qī jiān， tā wán chéng liǎo zhù míng zhù zuò《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》。 1506 nián dào 1512 nián jiān， tā wán chéng liǎo rì xīn shuō guān diǎn de jiǎn yào《 qiǎn shuō》。 1530 nián fā biǎo liǎo lùn wén zhāi yào， céng shòu dào jiào huáng kè lì mén qī shì de zàn xǔ。《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》 chū gǎo céng yú 1512--1516 nián、 1525 nián hé 1540 nián zuò liǎo sān cì zhòng dà xiū gǎi。 1543 nián zhèng shì chū bǎn shí， tā yǐ shén zhì bù qīng， bù jiǔ biàn yǔ shì cháng cí liǎo。
gē bái ní yī shēng zuì wěi dà de chéng jiù shì chuàng lì liǎo“ rì xīn shuō”。 tā suǒ zhù《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》 yǐ kē xué de guān diǎn fǒu dìng liǎo zài xī fāng tǒng zhì liǎo yī qiān duō nián de dì xīn shuō， zhè shì tiān wén xué shǐ shàng yī cì wěi dà de gé mìng， yǐn qǐ liǎo rén lèi yǔ zhòu guān de zhòng dà gé xīn， chén zhòng dì dǎ jī liǎo fēng jiàn shén quán tǒng zhì， cóng cǐ zì rán kē xué biàn kāi shǐ cóng shén xué zhōng jiě fàng chū lái， zǒu shàng liǎo dà tà bù fā zhǎn de zhēng chéng。
《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》 de fā biǎo jù yòu huàshídài de wěi dà yì yì。 zhè běn jù zhù de zhù chéng， huā fèi liǎo gē bái ní yī shēng de xīn xuè。 zài shén jiào zhì shàng， jiào huì yōng yòu jù dà quán lì， rén men de jīng shén bèi qiān yú nián cháng qī shù fù chǔyú yú mèi luò hòu de shí dài， gē bái ní xué shuō de chǎn shēng， biǎo xiàn liǎo tā jīng rén de yǒng qì、 dǎn lüè、 yì lì hé kē xué tài dù。
gē bái ní bó wù guǎn
gē bái ní xué shuō de chǎn shēng shì shè huì fā zhǎn de bì rán jiēguǒ， 15 shì jì kāi shǐ， tiān wén xué shòu dào liǎo shè huì fā zhǎn de jù dà tuī dòng， tè bié shì wén yì fù xīng yùn dòng gěi shén xué yǐ chén zhòng de dǎ jī， yà lǐ shì duō dé、 tuō lè mì de dì xīn shuō， zuò wéi jī dū jiào de jiào yì yǐ kāi shǐ shòu dào huái yí。 háng hǎi yè de fā zhǎn， duì tiān wén xué hé lì fǎ děng tí chū liǎo xīn de yào qiú。 zī běn zhù yì de chǎn shēng hé fā zhǎn， yǐ gǎn dào dì xīn shuō shì yī gè sī xiǎng jiě fàng de jù dà zhàng 'ài。 zài gē bái ní yǐ qián yǐ yòu xǔ duō rén duì dì xīn shuō tí chū liǎo zhì yí， bìng qiě qǔ dé liǎo tiān wén guān cè zhōng de xǔ duō kē xué yǐ jù， tiān wén yí qì yě yòu liǎo hěn dà de gǎi jìn。 zhè wú yí wéi gē bái ní xué shuō de chuàng lì diàn dìng liǎo jī chǔ。 gē bái ní de jù dà gòng xiàn zài yú， xì tǒng dì zǒng jié liǎo qián rén de jīng yàn， yòu zuò liǎo yán zhěn zhōu mì de shù nián rú yī rì de shí jì guān cè， cóng 'ér wán chéng liǎo rì xīn shuō de wán zhěng lǐ lùn。
gē bái ní de rì xīn shuō rèn wéi， tài yáng shì yǔ zhòu de zhōng xīn， bìng guī dìng dì qiú yòu sān zhǒng yùn dòng， jí rào zhóu de zì zhuǎn， rào tài yáng de gōng zhuǎn hé yòng yǐ jiě shì 'èr fēn suì chā de dì zhóu de huí zhuǎn yùn dòng。 zhè xiē guān diǎn zuì zǎo chū xiàn yú 1530 nián gē bái ní xiě de xiǎo cè zǐ《 duǎn lùn》 shàng， bìng yǐ shǒu chāo běn xíng shì zài tā de péng yǒu zhōng chuán yuè。 shù xué jiā qiáo zhì · lāi dì kè sī（ GeorgeRheticus,1514--1576） céng jǐyǔ gǔ lì hé zhī chí， bìng yǔ gē bái ní gòng tóng yán jiū 'èr nián duō， 1540 nián céng kān yìn chū bǎn。
zài《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn zhōng》， gē bái ní shēn kè dì pōu xī liǎo tuō lè mì de xué shuō， chéng qīng liǎo xǔ duō cuò wù de rèn shí， tóng shí duì yà lǐ shì duō dé de yùn dòng lǐ lùn yě zài quán miàn fēn xī de jī chǔ shàng jiā yǐ fǒu dìng。 tā rèn wéi， dì qiú tóng qí tā tiān tǐ yī yàng， dū jù yòu yǐn lì hé yún sù yuán zhōu yùn dòng， bìng wú tè shū zhī chù。
yóu yú shí dài de xiàn zhì hé kē xué yán jiū tiáo jiàn de zhì yuē， gē bái ní suī rán tí chū liǎo zhǎn xīn de xué shuō， dàn tā zài fāng fǎ shàng què shì bǎo shǒu de。 tā shǐ zhōng rèn wéi tiān tǐ yùn dòng shì yún sù yuán zhōu yùn dòng。 tā de tǐ xì suī rán bǐ tuō lè mì de tǐ xì jiǎn dān dé duō， dàn yǔ hòu lái kāi pǔ lè chuàng lì de tǐ xì xiāng bǐ yào fù zá dé duō。 rì xīn shuō de wěn gù de kē xué jī chǔ shì zài yǐ hòu kāi pǔ lè fā xiàn xíng xīng yùn dòng sān dìng lǜ hé niú dùn fā xiàn wàn yòu yǐn lì dìng lǜ cái jiàn lì qǐ lái de。
gē bái ní de rì xīn shuō， zài zhōng guó yě hěn yòu yǐng xiǎng， zuì zǎo shì yóu qīng dài shù xué jiā lǐ shàn lán zài qí fān yì de《 tán tiān》 18 juàn zhōng zhèng què dì jiā yǐ jiè shào 'ér zài zhōng guó chuán bō de。
kě yǐ shuō， gē bái ní shì lì shǐ shàng zuì jié chū de tiān wén xué jiā。 tóng shí， tā xīng qù guǎng fàn， jīng tōng duō zhǒng yǔ yán， duì shén xué hé jiào huì fǎ yě yòu shēn kè de liǎo jiě。 tā hái shì zhù míng de yī shēng、 jī xiè shī， zài shù xué、 dì lǐ xué、 wén xué、 huì huà fāng miàn yě shì dì yī liú de xué zhě。 tā duì jīng jì xué yě pō yòu yán jiū。
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní - lì shǐ bèi jǐng
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní de xiào xiàng huà NicolausCopernicusPortraitfromToruń,1580
gē bái ní de kē xué chéng jiù， shì tā suǒ chù de shí dài de chǎn wù， yòu zhuǎn guò lái tuī dòng liǎo shí dài de fā zhǎn。
shí wǔ、 liù shì jì de 'ōu zhōu， zhèng shì cóng fēng jiàn shè huì xiàng zī běn zhù yì shè huì zhuǎn biàn de guān jiàn shí qī， zài zhè yī 'èr bǎi nián jiān， shè huì fā shēng liǎo jù dà de biàn huà。 14 shì jì yǐ qián de 'ōu zhōu， dào chù shì sì fēn wǔ liè de xiǎo chéng bāng。 hòu lái， suí zhe chéng shì gōng shāng yè de xīng qǐ， tè bié shì cǎi kuàng hé yě jīn yè de fā zhǎn， yǒng xiàn liǎo xǔ duō xīn xīng de dà chéng shì， xiǎo chéng bāng yòu liǎo lián hé qǐ lái zǔ chéng guó jiā de qū shì。 dào 15 shì jì mò yè， zài xǔ duō guó jiā lǐ dū chū xiàn liǎo jī běn shàng shì zhōng yāng jí quán de jūn zhù zhèng tǐ。 dāng shí de bō lán bù jǐn yòu xiàng kè lā kē fū、 bō cí nán zhè yàng de dà chéng shì， yě yòu xǔ duō shǒu gōng yè xīng shèng de chéng shì。 1526 nián guī bìng yú bō lán de huá shā yǐ chéng wéi yī gè zhòng yào de shāng yè、 zhèng zhì、 wén huà hé dì lǐ de zhōng xīn， zài 16 shì jì mò chéng liǎo bō lán guó jiā de shǒu dū。
yǔ zhè zhǒng zhèng zhì jīng jì biàn gé xiāng shì yìng， wén huà、 kē xué shàng yě kāi shǐ yòu suǒ fǎn yìng。 dāng shí， ōu zhōu shì“ zhèng jiào hé yī”， luó mǎ jiào tíng kòng zhì liǎo xǔ duō guó jiā， shèng jīng bèi xuān bù wéi zhì gāo wú shàng de zhēn lǐ， fán shì wéi bèi shèng jīng de xué shuō， dōubèi chì wéi“ yì duān xié shuō”， fán shì fǎn duì shén quán tǒng zhì de rén， dōubèi chù yǐ huǒ xíng。 xīn xīng de zī chǎn jiē jí wéi zì jǐ de shēng cún hé fā zhǎn， xiān qǐ liǎo yīcháng fǎn duì fēng jiàn zhì dù hé jiào huì mí xìn sī xiǎng de dǒu zhēng， chū xiàn liǎo rén wén zhù yì de sī cháo。 tā men shǐ yòng de zhàn dǒu wǔ qì， jiù shì wèi bèi shén xué rǎn wū de gǔ xī là de zhé xué、 kē xué hé wén yì。 zhè jiù shì zhèn hàn 'ōu zhōu de wén yì fù xīng yùn dòng。 wén yì fù xīng shǒu xiān fā shēng yú yì dà lì， hěn kuài jiù kuò dà dào bō lán jí 'ōu zhōu qí tā guó jiā。
yǔ cǐ tóng shí， shāng yè de huó yuè yě cù jìn liǎo duì wài mào yì de fā zhǎn。 zài“ huáng jīn” zhè gè fú zhòu de qū shǐ xià， xǔ duō 'ōu zhōu mào xiǎn zhě yuǎn háng fēi zhōu、 yìn dù jí zhěng gè yuǎn dōng dì qū。 yuǎn yáng háng xíng xū yào fēng fù de tiān wén hé dì lǐ zhī shí， cóng shí jì zhōng jī lěi qǐ lái de guān cè zī liào， shǐ rén men gǎn dào dāng shí liú xíng de“ dì jìng tiān dòng” de yǔ zhòu xué shuō zhí dé huái yí， zhè jiù yào qiú rén men jìn yī bù qù tàn suǒ yǔ zhòu de mì mì， cóng 'ér tuī jìn liǎo tiān wén xué hé dì lǐ xué de fā zhǎn。 1492 nián， yì dà lì zhù míng de háng hǎi jiā gē lún bù fā xiàn xīn dà lù， mài zhé lún hé tā de tóng bàn rào dì qiú yī zhōu， zhèng míng dì qiú shì yuán xíng de， shǐ rén men kāi shǐ zhēn zhèng rèn shí dì qiú。
zhōng shì jì jiàn zhù
zài jiào huì yán mì kòng zhì xià de zhōng shì jì， yě fā shēng guò hōng hōng liè liè de zōng jiào gé mìng。 yīn wéi tiān zhù jiào de hěn duō jiào yì bù fú hé shèng jīng de jiào huì， ér jiā rù liǎo tài duō jiào huáng de gè rén yì zhì yǐ jí gè lèi shén xué jiā de zì shēn chéng guǒ， suǒ yǐ hěn duō xìn tú kāi shǐ zhì yí tiān zhù jiào de jiào yì hé zǔ zhì， fā qǐ huí guī shèng jīng de xíng dòng lái。
jié kè de 'ài guó zhù yì zhě、 bù lā gé dà xué xiào cháng yáng hú sī（ 1369～ 1415 nián） zài jūn shì tǎn dīng bǎo de zōng jiào huì yì shàng gōng kāi qiǎn zé dé yì zhì fēng jiàn zhù yǔ tiān zhù jiào huì duì jié kè de yā pò hé bō xuē。 tā suī rán bèi fǎn dòng jiào huì chù yǐ huǒ xíng， dàn tā de gé mìng huó dòng zài shè huì shàng yǐn qǐ liǎo qiáng liè de fǎn yìng。 jié kè nóng mín zài hú sī dǎng rén de qí zhì xià jǔ xíng qǐ yì， zhè cì yùn dòng yě bō jí bō lán。 1517 nián， zài dé guó， mǎ dīng lù dé（ 1483～ 1546 nián） fǎn duì jiào huì fàn mài shú zuì fú， yǔ luó mǎ jiào huáng gōng kāi jué liè。 1521 nián， lù dé yòu zài wò 'ěr mǔ guó huì shàng jiē lù luó mǎ jiào tíng de zuì 'è， bìng tí chū jiàn lì jī dū jiào xīn jiào de zhù zhāng。 xīn jiào de jiào yì dé dào xǔ duō guó jiā de zhī chí， bō lán yě shēn shòu yǐng xiǎng。
jiù zài zhè yàng yī gè dà biàn gé dà dòng dàng de nián dài lǐ， 1473 nián 2 yuè 19 rì gē bái ní zài wéi sī wǎ hé pàn de tuō lún chéng dàn shēng liǎo。 tā de fù qīn shì gè dāng yì yuán de fù shāng， tā yòu yī gè gē gē hé liǎng gè jiě jiě。 gē bái ní 10 suì de shí hòu， tā de fù qīn sǐ liǎo， tā bèi sòng dào jiù jiù wù kǎ shī dà zhù jiào jiā zhōng fǔ yǎng。 wù kǎ shī shì yī gè rén wén zhù yì zhě， tā hé dāng shí bō lán jìn bù de zhī shí jiè lái wǎng jí wéi mìqiè， bìng yǔ yì dà lì zhuó yuè de gé mìng jiā、 rén wén zhù yì zhě fěi lì pǔ bù 'ào nà kè xī shì zhì yǒu。 zài gē bái ní niàn zhōng xué de shí hòu， wù kǎ shī jiù dài zhe tā cān jiā rén wén zhù yì zhě de jù huì。 1491 nián， àn zhào jiù fù de 'ān pái， gē bái ní dào kè lā kē fū dà xué qù xué xí tiān wén hé shù xué。
dāng shí， bō lán yǐ jīng chǎn shēng liǎo yī xiē yòu míng de tiān wén xué jiā， rú mǎ 'ěr qīng kè luò 'ěr， tā yú 1450 nián xiě chéng《 yà 'ěr fēng sī xīng xiàng biǎo dìng zhèng》 yī shū， bìng zài xǔ duō guó jiā jiǎng xué。 yòu rú zhù míng de tiān wén xué jiā wò yī qiē hè， céng biān zhì tiān wén lì biǎo， tā jiù zài kè lā kē fū dà xué jiǎng kè， shì gē bái ní qiú xué shí de shù xué hé tiān wén jiào shòu。 gē bái ní de“ tài yáng zhōng xīn xué shuō” jiù shì zài kè lā kē fū dà xué qiú xué shí yùn yù qǐ lái de。
jìn guǎn《 shèng jīng》 méi yòu shè jí zhū rú“ dì qiú shì yǔ zhòu de zhōng xīn” yǐ jí“ tiān yuán dì fāng” děng gè lèi tiān wén zhī shí。 dàn shì zài zhōng shì jì， tiān wén xué yě yòu zhe yán shēn yú gǔ xī là de， jīng guò jīng yuàn shén xué jiā men gòu jià hǎo de guān fāng lùn diǎn。 wèile gǒng gù fēng jiàn tǒng zhì， tiān zhù jiào huì de zōng jiào cái pàn suǒ shāo diào liǎo xǔ duō zhēn guì de kē xué zhù zuò， yòu shí yī tiān jìng shāo diào 20 dà chē。 1327 nián， yì dà lì tiān wén xué jiā cǎi kē dá sī kē lǐ bèi huó huó shāo sǐ， tā de“ zuì míng” jiù shì wéi bèi shèng jīng de jiào yì， lùn zhèng dì qiú chéng qiú zhuàng， zài lìng yī gè bàn qiú shàng yě yòu rén lèi cún zài。
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní - rì xīn shuō fā zhǎn jí qí yì yì
xiōng yá lì yóu piào《 rì xīn shuō yǔ gē bái ní》
gē bái ní de“ rì xīn shuō” fā biǎo zhī qián，“ dì xīn shuō” zài zhōng shì jì de 'ōu zhōu yī zhí jū yú tǒng zhì dì wèi。 zì gǔ yǐ lái， rén lèi jiù duì yǔ zhòu de jié gòu bù duàn dì jìn xíng zhe sī kǎo， zǎo zài gǔ xī là shí dài jiù yòu zhé xué jiā tí chū liǎo dì qiú zài yùn dòng de zhù zhāng， zhǐ shì dāng shí quē fá yǐ jù， yīn cǐ méi yòu dé dào rén men de rèn kě。 zài gǔ dài 'ōu zhōu， yà lǐ shì duō dé hé tuō lè mì zhù zhāng“ dì xīn shuō”， rèn wéi dì qiú shì jìng zhǐ bù dòng de， qí tā de xīng tǐ dū wéi zhe dì qiú zhè yī yǔ zhòu zhōng xīn xuánzhuàn。 zhè gè xué shuō de tí chū yǔ jī dū jiào《 shèng jīng》 zhōng guān yú tiān táng、 rén jiān、 dì yù de shuō fǎ gāng hǎo hù xiāng wěn hé， chǔyú tǒng zhì dì wèi de jiào tíng biàn jié lì zhī chí dì xīn xué shuō， bǎ“ dì xīn shuō” hé shàng dì chuàng zào shì jiè róng wéi yī tǐ， yòng lái yú nòng rén men， wéi hù zì jǐ de tǒng zhì。 yīn 'ér“ dì xīn xué” shuō bèi jiào huì fèng wéi hé《 shèng jīng》 yī yàng de jīng diǎn， cháng qī jū yú tǒng zhì dì wèi。
suí zhe shì wù de bù duàn fā zhǎn， tiān wén guān cè de jīng què dù jiàn jiàn tí gāo， rén men zhú jiàn fā xiàn liǎo dì xīn xué shuō de pò zhàn。 dào wén yì fù xīng yùn dòng shí qī， rén men fā xiàn tuō lè mì suǒ tí chū de jūn lún hé běn lún de shù mù jìng duō dá bā shí gè zuǒ yòu， zhè xiǎn rán shì bù hé lǐ、 bù kē xué de。 rén men qī dài zhe néng yòu yī zhǒng kē xué de tiān tǐ xì tǒng qǔ dài dì xīn shuō。 zài zhè zhǒng lì shǐ bèi jǐng xià， gē bái ní de dì dòng xué shuō yìng yùn 'ér shēng liǎo。 yuē zài 1515 nián qián， gē bái ní wéi chǎn shù zì jǐ guān yú tiān tǐ yùn dòng xué shuō de jī běn sī xiǎng zhuàn xiě liǎo piān tí wéi《 qiǎn shuō》 de lùn wén， tā rèn wéi tiān tǐ yùn dòng bì xū mǎn zú yǐ xià qī diǎn： bù cún zài yī gè suǒ yòu tiān tǐ guǐ dào huò tiān tǐ de gòng tóng de zhōng xīn； dì qiú zhǐ shì yǐn lì zhōng xīn hé yuè qiú guǐ dào de zhōng xīn， bìng bù shì yǔ zhòu de zhōng xīn； suǒ yòu tiān tǐ dū rào tài yáng yùn zhuǎn， yǔ zhòu de zhōng xīn zài tài yáng fù jìn； dì qiú dào tài yáng de jù lí tóng tiān qióng gāo dù zhī bǐ shì wēi bù zú dào de； zài tiān kōng zhōng kàn dào de rèn hé yùn dòng， dōushì dì qiú yùn dòng yǐn qǐ de； zài kōng zhōng kàn dào de tài yáng yùn dòng de yī qiē xiàn xiàng， dōubù shì tā běn shēn yùn dòng chǎn shēng de， ér shì dì qiú yùn dòng yǐn qǐ de， dì qiú tóng shí jìn xíng zhe jǐ zhǒng yùn dòng； rén men kàn dào de xíng xīng xiàng qián hé xiàng hòu yùn dòng， shì yóu yú dì qiú yùn dòng yǐn qǐ de。 dì qiú de yùn dòng zú yǐ jiě shì rén men zài kōng zhōng jiàn dào de gè zhǒng xiàn xiàng liǎo。
cǐ wài， gē bái ní hái miáo shù liǎo tài yáng、 yuè qiú、 sān kē wài xíng xīng ( tǔ xīng、 mù xīng hé huǒ xīng ) hé liǎng kē nèi xíng xīng ( jīn xīng、 shuǐ xīng ) de shì yùn dòng。 shū zhōng， gē bái ní pī pàn liǎo tuō lè mì de lǐ lùn。 kē xué dì chǎn míng liǎo tiān tǐ yùn xíng de xiàn xiàng， tuī fān liǎo cháng qī yǐ lái jū yú tǒng zhì dì wèi de dì xīn shuō， bìng cóng gēn běn shàng fǒu dìng liǎo jī dū jiào guān yú shàng dì chuàng zào yī qiē de miù lùn， cóng 'ér shí xiàn liǎo tiān wén xué zhōng de gēn běn biàn gé。 tā zhèng què dì lùn shù liǎo dì qiú rào qí zhóu xīn yùn zhuǎn、 yuè liàng rào dì qiú yùn zhuǎn、 dì qiú hé qí tā suǒ yòu xíng xīng dū rào tài yáng yùn zhuǎn de shì shí。 dàn shì tā yě hé qián rén yī yàng yán zhòng dī gū liǎo tài yáng xì de guī mó。 tā rèn wéi xīng tǐ yùn xíng de guǐ dào shì yī xì liè de tóng xīn yuán， zhè dāng rán shì cuò wù de。 tā de xué shuō lǐ de shù xué yùn suàn hěn fù zá yě hěn bù zhǔn què。 dàn shì tā de shū lì jí yǐn qǐ liǎo jí dà de guān zhù， qū shǐ yī xiē qí tā tiān wén xué jiā duì xíng xīng yùn dòng zuò gèng wéi zhǔn què de guān chá， qí zhōng zuì zhù míng de shì dān mài wěi dà de tiān wén xué jiā tài shòu bó lāi hé， kāi pǔ lè jiù shì gēn jù tài shòu jī lěi de guān chá zī liào， zuì zhōng tuī dǎo chū liǎo xīng tǐ yùn xíng de zhèng què guī lǜ。
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní de xiào xiàng huà
NicolausCopernicu
zhè shì yī gè qián suǒ wèi wén de kāi chuàng xīn jì yuán de xué shuō， duì yú qiān bǎi nián lái xué jiè fèng wéi dìng lùn de tuō lè mì dì qiú zhōng xīn shuō wú yí shì dāng tóu yī bàng。 suī rán 'ā lǐ sī tǎ kè sī bǐ gē bái ní tí chū rì xīn xué shuō zǎo 1700 duō nián， dàn shì shì shí shàng gē bái ní dé dào liǎo zhè yī shèng yù。 ā lǐ sī tǎ kè sī zhǐ shì píng jiè líng gǎn zuò liǎo yī gè cāi xiǎng， bìng méi yòu jiā yǐ xiáng xì de tǎo lùn， yīn 'ér tā de xué shuō zài kē xué shàng háo wú yòng chù。 gē bái ní zhú gè jiě jué liǎo cāi xiǎng zhōng de shù xué wèn tí hòu， jiù bǎ tā biàn chéng liǎo yòu yòng de kē xué xué shuō ── yī zhǒng kě yǐ yòng lái zuò yù cè de xué shuō， tōng guò duì tiān tǐ guān chá jiēguǒ de jiǎn yàn bìng yǔ dì qiú shì yǔ zhòu zhōng xīn de jiù xué shuō de bǐ jiào， nǐ jiù huì fā xiàn tā de zhòng dà yì yì。 xiǎn rán gē bái ní de xué shuō shì rén lèi duì yǔ zhòu rèn shí de gé mìng， tā shǐ rén men de zhěng gè shì jiè guān dū fā shēng liǎo zhòng dà biàn huà。 dàn shì zài gū jià gē bái ní de yǐng xiǎng shí， wǒ men hái yìng gāi zhù yì dào， tiān wén xué de yìng yòng fàn wéi bù rú wù lǐ xué、 huà xué hé shēng wù xué nà yàng guǎng fàn。
cóng lǐ lùn shàng lái jiǎng， rén men jí shǐ duì gē bái ní xué shuō de zhī shí hèyìng yòng yī qiào bù tōng， yě huì zào chū diàn shì jī、 qì chē hé xiàn dài huà xué chǎng zhī lèi de dōng xī。 dàn shì bù yìng yòng fǎ lā dì、 mài kè sī wéi、 lā wǎ xī hé niú dùn de xué shuō zé shì bù kě xiǎng xiàng de。 jǐn jǐn kǎo lǜ gē bái ní xué shuō duì jì shù de yǐng xiǎng jiù huì wán quán hū lüè tā de zhēn zhèng yì yì。 gē bái ní de shū duì gā lì lüè hé kāi pǔ lè de gōng zuò shì yī gè bù kě quē shǎo de xù mù。 tā liǎ yòu chéng liǎo niú dùn de zhù yào qián bèi。 shì zhè liǎng zhě de fā xiàn cái shǐ niú dùn yòu néng lì què dìng yùn dòng dìng lǜ hé wàn yòu yǐn lì dìng lǜ。 gē bái ní de rì xīn yǔ zhòu tǐ xì jì rán shì shí dài de chǎn wù， tā jiù bù néng bù shòu dào shí dài de xiàn zhì。 fǎn duì shén xué de bù chè dǐ xìng， tóng shí biǎo xiàn zài gē bái ní de mǒu xiē guān diǎn shàng， tā de tǐ xì shì cún zài quē xiàn de。 gē bái ní suǒ zhǐ de yǔ zhòu shì jú xiàn zài yī gè xiǎo de fàn wéi nèi de， jù tǐ lái shuō， tā de yǔ zhòu jié gòu jiù shì jīn tiān wǒ men suǒ shú zhī de tài yáng xì， jí yǐ tài yáng wéi zhōng xīn de tiān tǐ xì tǒng。 yǔ zhòu jì rán yòu tā de zhōng xīn， jiù bì xū yòu tā de biān jiè， gē bái ní suī rán fǒu dìng liǎo tuō lè méi de“ jiǔchóng tiān”， dàn tā què bǎo liú liǎo yī céng héng xīng tiān， jìn guǎn tā huí bì liǎo yǔ zhòu shì fǒu yòu xiàn zhè gè wèn tí， dàn shí jì shàng tā shì xiāng xìn héng xīng tiān qiú shì yǔ zhòu de“ wàiqiào”， tā réng rán xiāng xìn tiān tǐ zhǐ néng 'àn zhào suǒ wèi wán měi de yuán xíng guǐ dào yùn dòng， suǒ yǐ gē bái ní de yǔ zhòu tǐ xì， réng rán bāo hán zhe bù dòng de zhōng xīn tiān tǐ。
dàn shì zuò wéi jìn dài zì rán kē xué de diàn jī rén， gē bái ní de lì shǐ gōng jì shì wěi dà de。 què rèn dì qiú bù shì yǔ zhòu de zhōng xīn， ér shì xíng xīng zhī yī， cóng 'ér xiān qǐ liǎo yīcháng tiān wén xué shàng gēn běn xìng de gé mìng， shì rén lèi tàn qiú kè guān zhēn lǐ dào lù shàng de lǐ chéng bēi。 gē bái ní de wěi dà chéng jiù， bù jǐn pū píng liǎo tōng xiàng jìn dài tiān wén xué de dào lù， ér qiě kāi chuàng liǎo zhěng gè zì rán jiè kē xué xiàng qián mài jìn de xīn shí dài。 cóng gē bái ní shí dài qǐ， tuō lí jiào huì shù fù de zì rán kē xué hé zhé xué kāi shǐ huò dé fēi yuè de fā zhǎn。
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní -《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》 de dàn shēng
zhǔn bèi
gē bái ní yǔ tiān tǐ lùn
gē bái ní zài yī gè qiū yǔ mián mián de rì zǐ lí kāi yì dà lì。 dāng shí tiān kōng chū xiàn liǎo huì xīng duàn tiān de yì xiàng， guǎng dà dì qū wēn yì liú xíng。 zhèng zài zhè shí， luó mǎ jiào huáng yà lì shān dà yòu wù hē liǎo móu hài bié rén de dú jiǔ 'ér sàng mìng。 yì dà lì jiào huì jiù chèn jī tí chū zhǒng zhǒng“ jǐng gào”， zhāo yáo zhuàng piàn， yú nòng rén mín。 dāng gē bái ní huí dào bō lán shí， tiān kōng chū xiàn lìng yī gè hǎn jiàn de xīng xiàng， jiào huì yě zài dà sì huó dòng， nào dé shǒu dū kè lā kē fū wū yān zhàng qì。
yuán lái， jiào huì xuān gào tiān kōng jiāng lián xù chū xiàn sì cì tǔ xīng hé mù xīng“ huì hé” de yì xiàng， shuō zhè shì shàng tiān duì shì rén de yī gè yán zhòng jǐng gào。 shì shàngjiàng chū xiàn yī gè mào pái de xiān zhī， hóng shuǐ hé wēn yì jiāng jiē lián 'ér lái， bìng jiāng yǐn qǐ shè huì sāo luàn hé guó jiā bēng kuì。 zhè zhǒng zhǒng yáo yán nào dé rén xīn bù 'ān， yòu qián de rén pàn mìng xún huān zuò lè， xī wàng bǎi tuō duì yú wèi lái de kǒng jù； qióng kǔ de lǎo bǎi xìng wèile xiàng jiào huì gòu mǎi“ shú zuì fú”， gèng shì nòng dé qīng jiā dàng chǎn， nán yǐ huó mìng。 tiān kōng yī xiàng shì jiào huì qiāo zhà lè suǒ de yáo qián shù， tā men bǎ“ tiān táng zhōng de wèi zhì” zhuāng zài zì jǐ de qián bāo lǐ， dà liàng dōu shòu“ shú zuì fú”， sōu kuò mín cái。 dāng shí bō lán hè hè yòu míng de zōng jiào cái pàn guān tiě zhé 'ěr jiù shuō guò， xiàng tā xiào jìng qián cái de rén kě yǐ xiāo zāi miǎn huò， lián sǐ qù de rén yě kě yǐ shú xǐ zuì niè。 tā de kǒu tóu chán shì：“ yín qián tóu rù shèng guì， líng hún shēng rù tiān táng！”
zhè shí， gē bái ní hé tā de péng yǒu men yě zài kè lā kē fū yán jiū liǎng xīng“ huì hé” de wèn tí。 gē bái ní fā xiàn jiào huì de shuō fǎ bāo hán shù jù de cuò wù， xiǎn rán shì yāo yán huò zhòng。 yú shì， tā hé péng yǒu men jué dìng gè zì zài bù tóng de dì qū jìn xíng guān cè， yǐ biàn yī qǐ lái jiē fā jiào huì de xié zhāo。
dāng dì sì cì“ huì hé” fā shēng de shí hòu， gē bái ní zhèng zài hè 'ěr sī bǎo tā jiù fù wù kǎ shī de zhù jiào guān dǐ， zhù chí yǔ shí zì qí shì tuán de dǒu zhēng， suī rán zhèng wù fán máng， gē bái ní réng rán jiān chí guān cè xīng xiàng。
guān cè de jiēguǒ zhèng shí liǎo gē bái ní de yù jiàn。“ huì hé” de rì qī， hé jiào huì suǒ shuō de bù fú， ér hé gē bái ní de tuī suàn què shì xiāng fú de héng héng tā tí qián liǎo yī gè duō yuè。 gē bái ní de péng yǒu men yě guān cè dào tóng yī gè xīng xiàng。
zài hè 'ěr sī bǎo， yóu yú péng yǒu men bù duàn cuī cù， gē bái ní bǎ tā de“ tài yáng zhōng xīn xué shuō” xiě chū liǎo yī gè tí gāng， qǔ liǎo yī gè pǔ sù de míng zì， jiào《 shì lùn tiān tǐ yùn xíng de jiǎ shè》， chāo sòng gěi tā de jǐ gè xīn fù péng yǒu。 tā xuān bù：“ suǒ yòu de tiān tǐ dū wéi rào zhe tài yáng yùn zhuǎn， tài yáng fù jìn jiù shì yǔ zhòu zhōng xīn de suǒ zài。 dì qiú yě hé bié de xíng xīng yī yàng rào zhe yuán zhōu yùn zhuǎn。 tā yī zhòu yè rào dì zhóu zì zhuǎn yī zhōu， yī nián rào tài yáng gōng zhuǎn yī zhōu ……。”
gē bái ní suǒ xuān bù de shì yī gè jù dà de xué shuō tǐ xì de lún kuò， tā zài cān jiā jù huì de péng yǒu zhōng jiān yǐn qǐ liǎo xǔ duō zhēng lùn。 gē bái ní duì xǔ duō yí wèn dū zuò liǎo jiě dá。 zài jié shù biàn lùn de shí hòu， tā yǐn yòng liǎo gǔ luó mǎ dà shī rén xī sài luó de huà：“ méi yòu shénme dōng xī gǎn dé shàng yǔ zhòu de wán zhěng， gǎn dé shàng dé xíng de chún jié。” tā yòng zhè jù huà biǎo míng liǎo yī jù xìn niàn， nà jiù shì： yǔ zhòu shì wán zhěng de、 duìchèn de、 hé xié de， shì jù yòu kě yǐ lǐ jiě de guī lǜ hé zhì xù de。
《 shì lùn tiān tǐ yùn xíng de jiǎ shè》 shì gē bái ní xué shuō de dì yī kuài jī shí， dàn yào zài zhè kuài jī shí shàng jiàn lì qǐ hóng wěi de lǐ lùn dà shà， hái xū yào zuò xǔ duō zhǔn bèi gōng zuò。
1512 nián， wù kǎ shī bìng sǐ， gē bái ní lí kāi liǎo hè 'ěr sī bǎo， qiān jū dào jiào qū dà jiào táng suǒ zài sì de fú lóng bǎo。 fú lóng bǎo bīn lín bō luó de hǎi， shì gè xiǎo xiǎo de yú gǎng。 gē bái ní zài fú lóng bǎo dìng jū yǐ hòu， jiù mǎi xià chéng bǎo de yī zuò jiàn lóu。 zhè zuò jiàn lóu běn lái shì zuò zhàn yòng de， sān jiǎo xíng de lóu dǐng xiàng qián qīng cè， jīhū shēn dào wéi qiáng de wài biān。 lóu dǐng de zuì shàng céng yòu sān gè chuāng kǒu， nà lǐ shì gē bái ní de gōng zuò shì。 xià miàn liǎng céng shì wò fáng， gè yòu yī gè shè jī yòng de qiāng yǎn。 cóng zuì shàng céng de chuāng kǒu kě yǐ xiàng sì miàn bā fāng guān cè tiān xiàng。 yù dào lóu dǐng fáng 'ài guān cè de shí hòu， wài biān de lù tái jiù chéng liǎo tā de guān cè tái。 tā zài zhè lǐ yī zhí zhù dào qù shì。
zhè shí， gē bái ní yǐ jiāng tā wèi lái de zhù zuò qǔ míng wéi《 yùn xíng》。 zài tā kàn lái， yùn dòng cái shì shēng mìng de zhēn dì héng héng yùn dòng cún zài yú wàn wù zhī zhōng， shàng dá tiān kōng， xià zhì shēn hǎi。 méi yòu shénme dōng xī shì jìng zhǐ de， yī qiē dōng xī dōuzài shēngzhǎng、 biàn huà、 xiāo shī， qiān qiū wàn dài jì xù bù tíng。《 yùn xíng》 zhè yī zhù zuò， jiù shì yào jiē shì dà zì rán zhè yī zuì běn zhì de mì mì。 gē bái ní de zhè yī guān diǎn， kěn dìng liǎo kè guān shì jiè de cún zài hé tā de guī lǜ xìng， shǎn yào zhe pǔ sù de wéi wù zhù yì zhé xué de guāng huī。
gē bái ní duì dì qiú de xíng zhuàng， céng duō cì zuò guò jiànjiē de guān cè。 zǎo zài 1500 nián 11 yuè 6 rì， tā jiù zài luó mǎ jìn jiāo de yī gè gāo gǎng shàng guān cè yuè shí， yán jiū dì qiú tóu shè zài yuè qiú biǎo miàn de hú zhuàng yīn yǐng， cóng 'ér zhèng shí liǎo yà lǐ shì duō dé guān yú dì qiú chéng qiú zhuàng de lùn duàn。 zài dìng jū fú lóng bǎo shí， tā céng duō cì zhàn zài bō luó de hǎi 'àn biān guān chá fān chuán。 yòu yī cì， gē bái ní qǐng qiú yī sōu fān chuán zài wéi dǐng bǎng shàng yī gè shǎn guāng de wù tǐ， tā zhàn zài 'àn biān kàn zhe zhè sōu fān chuán màn màn shǐ yùn。 tā miáo xiě zhè cì guān chá de qíng kuàng shuō：“ suí zhe fān chuán de yuǎn qù， nà gè shǎn guāng de wù tǐ zhú jiàn jiàng luò， zuì hòu wán quán yǐnmò， hǎo xiàng tài yáng xià shān yī yàng。” zhè cì guān chá shǐ tā dé chū yī gè jié lùn：“ jiù lián hǎi miàn yě shì yuán xíng de。”
zài yīn shī duō wù de bō luó de hǎi de 'àn biān， féng dào yán hán de dōng yè， tiān kōng méi yòu yún yǐng， xīng xīng zài lán tiān shǎn shuò zhe yào yǎn de hán guāng， gē bái ní zǒng shì lì yòng zhè zhǒng nán dé de jī huì， chuān shàng pí 'ǎo， shù jǐn fēng mào， bǎ yí qì bān dào jiàn lóu de lù tái shàng， jìn xíng tōng xiāo dá dàn de guān cè。 tā suǒ yòng de yí qì dōushì zì jǐ dòng shǒu zuò de， yī gòng yòu sān zhǒng。 cèliáng xíng xīng jù lí de“ sān hú yí”， shì yòng cōng shù gān xuē chéng de， yòng mò shuǐ huá shàng kè dù， zhào zhǔn qì yě shì diāo chū lái de。 cèliáng yuè qiú hé xíng xīng wèi zhì de“ bǔ xīng qì”， shì yòng liù gēn shù tiáo rào chéng yuán juàn zuò chéng de。 cè dìng tài yáng zhōng tiān shí gāo dù de“ xiàng xiàn yí”， shì yī kuài hěn dà de zhèng fāng xíng mù bǎn， yòu shàng jiǎo zhuāng zhe dài kè dù de mù huán， gē jià shàng yòu gè“ shuǐ zhǔn yí”， qí shí zhǐ shì yī gè shèng liǎo shuǐ de bō lí guǎn。 guān cè rì shí běn lái yào zài shuǐ lǐ guān cè dàoyǐng， wèile jiǎn shǎo tí shuǐ shàng jiàn lóu de má fán， tā dǎ pò cháng guī， gǎi yòng yī kuài dài kǒng yǎn de hù chuāng bǎn bǎ rì yǐng yìng dào qiáng shàng。 gē bái ní jiù shì lì yòng zhè xiē jiǎn lòu de shè bèi， zài fú lóng bǎo qián hòu jìn xíng liǎo yòu jì lù kě chá de 50 duō cì guān cè， qí zhōng bāo kuò rì shí、 yuè shí、 huǒ xīng、 jīn xīng、 mù xīng hé tǔ xīng de fāng wèi děng děng。 zhè xiē guān cè zài wàng yuǎn jìng fā míng yǐ qián néng zuòde nà me jīng què， shì hěn bù róng yì de， nán guài hòu lái xǔ duō jié chū de tiān wén xué jiādōu fēi cháng qīn pèi。
1516 nián qiū tiān， pán jù zài bō lán yǐ běi de shí zì qí shì tuán， lǚ cì jìn fàn biān jìng。 jiào huì jiè zhòng gē bái ní de shēng wàng hé cái xué， pài tā dān rèn 'é 'ěr sī dīng jiào chǎn zǒng guǎn， qù duì fù dà jūn yā jìng de qiáng dí。
jiù zài nà fēng huǒ lián tiān de suì yuè lǐ， gē bái ní kāi shǐ zhuàn xiě tā de bù xiǔ zhù zuò héng héng《 yùn xíng》。 tā zài 'é 'ěr sī dīng chéng bǎo de shào tǎ shàng bù zhì liǎo yī gè jiǎn dān de guān cè tái， bìng suí shēn dài qù yī xiē bì yào de zī liào。 dāng shí zhěng bù zhù zuò de nèi róng yǐ yòu gè lún kuò liǎo， quán shū jìhuà xiě chéng bā juàn（ chū bǎn shí shì liù juàn）。 dì yī juàn yǐ jīng dòng bǐ liǎo， dàn shì jìn zhǎn hěn màn， zhè shì yīn wéi dà dí dāng qián， gē bái ní bì xū quán lì yǐ fù dì duì fù dí rén de tiǎo xìn hé sāo rǎo。
1519 nián qiū tiān， gē bái ní cí qù jiào chǎn zǒng guǎn de zhí wù， yòu huí dào fú lóng bǎo， yòng tā de quán bù jīng lì lái zhuàn xiě《 yùn xíng》。 dàn shì， zhàn zhēng de fēng bào hěn kuài xíjuǎn dào zhè lǐ， fú lóng bǎo xiàn rù shí zì qí shì tuán de chóngwéi zhī zhōng。 dí rén shāo shā lǔ lüè， duàn jué liáng cǎo， qǐ tú pò shǐ shǒu jūn tóu jiàng。 zhè shí， jiào táng de shén fù dū táo páo liǎo， yòu de shèn zhì pàn guó tóu dí。 dàn gē bái ní réng jiù liú zài chéng zhōng， tóng jū mín yī qǐ zhī yuán shǒu jūn zuò zhàn。 tā men hái xiū zhù yùn hé， xīng xiū shuǐ lì， gē bái ní shè jì xiū jiàn de shuǐ zhá hé shuǐ mó， zài dāng shí duì zhī chí zhàn zhēng hé fán róng jīng jì shì jù yòu zhòng dà yì yì de。
dì 'èr nián qiū tiān， gē bái ní zài dù dān rèn 'é 'ěr sī dīng jiào chǎn zǒng guǎn。 zhè shí shí zì qí shì tuán yǐ jīng qīn zhàn liǎo fù jìn de xǔ duō chéng bǎo， zhí bī 'é 'ěr sī dīng。 gē bái ní bǎ yóu tā bǎo guǎn de qián cái quán bù ná chū lái zhī chí zuò zhàn， bìng qīn zì bù shǔ fáng wù， dēng chéng dū zhàn。 shí zì qí shì tuán yòng rán shāo dàn gōng chéng， gē bái ní jiào rén yòng jìn shī de pí zǐ qù wǔ miè dí rén de rán shāo dàn。 jīng guò wǔ tiān wǔ yè de jī liè zhàn dǒu， chéng shì yǐ rán yì lì zhe。 shí zì qí shì tuán dà gōng huò hēng lún nǎo xiū chéng nù， tè dì pài rén dào fú lóng bǎo qù， bǎ tā de cáng shū、 shǒu gǎo hé yí qì yī bǎ huǒ shāo guāng。 dàn gē bái ní shǐ zhōng jiān shǒu chéng bǎo， huò hēng lún wú kě nài hé， zhǐ hǎo chè jūn， tóng yì xiū zhàn。 zhàn hòu， bō lán guó wáng qí gé méng tè lùn gōng xíng shǎng， wěi pài gē bái ní wéi 'é 'ěr sī dīng de xíng zhèng zhǎngguān。
chéng shū
1525 nián qiū tiān， gē bái ní xiě zuò《 yùn xíng》 de gōng zuò， cái zài fú lóng bǎo quán lì zhǎn kāi。 zhè shí， gē bái ní de jiàn lóu shàng lái liǎo yī gè nǚ guǎn jiā， míng jiào 'ān nà。 ān nà chū shēn míng mén， xìng qíng xián shū， zhōng xīn 'ài mù gē bái ní， yì rán pāo qì shì sú de chéng jiàn， hé bèi jiào huì bō duó liǎo jié hūn quán lì de gē bái ní tóng jū。 gē bái ní zài 'ān nà de bāng zhù hé zhào gù xià， shū zhuō shàng de shǒu gǎo xùn sù dì yī dié dié dì zēng jiā qǐ lái liǎo。
zhōng wén bǎn《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》
《 yùn xíng》 de dì yī juàn niǎo kàn shì dì jiè shào liǎo yǔ zhòu de jié gòu。 zài lùn zhèng de kāi shǐ， gē bái ní liè jǔ liǎo xǔ duō guān cè zī liào lái zhèng míng dì qiú shì yuán xíng de。 jiē zhe tā zhǐ chū liǎo dì qiú chéng yuán zhuàng de lǐ yóu。 tā shuō：“ suǒ yòu de wù tǐ dū qīng xiàng yú jiāng zì jǐ níng jù chéng wéi zhè zhǒng qiú zhuàng， zhèng rú tóng yī dī shuǐ huò yī dī qí tā de liú tǐ yī yàng， zǒng shì jí lì jiāng zì jǐ xíng chéng yī gè dú lì de zhěng tǐ。”“ wù tǐ chéng qiú zhuàng de yuán yīn zài yú tā de zhòng liàng， jí zài yú wù tǐ de wēi lì huò zhě shuō yuán zǐ de yī zhǒng zì rán qīng xiàng， yào bǎ zì jǐ níng jù chéng yī gè zhěng tǐ， bìng shōu suō chéng qiú zhuàng。” tā duì zhè gè wèn tí de jiě dá， gěi yī bǎi duō nián yǐ hòu niú dùn fā xiàn wàn yòu yǐn lì kāipì liǎo dào lù。
guān yú yuán zǐ tā hái xiě liǎo zhè yàng yī duàn：“ suǒ wèi yuán zǐ， shì zuì xì wēi de、 bù néng zài fēn gē de wēi lì， tā men chóngdié dì huò shì chéng bèi dì xiāng jù zài yī qǐ， dàn yóu yú tā men kàn bù jiàn， bìng bù lì jí xíng chéng kàn dé jiàn de wù tǐ； kě shì tā men de shù liàng kě yǐ zēng jiā dào zhè zhǒng chéng dù， zú gòu lěi jī dào kě yǐ kàn jiàn de dà xiǎo。” zhè yī duàn huà shì zhēn duì wéi xīn zhù yì zhě de lùn diào 'ér shuō de， tā men jiè kǒu“ yuán zǐ wú fǎ kàn jiàn” ér mǒ shā yuán zǐ de cún zài。 zài wéi xīn zhù yì zhě de suō shǐ xià， zhè yī duàn huà zài《 yùn xíng》 chū bǎn shí bèi shān qù liǎo； zài yǐ hòu 300 nián jiān de sān zhōng bǎn běn lǐ dōubù jiàn yī gè zì。
《 yùn xíng》 de dì 'èr juàn jiè shào liǎo yòu guān de shù xué yuán lǐ， qí zhōng píng miàn sān jiǎo hé qiú miàn sān jiǎo de yǎn suàn fāng fǎ dōushì gē bái ní shǒu chuàng de。 zhè lǐ chén shù liǎo sān jiǎo xíng de guī zé， jí cóng sān jiǎo xíng de yǐ zhī mǒu xiē biān hé jiǎo qù tuī suàn qí tā biān hé jiǎo de guī zé。 zhè bāo kuò liǎo sān biān shì zhí xiàn de píng miàn sān jiǎo xíng hé sān biān shì qiú miàn shàng yuán hú zuò chéng de qiú miàn sān jiǎo xíng。
《 yùn xíng》 de dì sān juàn shì héng xīng biǎo。
《 yùn xíng》 de dì sì juàn jiè shào dì qiú de rào zhóu yùn xíng hé zhōu nián yùn xíng。
dì wǔ juàn lùn shù liǎo dì qiú de wèi xīng héng héng yuè qiú。 gē bái ní fēi cháng zhòng shì yán jiū yuè qiú， tè bié shì yuè shí。 tā rèn wéi zài yuè shí de shí hòu， rén men kě yǐ cóng yuè qiú、 dì qiú hé tài yáng de xiāng duì wèi zhì， dé dào guān yú yǔ zhòu de zhēn shí jié gòu de 'àn shì。“ yīn wéi， dāng yǔ zhòu bié de bù fèn dōushì chéng míng de hé chōng mǎn rì guāng de shí hòu， suǒ wèi hēi yè jiù bù shì shénme bié de dōng xī， ér zhǐ shì dì qiú běn shēn de yīn yǐng。 zhè gè yīn yǐng xíng chéng yī gè yuán chuí xíng， wěi duān jiān xuē。 yuè liàng yī jiē chù dào zhè gè yīn yǐng， jiù huì shī qù guāng zé， ér dāng tā chū xiàn zài yīn yǐng zhèng zhōng yāng shí， tā de wèi zhì zhèng hǎo hé tài yáng xiāng duì。”
tā de zuì hòu yī juàn zhǔn bèi xiě guān yú xíng xīng yùn xíng de lǐ lùn。
《 yùn xíng》 de bù xiǔ de gòng xiàn， zài yú tā gēn jù xiāng duì yùn dòng de yuán lǐ， jiě shì liǎo xíng xīng yùn xíng de shì yùn dòng。 zài gē bái ní yǐ qián， zhè yī yuán lǐ cóng lái méi yòu bèi rén zhè yàng xiáng jìn dì chǎn shù guò， yě méi yòu rén cóng zhè yī yuán lǐ dé chū guò zhè yàng zhòng yào de jié lùn。
gē bái ní duì zhè gè wèn tí shì zhè yàng shuō：“ suǒ yòu bèi wǒ men guān cè de wù tǐ de wèi zhì biàn dòng， bù shì yóu yú bèi guān cè de wù tǐ de yùn dòng suǒ yǐn qǐ， jiù shì yóu yú guān cè zhě de yùn dòng， huò yóu yú wù tǐ hé rén de bù yī zhì de biàn dòng suǒ yǐn qǐ de。” jì rán dì qiú shì wǒ men zài tā de yí dòng zhōng jìn xíng guān cè de jī dì， nà me wǒ men guān cè dào de tiān kōng zhōng de yùn dòng， lì rú tài yáng de yùn dòng， jiù kě néng shì yī zhǒng biǎo miàn de yùn dòng， shì yī zhǒng yóu yú dì qiú běn shēn de yùn dòng suǒ yǐn qǐ de huàn jué， ér qí tā tiān tǐ de yùn dòng， jiù kě néng shì nà gè tiān tǐ yǐ jí dì qiú de bù yī zhì de yùn dòng suǒ yǐn qǐ de jiēguǒ。 yīn cǐ， rú guǒ chéng rèn ‘ dì qiú cóng xī xiàng dōng dì zì zhuǎn ’， nà me xiǎn rán huì jué dé hǎo xiàng shì tài yáng、 yuè liàng、 hé xīng chén zài shēng qǐ hé jiàng luò。”
“ shì qíng zhèng shì xiàng wéi jí lǐ wū sī suǒ chǎn míng de，” gē bái ní xiě dào，“ tā ràng yī ní sī shuō： wǒ men shǐ chū gǎng bù， ér lù dì hé chéng shì què zài hòu tuì’。 yīn wéi chuán zhǐ shǐ guò fēng píng làng jìng de hǎi miàn shí， suǒ yòu wài jiè de dōng xī， zài chuán shàng de rén kàn lái， zhèng hǎo xiàng tā men zài 'àn zhào chuán zhǐ de yùn dòng yí dòng zhe， zhǐ shì fāng xiàng xiāng fǎn héng héng tā men jué dé， tā men zì jǐ hé shēn biān de dōng xī dū liú zài yuán chù。 zhè tóng yī qíng kuàng háo wú yí wèn kě néng chū xiàn zài dì qiú yùn dòng de xiàn xiàng zhōng， bìng yǐn qǐ zhěng gè yǔ zhòu dōuzài xuánzhuàn de yìn xiàng。”
gē bái ní hái lùn zhèng shuō：“ dì qiú suī shì yī gè jù dà de qiú tǐ， dàn bǐ qǐ yǔ zhòu lái què wēi bù zú dào。” tā zhù yì dào dì píng xiàn bǎ tiān qiú pōu fēn wéi jūn yún de liǎng bàn， céng lì yòng zhè yī xiàn xiàng lái zhèng shí yǔ zhòu shì wú xiàn de zhè gè lùn duàn。“ gēn jù zhè yī lùn duàn， kě jiàn yǔ zhòu gēn dì qiú xiāng bǐ shì wú fǎ cèduó de， tā shì yī gè wú biān wú jì de páng rán dà wù。” gē bái ní hái rèn wéi tài yáng shì xíng xīng zhōng xiāng duì bù dòng de zhōng xīn。
gē bái ní de gōng jì zài yú： tā yòng kē xué de tài yáng zhōng xīn shuō， tuī fān liǎo zài tiān wén xué shàng tǒng zhì liǎo jǐ qiān nián de dì qiú zhōng xīn shuō。 zhè shì tiān wén xué shàng yī cì zhòng dà de gé mìng， yǐn qǐ liǎo rén lèi yǔ zhòu guān de gé xīn。
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní - lì shǐ dì wèi
gē bái ní huì zhì de yǔ zhòu tú
gē bái ní de“ rì xīn shuō” chén zhòng dì dǎ jī liǎo jiào huì de yǔ zhòu guān， zhè shì wéi wù zhù yì hé wéi xīn zhù yì dǒu zhēng de wěi dà shèng lì。 yīn cǐ shǐ tiān wén xué cóng zōng jiào shén xué de shù fù xià jiě fàng chū lái， zì rán kē xué cóng cǐ huò dé liǎo xīn shēng， zhè zài jìn dài kē xué de fā zhǎn shàng jù yòu huàshídài de yì yì。
gē bái ní shì 'ōu zhōu wén yì fù xīng shí qī de yī wèi jù rén。 tā yòng bì shēng de jīng lì qù yán jiū tiān wén xué， wéi hòu shì liú xià liǎo bǎo guì de yí chǎn。 yóu yú shí dài de jú xiàn， gē bái ní zhǐ shì bǎ yǔ zhòu de zhōng xīn cóng dì qiú yí dào liǎo tài yáng， bìng méi yòu fàng qì yǔ zhòu zhōng xīn lùn hé yǔ zhòu yòu xiàn lùn。 zài dé guó de kāi pǔ lè zǒng jié chū xíng xīng yùn dòng sān dìng lǜ、 yīng guó de niú dùn fā xiàn wàn yòu yǐn lì dìng lǜ yǐ hòu， gē bái ní de tài yáng zhōng xīn shuō cái gèng jiā de wěn gù。 cóng hòu lái de yán jiū jiēguǒ zhèng míng， yǔ zhòu kōng jiān shì wú xiàn de， tā méi yòu biān jiè， méi yòu xíng zhuàng， yīn 'ér yě jiù méi yòu zhōng xīn。 suī rán gē bái ní de guān diǎn bìng bù wán quán zhèng què， dàn shì tā de lǐ lùn rén lèi de yǔ zhòu guān dài lái liǎo jù dà de biàn gé。
ēn gé sī zài《 zì rán biàn zhèng fǎ》 zhōng duì gē bái ní de《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》 jǐyǔ liǎo gāo dù de píng jià。 tā shuō：“ zì rán kē xué jiè yǐ xuān bù qí dú lì bìng qiě hǎo xiàng shì chóngyǎn lù dé fén shāo jiào yù de gé mìng xíng dòng， biàn shì gē bái ní nà běn bù xiǔ zhù zuò de chū bǎn， tā yòng zhè běn shū ( suī rán shì dǎn qiè dì， ér qiě kě shuō shì zhǐ zài lín zhōng shí ) lái xiàng zì rán shì wù fāng miàn de jiào huì quán wēi tiǎo zhàn， cóng cǐ zì rán kē xué biàn kāi shǐ cóng shén xué zhōng jiě fàng chū lái。”
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní - zōng jiào xìn yǎng
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní
xiě chū liǎo《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng》 de gē bái ní， tā zì shǐ zhì zhōng dōushì yī gè qián chéng de tiān zhù jiào tú。 tā yòng kē xué de guān chá fǒu dìng liǎo tiān zhù jiào huì háo wú《 shèng jīng》 gēn jù què yòu yǐng xiǎng shēn guǎng de jiù yòu zhī shí。
tā duì zōng jiào de qián chéng dá dào shénme chéng dù ní？ ràng wǒ men cóng tā nà bù jié zuò《 tiān tǐ zhī yùn xíng： dǎo yán》 lǐ zhǎo chū tā zuò de dá fù bā。 tā zài《 dǎo yán》 lǐ shì zhè yàng xiě de：“ rú guǒ zhēn yòu yī zhǒng kē xué néng gòu shǐ rén xīn líng gāo guì， tuō lí shí jiān de wū huì， zhè zhǒng kē xué yī dìng shì tiān wén xué。 yīn wéi rén lèi guǒ zhēn jiàn dào tiān zhù guǎn lǐ xià de yǔ zhòu suǒ yòu de zhuāng yán zhì xù shí， bì rán huì gǎn dào yī zhǒng dòng lì cù shǐ rén qū xiàng yú guī fàn de shēng huó， qù shí xíng gè zhǒng dào dé， kě yǐ cóng wàn wù zhōng kàn chū lái zào wù zhù què shí shì zhēn měi shàn zhī yuán。”
zài gē bái ní bié de zhù zuò lǐ tóng yàng chōng mǎn liǎo tiān zhù de míng zì yǐ jí tiān zhù de zhì huì yǔ cí 'ài。 tā yī shēng wéi hù zhe tiān zhù jiào de xìn yǎng， tā duì cóng tiān zhù jiào de gé mìng chū de xīn jiào pài jǐyǔ liǎo fǎn jī。
gē bái ní sǐ yú 1543 nián， xiǎng nián qī shí suì。 sǐ qián tā wéi zì jǐ yù zuò mù zhì míng， qí míng wén shì：“ nǐ bù bì shǎng wǒ xiàng shǎng gěi shèng bǎo luó de 'ēn chǒng， dàn qiú nǐ shǎng cì wǒ xiàng nǐ gěi shèng bó duō lù de kuān shè hé yòu dào de rén cí。”
yī zhí yǐ fǎn jī dū jiào zhe chēng de sī xiǎng jiā luó sù yě zhè me píng jià gē bái ní， shuō：“ gē bái ní shì yī wèi bō lán jiào shì， bào zhe zhēn chún wú xiá de zhèng tǒng xìn yǎng…… tā de zhèng tǒng xìn yǎng hěn zhēn chéng， tā bù rèn wéi tā de xué shuō yǔ《 shèng jīng》 xiāng dǐ chù。”（《 xī fāng zhé xué shǐ》）
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní - yǔ gē bái ní xiāng guān de lì shǐ shì jiàn
1687 nián， niú dùn de《 zì rán zhé xué de shù xué yuán lǐ》 de wèn shì， biāo zhì zhe gē bái ní tǐ xì de zuì hòu shèng lì。
1685 nián zài dà mǎ shì gé yǐ yòu liǎo gē bái ní xué shuō tǐ xì de yì běn hé xiáng jìn de shuō míng。
yì dà lì wén yì fù xīng shí qī de wéi wù zhù yì zhé xué jiā bù lǔ nuò， yóu yú pī pàn《 shèng jīng》 bìng jiān jué zàn tóng gē bái ní de rì xīn shuō， 1660 nián ２ yuè， zài luó mǎ xiān huā guǎng chǎng bèi shāo sǐ。
17 shì jì 30 nián dài zhì 1646 nián bō lán chuán jiào shì mù ní gé (nieolassmoglenski,1609 héng héng 1655 nián ) lái huá wéi dì yī jiē duàn zài zhè duǎn duǎn de shí jǐ nián shí jiān lǐ , yǐ xú guāng qǐ zǔ jiàn hé zhù chí lì jú , biān yì xì tǒng jiè shào xī fāng tiān wén xué de dà xíng cóng shū《 chóng zhēn lì shū》 wéi qì jī , gē bái ní de míng zì zài zhōng guó xué zhě dāng zhōng xùn sù chuán bō。
1634 nián，《 lùn yǔ zhòu huò guāng》 tuō gǎo , cǐ shū yǐ gē bái ní xué shuō wéi jī chǔ , yǔ jiào huì de guān diǎn bù xiāng róng , ér gā lì lüè yòu zhèng zāo zhì jiào huì pò hài , dí kǎ 'ěr zhǐ dé zàn bù fā biǎo。
1634 nián biān chéng de《 chóng zhēn lì shū》 zhōng yì yòng liǎo《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》 zhōng de dà liàng cái liào , dàn yóu yú chuán jiào shì de yǐn mán、 wāi qū , gē bái ní xué shuō què méi yòu bèi jiè shào guò lái。
1633 nián 6 yuè 22 rì， zōng jiào fǎ tíng xuān bù gē bái ní xué shuō wéi xié shuō， pàn chù gā lì lüè zhōng shēn jiān jìn， xuān bù（ duì huà） wéi jìn shū， rán hòu， bī pò gā lì lüè jìn xíng fā shì。
1633 nián， gā lì lüè shòu dào zōng jiào cái lì suǒ shěn lì , lì chù zhōng shēn jiān jìn , qí zhù zuò《 guān yú tuō lè mì hé gē bái ní liǎng dà shì jiè tǐ xì de duì huà》 bèi liè rù《 jìn shū mù lù》
1632 nián， gā lì lüè zhe shū lì shuō hàn wèi gē bái ní tǐ xì shí yǐ nián guò bàn bǎi。
gā lì lüè zài 1632 nián fā biǎo liǎo《 guān yú tuō lè mì hé gē bái ní liǎng dà shì jiè de duì huà） gěi gē bái ní tǐ xì yǐ jué dìng xìng zhī chí， 1638 nián fā biǎo liǎo《 guān yú lì xué yǔ wèi yí yùn dòng liǎng mén xīn kē xué de tǎo lùn jí shù xué zhèng míng》 pī bó liǎo tǒng zhì 'ōu zhōu dá liǎng qiān duō nián zhī jiǔ de yà lǐ sī duō dé guān yú yùn dòng hé yùn dòng yuán yīn de lǐ lùn， chuàng jiàn liǎo shí yàn、 wù lǐ sī wéi hé shù xué yǎn yì sān zhě qiǎo miào jié hé de yán jiū fāng fǎ。
1632 nián， gā lì lüè《 guān yú tuō lè mì hé gē bái ní liǎng dà tǐ xì de duì huà》 wèn shì。
1632 nián， gā lì lüè fā biǎo《 guān yú tuō lè mì hé gē bái ní liǎng dà yǔ zhòu tǐ xì de duì huà》 yǐ xīn de guān cè shì shí zài cì měng liè pēng jī huāng miù de tuō lè mì yǔ zhòu tǐ xì。
1622 nián lái huá de tānɡ ruò wàng zài qí hòu lái xiě de《 lì fǎ xī chuán》 zhōng , yǐ tí dào gē bái ní , bìng shuō“ yǐ shàng gē bái ní suǒ zhù , hòu rén duō zǔ shù yān。
1618～ 1621 nián， kāi pǔ lè fā biǎo liǎo《 gē bái ní tiān wén xué gài yào》 jiǎn míng 'ě yào dì xù shù liǎo gē bái ní de lǐ lùn， bìng yǐ zì jǐ de fā xiàn bǔ chōng、 xiū zhèng hé fā zhǎn liǎo gē bái ní de xué shuō。
1618～ 1621 nián， kāi pǔ lè xiě liǎo《 gē bái ní tiān wén xué gài yào》 yī shū， bǎ tiān wén xué de yán jiū gài kuò wéi 5 gè fāng miàn : guān cè tiān xiàng； tí chū duì guān cè dào de tiān xiàng jìn xíng jiě shì de jiǎ shuō； yǔ zhòu lùn de wù lǐ huò zhé xué； tuī suàn tiān tǐ guò qù yǔ wèi lái de fāng wèi； yòu guān de yí qì zhì zào hé shǐ yòng de jī xiè xué。
ní gǔ lā · gē bái ní - qù wén yì shì
rén xiǎo zhì dà
gē bái ní cóng xiǎo shòu dào liáng hǎo de xué xiào jiào yù， xǐ huān guān chá tiān xiàng。 tā cháng cháng dú zì yǎng wàng fán xīng mì bù de yè kōng。 yòu yī cì， gē gē bù jiě dì wèn gē bái ní：“ nǐ zhěng yè shǒu zài chuāng biān， wàng zhe tiān kōng fā dāi， nán dào zhè biǎo shì nǐ duì tiān zhù de xiào jìng？” gē bái ní huí dá shuō：“ bù。 wǒ yào yī bèi zǐ yán jiū tiān shí qì xiàng， jiào rén men wàng zhe tiān kōng bù hài pà。 wǒ yào ràng xīng kōng gēn rén jiāo péng yǒu， ràng tā gěi hǎi chuán jiàozhèng háng xiàn， gěi shuǐ shǒu zhǐ yǐn háng chéng。”
qiān hū wàn huàn shǐ chū lái
yóu yú tuō lè méi de dì xīn shuō zài dāng shí yǐ jīng chéng wéi wéi chí jiào huì tǒng zhì de shén xué lǐ lùn jī chǔ， gē bái ní shēn zhī fā biǎo rì xīn shuō de hòu guǒ， zhè yàng xiě dào：“ wǒ qīng chǔ dì zhī dào， yī dàn tā men nòng qīng chǔ wǒ zài lùn zhèng tiān tǐ yùn xíng de shí hòu rèn wéi dì qiú shì yùn dòng de， jiù huì jié lì zhù zhāng wǒ bì xū wèicǐ shòu dào zōng jiào cái pàn……”，“ tā men jiù huì dà jiào dà rǎng， dāng jí bǎ wǒ hōng xià tái。” yīn cǐ， gē bái ní chí chí bù yuàn yì fā biǎo tā de zhù zuò《 tiān tǐ yùn xíng lùn》。 zhí dào 1539 nián chūn tiān， zài dé guó qīng nián xué zhě léi dí kǎ sī（ 1514 héng 1576 nián） hé qí tā yī cǐ péng yǒu de dūn cù xià， gē bái ní cái tóng yì fā biǎo。 1541 nián qiū tiān， léi dí kǎ sī bǎ xiū gǎi gǎo dài dào niǔ lún bǎo， qǐng lù dé pài de yī wèi shén xué jiā 'ào xìng dé nì míng zhuàn xiě yī piān qián yán， xuān chēng“ zhè bù shū bù kě néng shì yī zhǒng kē xué de shì shí， ér shì yī zhǒng fù yú xì jù xìng de huàn xiǎng”。 zài zhè yàng de qíng kuàng xià， cái yú 1543 nián 3 yuè chū bǎn， cóng xiě chéng chū gǎo dào chū bǎn， qián hòu jìng gē zhì liǎo jìn“ sì gè jiǔ nián”。
Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published just before his death in 1543, is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the scientific revolution. His heliocentric model, with the Sun at the center of the universe, demonstrated that the observed motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth at rest in the center of the universe. His work stimulated further scientific investigations, becoming a landmark in the history of science that is often referred to as the Copernican Revolution.
Among the great polymaths of the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, quadrilingual polyglot, classical scholar, translator, artist, Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and economist. Among his many responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an avocation—yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world.
Life
Toruń birthplace (ul. Kopernika 15, left). Together with the house at no. 17 (right), it forms the Muzeum Mikołaja Kopernika.
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473, in the city of Thorn (Toruń) in Royal Prussia, part of the Kingdom of Poland.
His father was a merchant from Kraków and his mother was the daughter of a wealthy Toruń merchant. Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas (Andrew) became an Augustinian canon at Frombork (Frauenburg). His sister Barbara, named after her mother, became a Benedictine nun and, in her final years (she died after 1517), prioress of a convent in Chełmno (Culm, Kulm). His sister Katharina married the businessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left five children, whom Copernicus looked after to the end of his life.
Copernicus neither married nor had children.
Father's family
The father’s family can be traced to a village in Silesia near Nysa (Neiße). The village's name has been variously spelled Kopernik, Köppernig, Köppernick, and today Koperniki. In the 14th century, members of the family began moving to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków (Cracow, 1367), and to Toruń (1400). The father, likely the son of Jan, came from the Kraków line.
Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in records for the first time as a well-to-do Catholic merchant who dealt in copper, selling it mostly in Danzig (Gdańsk). He moved from Kraków to Toruń around 1458. Toruń, situated on the Vistula River, was at that time embroiled in the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66), in which the Kingdom of Poland and the Prussian Confederation, an alliance of Prussian cities, gentry and clergy, fought the Teutonic Order over control of the region. In this war predominantly German-culture and German speaking Hanseatic cities like Danzig (Gdańsk) and Thorn (Toruń), the hometown of Nicolaus Copernicus, chose to support the Polish king, who promised to respect the cities' traditional vast independence, which the Teutonic Order had challenged. The father of Nicolaus was actively engaged in the politics of the day, and supported Poland and the cities against the Teutonic Order. In 1454 he mediated negotiations between Poland’s Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Prussian cities for repayment of war loans. In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the Teutonic Order formally relinquished all claims to its western provinces, which as Royal Prussia remained a region of Poland for the next 300 years.
The father married Barbara Watzenrode, the astronomer's mother, between 1461 and 1464. He died sometime between 1483 and 1485. Upon the father’s death, young Nicolaus’ maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (1447–1512), took the boy under his protection and saw to his education and career.
Mother's family
Copernicus' maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger
Nicolaus’ mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the daughter of Lucas Watzenrode the Elder and his wife Katherine (née Modlibóg). Not much is known about her life, but she is believed to have died when Nicolaus was a small boy. The Watzenrodes, who were Roman Catholic, had come from the Świdnica (Schweidnitz) region of Silesia and had settled in Toruń after 1360, becoming prominent members of the city’s patrician class. Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family relationships by marriage, they were related to wealthy families of Toruń, Danzig and Elbląg (Elbing), and to the prominent Czapski, Działyński, Konopacki and Kościelecki noble families. The Modlibógs (literally, in Polish, "Pray to God") were a prominent Roman Catholic Polish family who had been well known in Poland's history since 1271. Lucas and Katherine had three children: Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, who would become Copernicus' patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother; and Christina, who in 1459 married the merchant and mayor of Toruń, Tiedeman von Allen.
Lucas Watzenrode the Elder was well-regarded in Toruń as a devout man and honest merchant, and he was active politically. He was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Knights and an ally of Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon. In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz (Graudenz) conference that planned to ally the cities of the Prussian Confederation with Casimir IV in their subsequent war against the Teutonic Knights. During the Thirteen Years' War that ensued the following year, he actively supported the war effort with substantial monetary subsidies, with political activity in Toruń and Danzig, and by personally fighting in battles at Łasin (Lessen) and Marienburg (Malbork). He died in 1462.
Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomer's maternal uncle and patron, was educated at the University of Krakow (now Jagiellonian University) and at the universities of Cologne and Bologna. He was a bitter opponent of the Teutonic Order and its Grand Master, who once referred to Watzenrode as “the devil incarnate.” In 1489 Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against the preference of King Casimir IV, who had hoped to install his own son in that seat. As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king until Casimir IV’s death three years later. Watzenrode was then able to form close relations with three successive Polish monarchs: John I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund I the Old. He was a friend and key advisor to each ruler, and his influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper. Watzenrode came to be considered the most powerful man in Warmia, and his wealth, connections and influence allowed him to secure Copernicus’ education and career as a canon at Frombork (Frauenberg) Cathedral.
Language
German-language letter from Copernicus to Duke Albert of Prussia, giving medical advice for George von Kunheim (1541)
Copernicus is postulated to have spoken Latin, German, and Polish with equal fluency. He also spoke Greek and Italian. The vast majority of Copernicus’ surviving works are in Latin, which in his lifetime was the language of academia in Europe. Latin was also the official language of the Roman Catholic Church and of Poland's royal court, and thus all of Copernicus’ correspondence with the Church and with Polish leaders was in Latin.
There survives a German-language correspondence between Copernicus and Duke Albert of Prussia. Some scholars hold that German should be considered Copernicus’ native language because Thorn/Toruń was then predominantly German-speaking, because a German-language correspondence survives to illustrate Copernicus' proficiency in that language, and because, while studying law at Bologna in 1496, he signed into the German natio (Natio Germanorum)—a student organization which, according to its 1497 by-laws, was open to German-speaking students of all kingdoms and states.
On the other hand, Renaissance Poles wrote variously in Latin, in Polish or in both languages.
Name
In Copernicus’ day, people were often called after the places where they lived. Like the Silesian village that inspired it, Copernicus’ surname has been spelled variously. Today the English-speaking world knows the astronomer principally by the Latinized name, "Nicolaus Copernicus."
The surname likely had something to do with the local Silesian copper-mining industry, though some scholars assert that it may have been inspired by the dill plant (in Polish, "koperek" or "kopernik") that grows wild in Silesia.
As was to be the case with William Shakespeare a century later, numerous spelling variants of the name are documented for the astronomer and his relatives. The name first appeared as a place name in Silesia in the 13th century, where it was spelled variously in Latin documents. Copernicus "was rather indifferent about orthography." During his childhood, the name of his father (and thus of the future astronomer) was recorded in Toruń as Niclas Koppernigk around 1480. At Kraków he signed his name "Nicolaus Nicolai de Torunia." At Bologna in 1496, he registered in the Matricula Nobilissimi Germanorum Collegii resp. Annales Clarissimae Nacionis Germanorum of the Natio Germanica Bononiae as Dominus Nicolaus Kopperlingk de Thorn – IX grosseti. At Padua, Copernicus signed his name "Nicolaus Copernik", later as "Coppernicus." He signed a self-portrait, a copy of which is now at Jagiellonian University, "N Copernic." The astronomer Latinized his name to Coppernicus, generally with two "p"s (in 23 of 31 documents studied), but later in life he used a single "p". On the title page of De revolutionibus, Rheticus published the name as (in the genitive, or possessive, case) "Nicolai Copernici".
Education
Collegium Maius, Kraków
Nicolaus Copernicus Monument in Kraków
Copernicus' uncle Watzenrode maintained contacts with the leading intellectual figures in Poland and was a friend of the influential Italian-born humanist and Kraków courtier, Filippo Buonaccorsi. Watzenrode seems first to have sent young Copernicus to the St. John's School at Toruń where he himself had been a master. Later, according to Armitage (some scholars differ), the boy attended the Cathedral School at Włocławek, up the Vistula River from Toruń, which prepared pupils for entrance to the University of Krakow, Watzenrode's alma mater in Poland's capital.
In the winter semester of 1491–92 Copernicus, as "Nicolaus Nicolai de Thuronia," matriculated together with his brother Andrew at the University of Krakow (now Jagiellonian University). Copernicus began his studies in the Department of Arts (from the fall of 1491, presumably until the summer or fall of 1495) in the heyday of the Kraków astronomical-mathematical school, acquiring the foundations for his subsequent mathematical achievements. According to a later but credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Copernicus was a pupil of Albert Brudzewski, who by then (from 1491) was a professor of Aristotelian philosophy but taught astronomy privately outside the university; Copernicus became familiar with Brożek's widely read commentary to Georg von Peuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum and almost certainly attended the lectures of Bernard of Biskupie and Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuły and probably other astronomical lectures by Jan of Głogów, Michael of Wrocław, Wojciech of Pniewy and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.
Copernicus' Kraków studies gave him a thorough grounding in the mathematical-astronomical knowledge taught at the university (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy), a good knowledge of the philosophical and natural-science writings of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes (which later would play an important role in shaping his theory), stimulated his interest in learning, and made him conversant with humanistic culture. Copernicus broadened the knowledge that he took from the university lecture halls with independent reading of books that he acquired during his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to this period, probably, also date his earliest scientific notes, now preserved partly at Uppsala University. At Kraków Copernicus began collecting a large library on astronomy; it would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during the Deluge and is now at the Uppsala University Library.
Copernicus' four years at Kraków played an important role in the development of his critical faculties and initiated his analysis of the logical contradictions in the two "official" systems of astronomy—Aristotle's theory of homocentric spheres, and Ptolemy's mechanism of eccentrics and epicycles--the surmounting and discarding of which constituted the first step toward the creation of Copernicus' own doctrine of the structure of the universe.
Without taking a degree, probably in the fall of 1495, Copernicus left Kraków for the court of his uncle Watzenrode, who in 1489 had been elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (after November 1495) sought to place his nephew in a Warmia canonry vacated by the 26 August 1495 death of its previous tenant. For unclear reasons—probably due to opposition from part of the chapter, who appealed to Rome--Copernicus' installation was delayed, inclining Watzenrode to send both his nephews to study law in Italy, seemingly with a view to furthering their ecclesiastic careers and thereby also strengthening his own influence in the Warmia chapter.
Leaving Warmia in mid-1496—possibly with the retinue of the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going to Italy—in the fall (October?) of that year Copernicus arrived in Bologna and a few months later (after 6 January 1497) signed himself into the register of the Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation," which also included Polish youths from Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as well as students of other nationalities.
It was only on 20 October 1497 that Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry, which had been granted to him two years earlier. To this, by a document dated 10 January 1503 at Padua, he would add a sinecure at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in Wrocław (Breslau), Silesia, Bohemia. Despite having received a papal indult on 29 November 1508 to receive further benefices, through his ecclesiastic career Copernicus not only did not acquire further prebends and higher stations (prelacies) at the chapter, but in 1538 he relinquished the Wrocław sinecure. It is uncertain whether he was ordained a priest; he may only have taken minor orders, which sufficed for assuming a chapter canonry.
Via Galliera 65, Bologna, site of house of Domenico Maria Novara. Plaque on portico commemorates Copernicus.
"Here, where stood the house of Domenico Maria Novara, professor of the ancient Studium of Bologna, NICOLAUS COPERNICUS, the Polish mathematician and astronomer who would revolutionize concepts of the universe, conducted brilliant celestial observations with his teacher in 1497–1500. Placed on the 5th centenary of [Copernicus'] birth by the City, the University, the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna, the Polish Academy of Sciences. 1473 [—] 1973."
During his three-year stay at Bologna, between fall 1496 and spring 1501, Copernicus seems to have devoted himself less keenly to studying canon law (he received his doctorate in law only after seven years, following a second return to Italy in 1503) than to studying the humanities--probably attending lectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni and Alessandro Achillini--and to studying astronomy. He met the famous astronomer Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple and assistant. Copernicus was developing new ideas inspired by reading the "Epitome of the Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496). He verified its observations about certain peculiarities in Ptolemy's theory of the Moon's motion, by conducting on 9 March 1497 at Bologna a memorable observation of Aldebaran, the brightest star in the Taurus constellation, whose results reinforced his doubts as to the geocentric system. Copernicus the humanist sought confirmation for his growing doubts through close reading of Greek and Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos of Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos, Plato), gathering, especially while at Padua, fragmentary historic information about ancient astronomical, cosmological and calendar systems.
Copernicus spent the jubilee year 1500 in Rome, where he arrived with his brother Andrew that spring, doubtless to perform an apprenticeship at the Papal Curia. Here, too, however, he continued his astronomical work begun at Bologna, observing, for example, a lunar eclipse on the night of 5–6 November 1500. According to a later account by Rheticus, Copernicus also—probably privately, rather than at the Roman Sapienza--as a "Professor Mathematum" (professor of astronomy) delivered, "to numerous... students and... leading masters of the science," public lectures devoted probably to a critique of the mathematical solutions of contemporary astronomy.
On his return journey doubtless stopping briefly at Bologna, in mid-1501 Copernicus arrived back in Warmia. After on 28 July receiving from the chapter a two-year extension of leave in order to study medicine (since "he may in future be a useful medical advisor to our Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the gentlemen of the chapter"), in late summer or in the fall he returned again to Italy, probably accompanied by his brother Andrew and by Canon B. Sculteti. This time he studied at the University of Padua, famous as a seat of medical learning, and—except for a brief visit to Ferrara in May–June 1503 to pass examinations for, and receive, his doctorate in canon law—he remained at Padua from fall 1501 to summer 1503.
Copernicus studied medicine probably under the direction of leading Padua professors—Bartolomeo da Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read medical treatises that he acquired at this time, by Valescus de Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Villa Nova, and Michele Savonarola, which would form the embryo of his later medical library.
One of the subjects that Copernicus must have studied was astrology, since it was considered an important part of a medical education. However, unlike most other prominent Renaissance astronomers, he appears never to have practiced or expressed any interest in astrology.
As at Bologna, Copernicus did not limit himself to his official studies. It was probably the Padua years that saw the beginning of his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized himself with Greek language and culture with the aid of Theodorus Gaza's grammar (1495) and J.B. Chrestonius' dictionary (1499), expanding his studies of antiquity, begun at Bologna, to the writings of Bessarion, J. Valla and others. There also seems to be evidence that it was during his Padua stay that there finally crystallized the idea of basing a new system of the world on the movement of the Earth.
As the time approached for Copernicus to return home, in spring 1503 he journeyed to Ferrara where, on 31 May 1503, having passed the obligatory examinations, he was granted the degree of doctor of canon law. No doubt it was soon after (at latest, in fall 1503) that he left Italy for good to return to Warmia.
Work
Astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God, by Matejko. In background: Frombork Cathedral.
Having completed all his studies in Italy, 30-year-old Copernicus returned to Warmia, where — apart from brief journeys to Kraków and to nearby Prussian cities (Toruń, Gdańsk, Elbląg, Grudziądz, Malbork, Königsberg) — he would live out the remaining 40 years of his life.
The Prince-Bishopric of Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its own diet (parliament), army, monetary unit (the same as in the other parts of Royal Prussia) and treasury.
From 1503 to 1510, or perhaps till his uncle's death (29 March 1512), Copernicus was his personal secretary and physician and resided in the Bishop's castle at Lidzbark Warmiński (Heilsberg). It is there that he began work on his heliocentric theory. In his official capacity, he took part in nearly all his uncle's political, ecclesiastic and administrative-economic duties. From the beginning of 1504, Copernicus accompanied Watzenrode to sessions of the Royal Prussian diet held at Malbork and Elbląg and, write Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated... in all the more important events in the complex diplomatic game that that ambitious politician and statesman played in defense of the particular interests of Prussia and Warmia, between hostility to the [Teutonic] Order and loyalty to the [Polish] Crown."
Copernicus' translation of Theophylact Simocatta's Epistles. Cover shows coats-of-arms of (clockwise from top) Poland, Lithuania and Kraków.
In 1504–12 Copernicus made numerous journeys as part of his uncle's retinue—in 1504, to Toruń and Gdańsk (Danzig), to a session of the Royal Prussian Council in the presence of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to sessions of the Prussian diet at Malbork (1506), Elbląg (1507) and Sztum (1512); and he may have attended a Poznań session (1510) and the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I the Old in Kraków (1507). Watzenrode's itinerary suggests that in spring 1509 Copernicus may have attended the Kraków sejm.
It was probably on the latter occasion, in Kraków, that Copernicus submitted for printing at Jan Haller's press his translation, from Greek to Latin, of a collection, by the 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, of 85 brief poems called Epistles, or letters, supposed to have passed between various characters in a Greek story. They are of three kinds—"moral," offering advice on how people should live; "pastoral," giving little pictures of shepherd life; and "amorous," comprising love poems. They are arranged to follow one another in a regular rotation of subjects. Copernicus had translated the Greek verses into Latin prose, and he now published his version as Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated to his uncle in gratitude for all the benefits he had received from him. With this translation, Copernicus declared himself on the side of the humanists in the struggle over the question whether Greek literature should be revived. Copernicus' first poetic work was a Greek epigram, composed probably during a visit to Kraków, for Johannes Dantiscus' epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's 1512 wedding to King Zygmunt I the Old.
Some time before 1514, Copernicus wrote an initial outline of his heliocentric theory known only from later transcripts, by the title (perhaps given to it by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium a se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred to as the Commentariolus. It was a succinct theoretical description of the world's heliocentric mechanism, without mathematical apparatus, and differed in some important details of geometric construction from De revolutionibus; but it was already based on the same assumptions regarding Earth's triple motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus consciously saw as merely a first sketch for his planned book, was not intended for printed distribution. He made only a very few manuscript copies available to his closest acquaintances, including, it seems, several Kraków astronomers with whom he collaborated in 1515–30 in observing eclipses. Tycho Brahe would include a fragment from the Commentariolus in his own treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Prague in 1602, based on a manuscript that he had received from the Bohemian physician and astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, a friend of Rheticus. The Commentariolus would appear complete in print for the first time only in 1878.
Copernicus' tower at Frombork, where he lived and worked; rebuilt recently
Frombork Cathedral mount and fortifications. In foreground: statue of Copernicu
In 1510 or 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to the northwest at the Vistula Lagoon on the Baltic Sea coast. There, in April 1512, he participated in the election of Fabian of Lossainen as Prince-Bishop of Warmia. It was only in early June 1512 that the chapter gave Copernicus an "external curia"—a house outside the defensive walls of the cathedral mount. In 1514 he purchased the northwestern tower within the walls of the Frombork stronghold. He would maintain both these residences to the end of his life, despite the devastation of the chapter's buildings by a raid against Frombork carried out by the Teutonic Order in January 1520, during which Copernicus' astronomical instruments were probably destroyed. Copernicus conducted astronomical observations in 1513–16 presumably from his external curia; and in 1522–43, from an unidentified "small tower" (turricula), using primitive instruments modeled on ancient ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere. At Frombork Copernicus conducted over half of his more than 60 registered astronomical observations.
Having settled permanently at Frombork, where he would reside to the end of his life, with interruptions in 1516-19 and 1520–21, Copernicus found himself at the Warmia chapter's economic and administrative center, which was also one of Warmia's two chief centers of political life. In the difficult, politically complex situation of Warmia, threatened externally by the Teutonic Order's aggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish-Teutonic War of 1519-21; Albrecht's plans to annex Warmia), internally subject to strong separatist pressures (the selection of the prince-bishops of Warmia; currency reform), he, together with part of the chapter, represented a program of strict cooperation with the Polish Crown and demonstrated in all his public activities (the defense of his country against the Order's plans of conquest; proposals to unify its monetary system with the Polish Crown's; support for Poland's interests in the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously a citizen of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic. Soon after the death of uncle Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in the signing of the Second Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December 1512), governing the appointment of the Bishop of Warmia, declaring, despite opposition from part of the chapter, for loyal cooperation with the Polish Crown.
That same year (before 8 November 1512) Copernicus assumed responsibility, as magister pistoriae, for administering the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office again in 1530), having already since 1511 fulfilled the duties of chancellor and visitor of the chapter's estates.
His administrative and economic dutes did not distract Copernicus, in 1512-15, from intensive observational activity. The results of his observations of Mars and Saturn in this period, and especially a series of four observations of the Sun made in 1515, led to discovery of the variability of Earth's eccentric and of the movement of the solar apogee in relation to the fixed stars, which in 1515-19 prompted his first revisions of certain assumptions of his system. Some of the observations that he made in this period may have had a connection with a proposed reform of the Julian calendar made in the first half of 1513 at the request of the Bishop of Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their contacts in this matter in the period of the Fifth Lateran Council were later memorialized in a complimentary mention in Copernicus' dedicatory epistle in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and in a treatise by Paul of Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (1516), which mentions Copernicus among the learned men who had sent the Council proposals for the calendar's emendation.
Olsztyn Castle
During 1516–21, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn Castle as economic administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn (Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack). While there, he wrote a manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), with a view to populating those fiefs with industrious farmers and so bolstering the economy of Warmia. When Olsztyn was besieged by the Teutonic Knights during the Polish–Teutonic War (1519–21), Copernicus directed the defense of Olsztyn and Warmia by Royal Polish forces. He also represented the Polish side in the ensuing peace negotiations.
Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian diet, and with Duke Albert of Prussia (against whom Copernicus had defended Warmia in the Polish-Teutonic War), and advised King Sigismund, on monetary reform. He participated in discussions in the East Prussian diet about coinage reform in the Prussian countries; a question that concerned the diet was who had the right to mint coin. Political developments in Prussia culminated in the 1525 establishment of the Duchy of Prussia as a Protestant state in vassalage to Poland.
In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of money, Monetae cudendae ratio. In it he formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called Gresham's Law, that "bad" (debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation—70 years before Thomas Gresham. He also formulated a version of quantity theory of money. Copernicus' recommendations on monetary reform were widely read by leaders of both Prussia and Poland in their attempts to stabilize currency.
Thorvaldsen's Copernicus Monument in Warsaw
In 1533, Johann Widmanstetter, secretary to Pope Clement VII, explained Copernicus' heliocentric system to the Pope and two cardinals. The Pope was so pleased that he gave Widmanstetter a valuable gift.
In 1535 Bernard Wapowski wrote a letter to a gentleman in Vienna, urging him to publish an enclosed almanac, which he claimed had been written by Copernicus. This is the first and only mention of a Copernicus almanac in the historical records. The "almanac" was likely Copernicus' tables of planetary positions. Wapowski's letter mentions Copernicus' theory about the motions of the earth. Nothing came of Wapowski's request, because he died a couple of weeks later.
Following the death of Prince-Bishop of Warmia Mauritius Ferber (1 July 1537), Copernicus participated in the election of his successor, Johannes Dantiscus (20 September 1537). Copernicus was one of four candidates for the post, written in at the initiative of Tiedemann Giese; but his candidacy was actually pro forma, since Dantiscus had earlier been named coadjutor bishop to Ferber.
At first Copernicus maintained friendly relations with the new Prince-Bishop, assisting him medically in spring 1538 and accompanying him that summer on an inspection tour of Chapter holdings. But that autumn, their friendship was strained by suspicions over Copernicus' housekeeper, Anna Schilling, whom Dantiscus removed from Frombork in 1539.
Copernicus with medicinal plant
In his younger days, Copernicus the physician had treated his uncle, brother and other chapter members. In later years he was called upon to attend the elderly bishops who in turn occupied the see of Warmia—Mauritius Ferber and Johannes Dantiscus—and, in 1539, his old friend Tiedemann Giese, Bishop of Chełmno (Kulm). In treating such important patients, he sometimes sought consultations from other physicians, including the physician to Duke Albert and, by letter, the Polish Royal Physician.
In the spring of 1541, Duke Albert summoned Copernicus to Königsberg to attend the Duke's counselor, George von Kunheim, who had fallen seriously ill, and for whom the Prussian doctors seemed unable to do anything. Copernicus went willingly; he had met von Kunheim during negotiations over reform of the coinage. And Copernicus had come to feel that Albert himself was not such a bad person; the two had many intellectual interests in common. The Chapter readily gave Copernicus permission to go, as it wished to remain on good terms with the Duke, despite his Lutheran faith. In about a month the patient recovered, and Copernicus returned to Frombork. For a time, he continued to receive reports on von Kunheim's condition, and to send him medical advice by letter.
Throughout this period of his life, Copernicus continued making astronomical observations and calculations, but only as his other responsibilities permitted and never in a professional capacity.
Some of Copernicus' close friends turned Protestant, but Copernicus never showed a tendency in that direction. The first attacks on him came from Protestants. Wilhelm Gnapheus, a Dutch refugee settled in Elbląg, wrote a comedy in Latin, Morosophus (The Foolish Sage), and staged it at the Latin school that he had established there. In the play, Copernicus was caricatured as a haughty, cold, aloof man who dabbled in astrology, considered himself inspired by God, and was rumored to have written a large work that was moldering in a chest.
Elsewhere Protestants were the first to react to news of Copernicus' theory. Melanchthon wrote:
Some people believe that it is excellent and correct to work out a thing as absurd as did that Sarmatian [i.e., Polish] astronomer who moves the earth and stops the sun. Indeed, wise rulers should have curbed such light-mindedness.
Nevertheless, in 1551, eight years after Copernicus' death, astronomer Erasmus Reinhold published, under the sponsorship of Copernicus' former military adversary, the Protestant Duke Albert, the Prussian Tables, a set of astronomical tables based on Copernicus' work. Astronomers and astrologers quickly adopted it in place of its predecessors.
Heliocentrism
Mid-16th-century portrait
Some time before 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his "Commentariolus" ("Little Commentary"), a forty-page manuscript describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis. It contained seven basic assumptions. Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work.
About 1532 Copernicus had basically completed his work on the manuscript of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium; but despite urging by his closest friends, he resisted openly publishing his views, not wishing—as he confessed—to risk the scorn "to which he would expose himself on account of the novelty and incomprehensibility of his theses."
In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered a series of lectures in Rome outlining Copernicus' theory. Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals heard the lectures and were interested in the theory. On 1 November 1536, Cardinal Nikolaus von Schönberg, Archbishop of Capua, wrote to Copernicus from Rome:
Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At that time I began to have a very high regard for you... For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe... Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject...
By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticism—a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent dedication of his masterpiece to Pope Paul III. Scholars disagree on whether Copernicus' concern was limited to possible astronomical and philosophical objections, or whether he was also concerned about religious objections.
The book
De revolutionibus, 1543. Click on image to read book.
Copernicus was still working on De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 Georg Joachim Rheticus, a Wittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork. Philipp Melanchthon, a close theological ally of Martin Luther, had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them.
Rheticus became Copernicus' pupil, staying with him for two years and writing a book, Narratio prima (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on trigonometry by Copernicus (later included in the second book of De revolutionibus).
Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give De revolutionibus to his close friend, Tiedemann Giese, bishop of Chełmno (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by the German printer Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg (Nürnberg), Germany. While Rheticus initially supervised the printing, he had to leave Nuremberg before it was completed, and he handed over the task of supervising the rest of the printing to a Lutheran theologian, Andreas Osiander.
Osiander added an unauthorised and unsigned preface, defending the work against those who might be offended by the novel hypotheses. He explained that astronomers may find different causes for observed motions, and choose whatever is easier to grasp. As long as a hypothesis allows reliable computation, it does not have to match what a philosopher might seek as the truth.
Death
Copernicus' 1735 Latin epitaph in Frombork Cathedral. An earlier 1580 epitaph had been destroyed during wars.
Casket with Copernicus' remains, St. James' Cathedral Basilica, Olsztyn, March 2010
Frombork Cathedral
Copernicus' 2010 grave, Frombork Cathedral
Copernicus died in Frombork on 24 May 1543. Legend has it that the first printed copy of De revolutionibus was placed in his hands on the very day that he died, allowing him to take farewell of his life's work. He is reputed to have awoken from a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and then died peacefully.
Copernicus was reportedly buried in Frombork Cathedral, where archaeologists for over two centuries searched in vain for his remains. Efforts to locate the remains in 1802, 1909, 1939 and 2004 had come to nought. In August 2005, however, a team led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an archaeology and anthropology institute in Pułtusk, after scanning beneath the cathedral floor, discovered what they believed to be Copernicus' remains.
The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3, 2008. Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it is Copernicus."
Forensic expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of the Polish Police Central Forensic Laboratory used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features—including a broken nose and a scar above the left eye—on a Copernicus self-portrait.
The expert also determined that the skull belonged to a man who had died around age 70—Copernicus' age at the time of his death.
The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains of the skeleton were found; missing, among other things, was the lower jaw. The DNA from the bones found in the grave matched hair samples taken from a book owned by Copernicus which was kept at the library of the University of Uppsala in Sweden.
On 22 May 2010 Copernicus was given a second funeral in a Mass led by Józef Kowalczyk, the former papal nuncio to Poland and newly named Primate of Poland. Copernicus' remains were reburied in the same spot in Frombork Cathedral where part of his skull and other bones had been found. A black granite tombstone now identifies him as the founder of the heliocentric theory and also a church canon. The tombstone bears a representation of Copernicus' model of the solar system—a golden sun encircled by six of the planets.
Copernican system
Main article: Copernican heliocentrism
Predecessor
Philolaus (c. 480–385 BCE), a Greek philosopher of the Pythagorean school, described an astronomical system in which the Earth, Moon, Sun, planets, and stars all revolved about a central fire. Heraclides Ponticus (387–312 BCE) proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis. According to Archimedes, Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BCE) wrote of heliocentric hypotheses in a book that does not survive. Plutarch wrote that Aristarchus was accused of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion".
In a manuscript of De revolutionibus, Copernicus wrote, "It is likely that... Philolaus perceived the mobility of the earth, which also some say was the opinion of Aristarchus of Samos", but later struck out the passage and omitted it from the published book.
Ptolemy
Main article: Almagest
The prevailing theory in Europe during Copernicus' lifetime was the one that Ptolemy published in his Almagest circa 150 CE. Ptolemy's system drew on previous Greek theories in which the Earth was the stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated rapidly, approximately daily, while each of the planets, the Sun, and the Moon were embedded in their own, smaller spheres. Ptolemy's system employed devices, including epicycles, deferents and equants, to account for observations that the paths of these bodies differed from simple, circular orbits centered on the Earth. Ptolemy's model was refined by the 10th-century astronomer Muhammad al Battani, working at Ar-Raqqah in modern-day Syria. Although al Battani accepted the validity of the Ptolemaic model, Copernicus made much use of his astronomical observations in demonstrating the heliocentric theory, and gave acknowledgement to his predecessor in De revolutionibus.
Copernicu
Copernicus' vision of the universe in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
Copernicus' major theory was published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), in the year of his death, 1543, though he had formulated the theory several decades earlier.
Copernicus' "Commentariolus" summarized his heliocentric theory. It listed the "assumptions" upon which the theory was based as follows:
1. There is no one center of all the celestial circles or spheres.
2. The center of the earth is not the center of the universe, but only of gravity and of the lunar sphere.
3. All the spheres revolve about the sun as their mid-point, and therefore the sun is the center of the universe.
4. The ratio of the earth's distance from the sun to the height of the firmament (outermost celestial sphere containing the stars) is so much smaller than the ratio of the earth's radius to its distance from the sun that the distance from the earth to the sun is imperceptible in comparison with the height of the firmament.
5. Whatever motion appears in the firmament arises not from any motion of the firmament, but from the earth's motion. The earth together with its circumjacent elements performs a complete rotation on its fixed poles in a daily motion, while the firmament and highest heaven abide unchanged.
6. What appear to us as motions of the sun arise not from its motion but from the motion of the earth and our sphere, with which we revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth has, then, more than one motion.
7. The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent inequalities in the heavens.
De revolutionibus itself was divided into six parts, called "books":
General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World
Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books)
Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena
Description of the Moon and its orbital motion
Concrete exposition of the new system
Concrete exposition of the new system
Successor
Georg Joachim Rheticus could have been Copernicus' successor, but did not rise to the occasion. Erasmus Reinhold could have been his successor, but died prematurely. The first of the great successors was Tycho Brahe (though he did not think the earth orbitted the sun), followed by Johannes Kepler, who had worked as Tycho's assistant in Prague.
Copernicanism
See also: Catholic Church and science
Copernicus, astronomer
At original publication, Copernicus' epoch-making book caused only mild controversy, and provoked no fierce sermons about contradicting Holy Scripture. It was only three years later, in 1546, that a Dominican, Giovanni Maria Tolosani, denounced the theory in an appendix to a work defending the absolute truth of Scripture. He also noted that the Master of the Sacred Palace (i.e., the Catholic Church's chief censor), Bartolomeo Spina, a friend and fellow Dominican, had planned to condemn De revolutionibus but had been prevented from doing so by his illness and death.
Arthur Koestler, in his popular book The Sleepwalkers, asserted that Copernicus' book had not been widely read on its first publication. This claim was trenchantly criticised by Edward Rosen, and has been decisively disproved by Owen Gingerich, who examined every surviving copy of the first two editions and found copious marginal notes by their owners throughout many of them. Gingerich published his conclusions in 2004 in The Book Nobody Read.
It has been much debated why it was not until six decades after Spina and Tolosani's attacks on Copernicus's work that the Catholic Church took any official action against it. Proposed reasons have included the personality of Galileo Galilei and the availability of evidence such as telescope observations.
In March 1616, in connection with the Galileo affair, the Roman Catholic Church's Congregation of the Index issued a decree suspending De revolutionibus until it could be "corrected," on the grounds that the supposedly Pythagorean doctrine that the Earth moves and the Sun does not was "false and altogether opposed to Holy Scripture." The same decree also prohibited any work that defended the mobility of the Earth or the immobility of the Sun, or that attempted to reconcile these assertions with Scripture.
On the orders of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to be issued, and warned him that he could not "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine. The corrections to De revolutionibus, which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620.
In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for "following the position of Copernicus, which is contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture," and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.
The Catholic Church's 1758 Index of Prohibited Books omitted the general prohibition of works defending heliocentrism, but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored versions of De revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Those prohibitions were finally dropped from the 1835 Index.
Nationality
Bust by Schadow, 1807, Walhalla temple
Former Polish coins with image of Copernicus, by Gosławski
The question of Copernicus' nationality, and indeed whether it is meaningful to ascribe to him a nationality in the modern sense, has been the subject of some discussion.
Historian Michael Burleigh describes the nationality debate as a "totally insignificant battle" between German and Polish scholars during the interwar period.
Astronomer Konrad Rudnicki calls the discussion a "fierce scholarly quarrel in... times of nationalism", and describes Copernicus as an inhabitant of a German-speaking territory belonging to Poland, himself of mixed Polish-German extraction.
According to Czesław Miłosz, the debate is an "absurd" projection of a modern understanding of nationality on Renaissance people, who identified with their home territories rather than with a nation.
Similarly, historian Norman Davies states that Copernicus, as was common for his era, was "largely indifferent" to nationality, being a local patriot who considered himself "Prussian".
Miłosz and Davies both say that despite Copernicus' German-speaking background, his working language was Latin, though according to Davies there is evidence that Copernicus also knew Polish. Davies concludes: "Taking everything into consideration, there is good reason to regard him both as a German and as a Pole, yet in the sense that modern nationalists understand it, he was neither."
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Copernicus as "the child of a German family [who] was a subject of the Polish crown." Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana, The Columbia Encyclopedia, The Oxford World Encyclopedia, and the Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia identify Copernicus as Polish.
Copernicium
On July 14, 2009, the discoverers, from the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt, Germany, of chemical element 112 (temporarily named ununbium) proposed to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry that its permanent name be "copernicium" (symbol Cn). "After we had named elements after our city and our state, we wanted to make a statement with a name that was known to everyone," said Hofmann. "We didn't want to select someone who was a German. We were looking world-wide." On the 537th anniversary of his birthday the official naming was released to the public.
Veneration
Copernicus is honored, together with Johannes Kepler, in the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA), with a feast day on May 23.