俄羅斯 人物列錶
普希金 Pushkin佚名 Yi Ming
丘特切夫 Qiuteqiefu萊蒙托夫 Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov
安年斯基 Annenski巴爾蒙特 Balmont
索洛古勃 Suoluogubo梅烈日柯夫斯基 Dimitrij Sergeevic Mereskovskij
安·別雷 An Bely洛赫維茨卡婭 Luoheweici Kaja
赫列勃尼科夫 He Liebo Melnikov庫茲明 Kuzmin
伊戈爾·謝維裏亞寧 伊戈尔谢维里亚 Ning馬雅可夫斯基 Vladimir Mayakovsky
亞歷山大·勃洛剋 Alexander Blok勃留索夫 Cult Bo
吉皮烏斯 Gippius蒲寧 Ivan Bunin
弗·索洛維約夫 弗索洛维约夫馬·沃洛申 马沃洛 application
霍達謝維奇 Khodasevich波普拉夫斯基 Poplavski
古米廖夫 Gumilyov阿赫瑪托娃 Anna Akhmatova
茨維塔耶娃 Marina Tsvetaeva曼德爾施塔姆 Osip Mandelstam
帕斯捷爾納剋 Boris Pasternak葉賽寧 Sergei Yesenin
弗拉基米爾·納博科夫 Vladimir Nabokov維亞·伊萬諾夫 Weiyayiwan Ivanov
安德列·沃茲涅興斯基 安德列沃兹涅 Xing Ski柴可夫斯基 Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
尤裏·加夫裏科夫 尤里加夫里科夫尤裏·葉梅利亞諾夫 Yuri Emelianov
羅伊·麥德維傑夫 罗伊麦德维 Jeff瓦列金·別列什科夫 Valery Kim Do Leshkov
米哈伊爾·雅羅斯拉維奇·霍羅布裏特 Mikhail Khorobrit鮑裏斯·米哈伊洛維奇 Boris Mihajlovic
丹尼爾·亞歷山德羅維奇 Daniel尤裏·達尼洛維奇 Yuri
伊凡一世 Ivan I (the Money bag)謝苗一世 Simeon (the Proud)
伊凡二世 Ivan II (the Fair)德米特裏·頓斯科伊 Dimitri I (of the Don)
瓦西裏一世 Vasily I瓦西裏二世 Vasily II (the Blind)
伊凡三世 Ivan III of Russia (the Great)瓦西裏三世 Vasily III
伊凡四世 Ivan IV (the Terrible)費奧多爾·伊萬諾維奇 Fyodor I Ivanovich
鮑裏斯·戈東諾夫 Boris Godunov費多爾二世 Feodor II
偽德米特裏一世 False Dmitriy I瓦西裏四世 Vasili IV
米哈伊爾·費奧多羅維奇·羅曼諾夫 Mikhail I Fyodorovich Romanov阿列剋謝一世 Alexis I
費奧多爾三世 Feodor III伊凡五世 Ivan V Alekseyevich Romanov
彼得大帝 Peter I葉卡捷琳娜一世 Catherine I
肖斯塔科維奇 Dmitri Shostakovich
俄羅斯 蘇聯  (1906年九月25日1975年八月9日)
出生地: 聖彼得堡
去世地: 莫斯科

  1906年9月25日生於聖彼得堡,1975年8月9日卒於莫斯科。他的母親曾在音樂學院學過鋼琴。他在母親的指導下,在格利亞塞爾音樂學校開始受音樂教育。9~11歲寫作了第1批樂麯,包括在十月革命的氣氛感染下寫成的鋼琴麯《自由頌》、《紀念革命烈士的葬禮進行麯》。這些童年時期的作品已經顯露出他一生創作的重要特徵:力求通過音樂反映現實生活的重大主題,並滿懷激情表達作者的感受與態度。1919年肖斯塔科維奇考入彼得格勒音樂學院,師事.B.尼古拉耶夫(鋼琴)和M.O.施泰因貝格(作麯)。這期間,他對I.F.斯特拉文斯基、A.勳伯格、P.欣德米特、法國“六人團”的音樂發生了興趣,自己的創作也傾嚮現代潮流。1923和1925年,他先後從鋼琴專業和作麯專業畢業。他的畢業作品《第一交響麯》(1924~1925)隱含着斯剋裏亞賓、斯特拉文斯基、普羅科菲耶夫的影響,但又顯示出自己獨特的風貌。
  
  探索到成熟的15年(1925~1940) 20年代後半期~30年代初,是肖斯塔科維奇在創作題材和藝術風格上進行緊張探索的時期。他廣泛藉鑒俄國和西方現代音樂流派的藝術經驗,寫出了各種體裁的作品。他試圖以新風格新技法表現革命變革的新主題第二交響麯(《獻給十月》,1927)、《第三交響麯》(《五一》,1931)就是這方面的例證。前者采用了綫條對位(13個獨立聲部的喧囂結合),試圖表現人民大衆從黑暗、愚昧走嚮覺醒、 鬥爭、 勝利的歷程;後者試圖描寫街頭、廣場群衆集會的情景。但是在這兩部作品中,主觀的創作意圖與客觀藝術效果之間存在着明顯的矛盾。
  
   1927~1932年間,肖斯塔科維奇創作了大量的戲劇音樂:兩部歌劇、兩部舞劇、 5部話劇配樂以及 4部電影音樂。在一些作品中,他一嚮熱衷的諷刺性、怪誕性題材和風格得到進一步發展。他的第 1部歌劇《鼻子》(1927~1928)以怪誕的手法再現了H.B.果戈理原著的幻想形象,對趾高氣揚而又心靈空虛醜惡的舊俄官員加以諷刺。當時蘇聯輿論對此歌劇毀多於譽,它在首演後即湮沒無聞,30多年後(1970)纔重新上演得到肯定。舞劇《黃金時代》(1927~1930)和《蠃絲釘》(1930~1931),都是通過芭蕾反映當代生活的嘗試。後者也是突出漫畫式筆法,勾勒出現實中各式反面人物的臉譜。他的某些電影音樂也對風靡一時的小市民庸俗趣味進行了冷嘲熱諷。
  
   1930~1932年,肖斯塔科維奇根據俄國作傢H.C.列斯科夫的同名小說寫作了歌劇《姆岑斯剋縣的麥剋白夫人》(又名《卡捷琳娜?伊茲邁洛娃》),這是標志肖斯塔科維奇藝術上臻於成熟的作品之一。劇情描寫一個商人的妻子出於對愛情自由的追求而殺人犯罪、並慘遭毀滅的故事。作者稱這部歌劇為“諷刺悲劇”,他企圖把自己創作中兩個重要的方面──悲劇性和揭露性諷刺熔於一爐。歌劇於1934年1月在列寧格勒首演,並隨即在歐美許多劇院上演。1936年 1月28日蘇聯《真理報》發表《混亂代替音樂》的專論,全盤否定了這部作品,致使歌劇輟演20餘載,直至1963年纔再度與觀衆見面1936年2月6日《真理報》又發表編輯部文章《舞劇的虛偽》,對肖斯塔科維奇的芭蕾舞劇《清澈的小溪》(1934)加以否定這是一部輕鬆愉快的娛樂性音樂作品,作者創作企圖是“尋求觀衆和演員都喜聞樂見、簡潔明了的語言”。《真理報》的一再指責使肖斯塔科維奇從此不再從事歌劇和舞劇音樂的寫作。
  
   肖斯塔科維奇在30年代的器樂創作以 3部交響麯最為重要。《第四交響麯》(1935~1936)是他的第 1部哲理性悲劇交響麯,表明他的交響創作發展到一個新階段。由於社會氣氛的嚴峻,作者不得不取消這部作品的公演,它的首次演出是25年後舉行的。《第五交響麯》(1937)也是一部哲理性悲劇交響麯,它典型地反映了那個時代蘇聯知識分子的精神生活,比《第四交響麯》具有更高的思想境界和藝術魅力。《第六交響麯》(1939)的構思是從悲哀的思考與回憶過渡到生活的歡樂,但它的藝術成就並未立即得到承認。
  
   肖斯塔科維奇還寫了另一些器樂作品。如《二十四首鋼琴前奏麯》(1932~1933)、《第一鋼琴協奏麯》(1933)、《第一弦樂四重奏》(《春天》,1938)等。這幾部作品的風格與他的歌劇、交響樂迥然不同,而與他的舞劇音樂屬於同一格調。這一時期的最後一部大型作品是《鋼琴五重奏》(1940),這是他唯一的一部規模宏大、感情和諧、不包含悲劇性衝突的器樂作品。
  
   衛國戰爭及戰後20年(1941~1965) 肖斯塔科維奇在衛國戰爭期間的重要作品是兩部交響麯。《第七交響麯》(1941)是在戰爭爆發後約 1個月開始寫作的,僅用3個多月便完成,大部分總譜是在戰火紛飛的被圍困的列寧格勒寫出的,它是題獻給這座英雄城的。這部交響麯是第1部反映衛國戰爭的大型作品,是交響樂迅速反映重大社會事件的突出範例,極大地鼓舞了蘇聯人民的抗敵意志。它的形象、內容既反映衛國戰爭這一特定事件,明確而具體;同時又超越了此一特定事件的範圍,對光明、理性與黑暗、野蠻的鬥爭作了高度概括。《第八交響麯》(1943)是肖斯塔科維奇的一部悲劇交響樂。作者說他“試圖表現人民的體驗,反映戰爭的可怖悲劇”。它立即在歐美各國受到重視,但蘇聯音樂界對它相當冷淡;多年後這部交響麯纔被承認。 《時代》封面--帶消防隊員頭盔的肖斯塔科維奇蘇聯衛國戰爭爆發時,肖斯塔科維奇正在自己的家乡列寧格勒,於是他參加了保衛列寧格勒的志願消防隊,成為一名優秀的消防隊員。《第七交響麯》(《列寧格勒交響麯》)就是在 這些嚴酷的日子裏寫成的。
  
   戰後,他的第1部大型作品是《第九交響麯》(1945)。與一般人的期望相反,它並不是一部歡慶勝利的凱旋交響麯,而是具有古典主義的和抒情喜劇的色彩,其中也包含了若幹悼念的篇頁。完成於1947~1948年間的《第一小提琴協奏麯》,內容比較深刻,演技艱深,但未能立即得到公演。1948年 1月聯共(布)中央發起對蘇聯作麯傢中所謂形式主義傾嚮的批判,使這部作品的首演推遲了7年。在這次批判運動中,肖斯塔科維奇又首當其衝。他的第6、 第8、第9交響麯都被稱為“形式主義作品”,並從演出麯目中消失。
  
   從1948年起,肖斯塔科維奇寫作了大量的聲樂作品。在音樂語言和風格方面,仍然突出了他一嚮固有的深刻性與平易性並存的特點。最突出的是清唱劇森林之歌(1949)表現了蘇聯人民改造大自然的宏偉事業,歌麯形式與其他聲樂形式相穿插,雄偉性與抒情性相結合;是一部不同於以往同類體裁的新型清唱劇。其他如無伴奏混聲合唱套麯《十首詩》(以革命詩人的詩為詞、以革命歌麯的音調為基礎)、管弦樂《節日序麯》(1954)、《第二鋼琴協奏麯》(1957),以及電影音樂如《易北河會師》(1948)、《攻剋柏林》(1949)、《難忘的1919年》(1951)、《牛虻》(1955)等也都屬於平易性作品。
  
   肖斯塔科維奇這一時期創作的主要體裁仍是交響樂。《第十交響麯》(1953)繼續了由《第四交響麯》發端的哲理悲劇交響麯的路綫。作者指出,反侵略和反暴政的蘇维埃人道主義是它的基本主題。對這部作品的評價曾在蘇聯音樂界引起尖銳的分歧。之後,肖斯塔科維奇轉嚮了另一種類型和題材的交響樂──革命史詩型標題交響樂。《第十一交響麯》(《1905年》,1957)與合唱套麯──《十首詩》一脈相承,描寫了俄國第一次革命的歷史畫面。作者首次在自己的交響麯中大量引用外來旋律,把廣泛流傳的幾首革命歌麯運用在各樂章中,以加強時代的真實感和形象聯想的明確性。《第十二交響麯》(《1917年》,1961)繼續了前者的思想與風格,但藝術功力卻遜色得多。 莫斯科 新聖女公墓 肖斯塔科維奇墓
  
   在此之後,肖斯塔科維奇的創作意念又轉嚮了新的方面──從當代和古代取材的聲樂-器樂交響樂《第十三交響麯》(1962)以蘇??近清唱劇體裁,但音樂的佈局和發展與他以往的純器樂交響樂隱隱相聯。作品以尖銳有力的筆鋒針砭時弊,因而在蘇聯的首演遇到了阻力。管弦樂聲樂麯《斯捷潘?拉辛的死刑》(1964)也以葉夫圖申科的詩為唱詞,描寫俄國17世紀農民起義領袖拉辛的悲劇結局。這是肖斯塔科維奇的非歌劇作品中最歌劇化的作品,它綜合了作者過去的許多創作經驗,揭開了聲樂-器樂交響樂新的一頁。
  
   最後10年(1965~1975) 肖斯塔科維奇雖然疾病纏身,但仍創作了27部作品,其中的大半為多樂章的套麯。他仍采用政治性題材,如為紀念斯大林格勒戰役的英雄們所作的《哀悼和勝利前奏麯》(1967)、交響詩十月(1967)、 8首男聲合唱敘事歌《忠誠》(1970)等。但他更為傾嚮的卻是人生哲理的題材,悲哀、孤獨、死亡的主題增加了,音樂語言更加復雜化,風格也有新的發展。《第十四交響麯》(1969)以 4個不同時代和國傢的詩人(大多為象徵派)的詩為唱詞,為女高音和男低音獨唱及室內樂隊而作,由大小不等的11個樂章組成。這部悲劇性作品以死亡為內容中心,同時鞭笞邪惡、暴政,贊頌藝術傢的人格和藝術創造的不朽。《第十五交響麯》(1971)是他在這一體裁領域中的最後一部作品,對人生旅程的回顧與思考是它的構思基礎。《第二大提琴協奏麯》(1966)也是這一時期的重要創作,同樣是一部悲劇型的交響性作品。
  
   在肖斯塔科維奇的晚期作品中,室內樂是一個突出的創作領域。他寫出了各具特色的 7部聲樂套麯。如以A.A.勃洛剋的詩譜麯的《浪漫麯七首》(1967),在形式、內容、藝術風格上都很有獨創性的《瑪麗娜?茨維塔耶娃詩歌六首》(1971),以米開朗琪羅的詩譜麯的《組麯》(1974)等。
  
   肖斯塔科維奇在後幾年寫作了他全部弦樂四重奏的三分之一,即第11~15首。它們的構思各有特點,但總的說與他最後兩部交響麯及聲樂套麯有內在聯繫。他逝世前1個月完成的絶筆之作,是《中提琴與鋼琴奏鳴麯》(1975)。
  
   創作特徵 肖斯塔科維奇的創作遍及各種音樂體裁,特別是15部交響麯使他享有20世紀交響樂大師的盛譽。他在通俗音樂領域同樣是一位能手,他的歌麯《相逢之歌》(1932)成為30年代蘇聯群衆歌麯大繁榮的先聲。作為一位現實主義藝術傢,肖斯塔科維奇從不旁觀生活,回避矛盾,而總是置身於社會生活的湍流,滿懷激情和鮮明的愛憎去反映生活。他是一位強調音樂創作的思想性而又善於運用音樂手段表達思想的藝術傢。他也是一位孜孜不倦的藝術革新傢,但他的創作又與傳統保持着密切的聯繫。他的藝術面貌是異常獨特的,音樂語言和風格處處表現出自成一傢的鮮明特徵。他的旋律常以古調式為基礎;尤其是降音級的各種所謂“肖斯塔科維奇調式”的頻繁運用,以及在一個主題內經常的調式突變,形成了一係列具有特殊表現力的樂匯。在後期創作中,他也采用十二音音列的旋律進行(如《第十四交響麯》等),但衹是把這種技法作為衆多的表現手段之一,而從不把自己束縛在某一種體係或法則之中。他的旋律富於朗誦性,尤其是器樂的宣敘性獨白更是情味深長。他的和聲很有特色,有時寫得非常簡單樸素(甚至僅限主、屬和弦),有時又異常復雜,富於刺激性(如由自然音列全部七音或由全部十二個半音構成的和弦)。他擴展了傳統的復調技術,給賦格、帕薩卡裏亞等古老復調形式註入了現代內容。他的配器不傾嚮於色彩性的渲染,而着力於戲劇性的刻畫,樂器的音色好像劇中角色,直接參與“劇情”的發展,是表現矛盾衝突的有力手段。他在麯式方面的獨創性也很突出。他的交響套麯結構和各樂章之間的功能關係,從不拘泥一格,而是按構思需要靈活變化。交響套麯的第1樂章往往不是奏鳴麯快板,而是奏鳴麯慢板或中板,樂思徐緩展開,動力逐漸積聚,波瀾起伏地推嚮總高潮。奏鳴麯式的處理也有許多突破,如《第七交響麯》第 1樂章加入長篇的“侵犯插部”。他後期的交響樂已經不以奏鳴麯式為基礎,迴旋性與變奏性相結合成為音樂展開的推動力。
  
  俄羅斯發行的肖斯塔科維奇紀念郵資封 肖斯塔科維奇對蘇聯音樂發展的深遠影響不僅通過自己的創作,也通過他從1937 年開始從事的教學活動。他培養了大批蘇聯當代著名作麯傢。肖斯塔科維奇是藝術學博士,多次擔任蘇聯作麯傢協會的領導工作,世界許多著名音樂學府都曾授予他榮譽稱號。


  Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich Russian pronunciation: [ˈdmʲitrʲɪj ˈdmʲitrʲɪɪvʲɪt͡ɕ ʂəstɐˈkovʲɪt͡ɕ] (Russian: Дмитрий Дмитриевич Шостакович; 25 September 1906 – 9 August 1975) was a Soviet Russian composer and pianist and was one of the most celebrated composers of the 20th century.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich achieved fame in the Soviet Union under the patronage of Leon Trotsky's chief of staff Mikhail Tukhachevsky, but later had a complex and difficult relationship with the government. Nevertheless, he received accolades and state awards and served in the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR (1947–1962) and the USSR (from 1962 until death).
  
  
  
  After a period influenced by Sergei Prokofiev and Igor Stravinsky, Shostakovich developed a hybrid style, as exemplified by Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (1934). This single work juxtaposed a wide variety of trends, including the neo-classical style (showing the influence of Stravinsky) and post-Romanticism (after Gustav Mahler). Sharp contrasts and elements of the grotesque characterize much of his music.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich's orchestral works include 15 symphonies and six concerti. Music for chamber ensembles includes 15 string quartets, a piano quintet, two pieces for a string octet, and two piano trios. His piano works include two solo sonatas, an early set of preludes, and a later set of 24 preludes and fugues. Other works include three operas, and a substantial quantity of film music.
  
  Born at 2 Podolskaya Ulitsa in Saint Petersburg, Russia, Shostakovich was the second of three children born to Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich and Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina. Shostakovich's paternal grandfather (originally surnamed Szostakowicz) was of Polish Roman Catholic descent (his family roots trace to the region of the town of Vileyka in Belarus), but his immediate forebears came from Siberia. His paternal grandfather, a Polish revolutionary in the January Uprising of 1863–4, had been exiled to Narim (near Tomsk) in 1866 in the crackdown that followed Dmitri Karakozov's assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II. When his term of exile ended, Boleslaw Szostakowicz decided to remain in Siberia. He eventually became a successful banker in Irkutsk and raised a large family. His son, Dmitriy Boleslavovich Shostakovich, the composer's father, was born in exile in Narim in 1875 and attended Saint Petersburg University, graduating in 1899 from the faculty of physics and mathematics. After graduation, Dmitriy Boleslavovich went to work as an engineer under Dmitriy Mendeleyev at the Bureau of Weights and Measures in Saint Petersburg. In 1903, he married Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina, another Siberian transplant to the capital. Sofiya herself was one of six children born to Vasiliy Yakovlevich Kokoulin, a Russian Siberian native.
  
  
  
  Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich was a child prodigy as a pianist and composer, his talent becoming apparent after he began piano lessons with his mother at the age of nine. (On several occasions, he displayed a remarkable ability to remember what his mother had played at the previous lesson, and would get "caught in the act" of pretending to read, playing the previous lesson's music when different music was placed in front of him.) In 1918, he wrote a funeral march in memory of two leaders of the Kadet party, murdered by Bolshevik sailors.
  
  
  
  In 1919, at the age of 13, he was allowed to enter the Petrograd Conservatory, then headed by Alexander Glazunov. Glazunov monitored Shostakovich's progress closely and promoted him. Shostakovich studied piano with Leonid Nikolayev, after a year in the class of Elena Rozanova, composition with Maximilian Steinberg, and counterpoint and fugue with Nikolay Sokolov, with whom he became friends. Shostakovich also attended Alexander Ossovsky's history of music classes. However, he suffered for his perceived lack of political zeal, and initially failed his exam in Marxist methodology in 1926. His first major musical achievement was the First Symphony (premiered 1926), written as his graduation piece at the age of nineteen.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich in 1925
  
   Early career
  
  
  
  After graduation, Shostakovich initially embarked on a dual career as concert pianist and composer, but his dry style of playing (his American biographer, Laurel Fay, comments on his "emotional restraint" and "riveting rhythmic drive") was often unappreciated. He nevertheless won an "honorable mention" at the First International Frederic Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1927. After the competition Shostakovich met the conductor Bruno Walter, who was so impressed by the composer's First Symphony that he conducted it at its Berlin premiere later that year. Leopold Stokowski was equally impressed and gave the work its U.S. premiere the following year in Philadelphia and also made the work's first recording.
  
  
  
  Thereafter, Shostakovich concentrated on composition, and soon limited his performances primarily to those of his own works. In 1927 he wrote his Second Symphony (subtitled To October), a patriotic piece with a great pro-Soviet choral finale. Due to its experimental nature, as with the subsequent Third Symphony, the pieces were not critically acclaimed with the enthusiasm as granted to the First.
  
  
  
  1927 also marked the beginning of Shostakovich's relationship with Ivan Sollertinsky, who remained his closest friend until the latter's death in 1944. Sollertinsky introduced the composer to the music of Gustav Mahler, which had a strong influence on his music from the Fourth Symphony onwards.
  
  
  
  While writing the Second Symphony, Shostakovich also began work on his satirical opera The Nose, based on the story by Gogol. In June 1929, the opera was given a concert performance, against Shostakovich's own wishes, and was ferociously attacked by the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians (RAPM). Its stage premiere on 18 January 1930 opened to generally poor reviews and widespread incomprehension amongst musicians.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich composed his first film score for the 1929 silent movie, The New Babylon, set during the 1871 Paris Commune.
  
  
  
  In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Shostakovich worked at TRAM, a proletarian youth theatre. Although he did little work in this post, it shielded him from ideological attack. Much of this period was spent writing his opera, Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District, which was first performed in 1934. It was immediately successful, on both popular and official levels. It was described as "the result of the general success of Socialist construction, of the correct policy of the Party", and as an opera that "could have been written only by a Soviet composer brought up in the best tradition of Soviet culture."
  
  
  
  Shostakovich married his first wife, Nina Varzar, in 1932. Initial difficulties led to a divorce in 1935, but the couple soon remarried when Nina became pregnant with their first child.
  
  
  
   First denunciation
  
  
  
  In 1936, Shostakovich fell from official favour. The year began with a series of attacks on him in Pravda, in particular an article entitled, "Muddle Instead of Music". Shostakovich was away on a concert tour in Arkhangel’sk when he heard news of the first Pravda article. Two days before the article was published on the evening of 28 January, a friend had advised Shostakovich to attend the Bolshoi Theatre production of Lady Macbeth. When he arrived, he saw that Stalin and the Politburo were there. In letters written to Ivan Sollertinsky, a close friend and advisor, Shostakovich recounted the horror with which he watched as Stalin shuddered every time the brass and percussion played too loudly. Equally horrifying was the way Stalin and his companions laughed at the love-making scene between Sergei and Katerina. Eyewitness accounts testify that Shostakovich was "white as a sheet" when he went to take his bow after the third act.
  
  
  
  The article, which condemned Lady Macbeth as formalist, "coarse, primitive and vulgar," was thought to have been instigated by Stalin. Consequently, commissions began to fall off, and his income fell by about three quarters. Even Soviet music critics who had praised the opera were forced to recant in print, saying they "failed to detect the shortcomings of Lady Macbeth as pointed out by the Pravda". Shortly after the "Muddle Instead of Music" article, Pravda published another, "Ballet Falsehood," that criticized Shostakovich’s ballet The Limpid Stream. Shostakovich did not expect this second article because the general public and press already accepted this music as "democratic" - that is, tuneful and accessible. However, Pravda criticized The Limpid Stream for incorrectly displaying peasant life on the collective farm.
  
  
  
  More widely, 1936 marked the beginning of the Great Terror, in which many of the composer's friends and relatives were imprisoned or killed: these included his patron Marshal Tukhachevsky (shot months after his arrest); his brother-in-law Vsevolod Frederiks (a distinguished physicist, eventually released but died before he got home); his close friend Nikolai Zhilyayev (a musicologist who had taught Tukhachevsky; shot shortly after his arrest); his mother-in-law, the astronomer Sofiya Mikhailovna Varzar (sent to a camp in Karaganda); his friend, the Marxist writer Galina Serbryakova (20 years in camps); his uncle, Maxim Kostrykin (died); and his colleagues Boris Kornilov and Adrian Piotrovsky (executed). His only consolation in this period was the birth of his daughter Galina in 1936; his son Maxim was born two years later.
  
  
  
   Withdrawal of the Fourth Symphony
  
  
  
  The publication of the Pravda editorials coincided with the composition of Shostakovich's Fourth Symphony. The work was a great shift in style for the composer, due to the substantial influence of Gustav Mahler, as well as multiple Western-style elements. The symphony gave Shostakovich compositional trouble, as he attempted to reform his style into a new idiom. The composer was well into the work when the fatal articles appeared. Despite this, Shostakovich continued to compose the symphony and planned a premiere at the end of 1936. Rehearsals began that December, but after a number of rehearsals Shostakovich, for reasons still debated today, decided to withdraw the symphony from the public. A number of his friends and colleagues, such as Isaak Glikman, have suggested that it was in fact an official ban which Shostakovich was persuaded to present as a voluntary withdrawal. Whatever the case, it seems possible that this action saved the composer's life: during this time Shostakovich feared for himself and his family. Yet Shostakovich did not repudiate the work: it retained its designation as his Fourth Symphony. A piano reduction was published in 1946, and the work was finally premiered in 1961, well after Stalin's death.
  
  
  
  During the years of 1936 and 1937, in order to maintain as low a profile as possible between the Fourth and Fifth symphonies, Shostakovich mainly composed film music, a genre favored by Stalin and lacking in dangerous personal expression.
  
  
  
   "An artist's creative response to just criticism"
  
  
  
  The composer's response to his denunciation was the Fifth Symphony of 1937, which was musically more conservative than his earlier works. Premiering on 21 November 1937 in Leningrad, it was a phenomenal success: many in the Leningrad audience had lost family or friends to the mass executions. The Fifth drove many to tears and welling emotions. Later Shostakovich wrote in his memoirs: "I'll never believe that a man who understood nothing could feel the Fifth Symphony. Of course they understood, they understood what was happening around them and they understood what the Fifth was about."
  
  
  
  The success put Shostakovich in good standing once again. Music critics and the authorities alike, including those who had earlier accused Shostakovich of formalism, claimed that he had learned from his mistakes and had become a true Soviet artist. The composer Dmitry Kabalevsky, who had been among those who disassociated himself from Shostakovich when the Pravda article was published, praised the Fifth Symphony and congratulated Shostakovich for "not having given into the seductive temptations of his previous ‘erroneous’ ways."
  
  
  
  It was also at this time that Shostakovich composed the first of his string quartets. His chamber works allowed him to experiment and express ideas which would have been unacceptable in his more public symphonic pieces. In September 1937, he began to teach composition at the Leningrad Conservatory, which provided some financial security but interfered with his own creative work.
  
  
  
   Second World War
  
  
  
  In 1939, before the Soviet forces invaded Finland, the Party Secretary of Leningrad Andrei Zhdanov commissioned a celebratory piece from Shostakovich, entitled Suite on Finnish Themes to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army would be parading through the Finnish capital Helsinki. The Winter War was a humiliation for the Red Army, and Shostakovich would never lay claim to the authorship of this work. It was not performed until 2001.
  
  
  
  Lev A. Russov. The Leningrad Symphony. Conducted by Yevgeny Mravinsky. 1980.
  
  After the outbreak of war between the Soviet Union and Germany in 1941, Shostakovich initially remained in Leningrad. He tried to enlist for the military but was turned away because he had bad eyesight. To compensate, Shostakovich became a volunteer for the Leningrad Conservatory’s firefighter brigade and delivered a radio broadcast to the Soviet people listen (help·info). The photograph for which he posed was published in newspapers throughout the country.
  
  
  
  But his greatest and most famous wartime contribution was the Seventh Symphony. The composer wrote the first three movements in Leningrad and completed the work in Kuibyshev, now a settlement in Volgograd Oblast, where he and his family had been evacuated. Whether or not Shostakovich really conceived the idea of the symphony with the siege of Leningrad in mind, it was officially claimed as a representation of the people of Leningrad’s brave resistance to the German invaders and an authentic piece of patriotic art at a time when morale needed boosting. The symphony was first premiered at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow and was soon performed abroad in London and the United States. However, the most compelling performance was by the Radio Orchestra in besieged Leningrad. The orchestra only had fourteen musicians left, so the conductor Karl Eliasberg had to recruit anyone who could play a musical instrument to perform the symphony.
  
  
  
  In spring 1943, the family moved to Moscow. At the time of the Eighth Symphony's premiere, the tide had turned for the Red Army. Therefore the public, and most importantly the authorities, wanted another triumphant piece from the composer. Instead, they got the Eighth Symphony, perhaps the ultimate in sombre and violent expression within Shostakovich's output. In order to preserve the image of Shostakovich (a vital bridge to the people of the Union and to the West), the government assigned the name "Stalingrad" to the symphony, giving it the appearance of a mourning of the dead in the bloody Battle of Stalingrad. However, the symphony did not escape criticism. Shostakovich is reported to have said: "When the Eighth was performed, it was openly declared counter-revolutionary and anti-Soviet. They said, 'Why did Shostakovich write an optimistic symphony at the beginning of the war and a tragic one now? At the beginning we were retreating and now we're attacking, destroying the Fascists. And Shostakovich is acting tragic, that means he's on the side of the fascists.'" The work was unofficially but effectively banned until 1956.
  
  
  
  The Ninth Symphony (1945), in contrast, is an ironic Haydnesque parody, which intentionally failed to satisfy Stalin's demands for a "hymn of victory". The war was won, and Shostakovich’s "pretty" symphony was interpreted as a mockery of the Soviet Union’s victory rather than a celebratory piece. Shostakovich continued to compose chamber music, notably his Second Piano Trio (Op. 67), dedicated to the memory of Sollertinsky, with a bitter-sweet, Jewish-themed totentanz finale.
  
  
  
   Second denunciation
  
  
  
  In 1948 Shostakovich, along with many other composers, was again denounced for formalism in the Zhdanov decree. Andrei Zhdanov, Chairman of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet, accused Shostakovich and other composers (such as Sergei Prokofiev and Aram Khachaturian) for writing inappropriate and formalist music. This was part of an ongoing anti-formalism campaign intended to root out all Western compositional influence as well as any perceived "non-Russian" output. The conference resulted in the publication of the Central Committee’s Decree "On V. Muradeli’s opera The Great Friendship," which was targeted towards all Soviet composers and demanded that they only write "proletarian" music, or music for the masses. The accused composers, including Shostakovich, were summoned to make public apologies in front of the committee. Most of Shostakovich's works were banned, and his family had privileges withdrawn. Yuri Lyubimov says that at this time "he waited for his arrest at night out on the landing by the lift, so that at least his family wouldn't be disturbed."
  
  
  
  The consequences of the decree for composers were harsh. Shostakovich was among those who were dismissed from the Conservatoire altogether. For Shostakovich, the loss of money was perhaps the largest blow. Others still in the Conservatory experienced an atmosphere that was thick with suspicion. No one wanted their work to be understood as formalist, so many resorted to accusing their colleagues of writing or performing anti-proletarian music.
  
  
  
  In the next few years he composed three categories of work: film music to pay the rent, official works aimed at securing official rehabilitation, and serious works "for the desk drawer". The latter included the Violin Concerto No. 1 and the song cycle From Jewish Folk Poetry. The cycle was written at a time when the post-war anti-Semitic campaign was already under way, with widespread arrests including of I. Dobrushin and Yiditsky, the compilers of the book from which Shostakovich took his texts.
  
  
  
  The restrictions on Shostakovich's music and living arrangements were eased in 1949, when Stalin decided that the Soviets needed to send artistic representatives to the Cultural and Scientific Congress for World Peace in New York City, and that Shostakovich should be amongst them. For Shostakovich, it was a humiliating experience culminating in a New York press conference where he was expected to read a prepared speech. Nicolas Nabokov, who was present in the audience, witnessed Shostakovich starting to read "in a nervous and shaky voice" before he had to break off "and the speech was continued in English by a suave radio baritone". Fully aware that Shostakovich was not free to speak his mind, Nabokov publicly asked the composer whether he supported the then recent denunciation of Stravinsky's music in the Soviet Union. Shostakovich, who was a great admirer of Stravinsky and had been influenced by his music, had no alternative but to answer in the affirmative. Nabokov did not hesitate to publish that this demonstrated that Shostakovich was "not a free man, but an obedient tool of his government." Shostakovich never forgave Nabokov for this public humiliation. That same year Shostakovich was obliged to compose the cantata Song of the Forests, which praised Stalin as the "great gardener." In 1951 the composer was made a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of RSFSR.
  
  
  
  Stalin's death in 1953 was the biggest step towards Shostakovich's rehabilitation as a creative artist, which was marked by his Tenth Symphony. It features a number of musical quotations and codes (notably the DSCH and Elmira motifs, Elmira Nazirova being a pianist and composer who had studied under Shostakovich in the year prior to his dismissal from the Moscow Conservatoire), the meaning of which is still debated, whilst the savage second movement, according to Testimony, is intended as a musical portrait of Stalin himself. The Symphony ranks alongside the Fifth and Seventh as one of his most popular works. 1953 also saw a stream of premieres of the "desk drawer" works.
  
  
  
  During the forties and fifties Shostakovich had close relationships with two of his pupils: Galina Ustvolskaya and Elmira Nazirova. In the background to all this remained Shostakovich's first, open marriage to Nina Varzar until her death in 1954. He taught Ustvolskaya from 1937 to 1947. The nature of their relationship is far from clear: Mstislav Rostropovich described it as "tender". Ustvolskaya rejected a proposal of marriage from him after Nina's death. Shostakovich's daughter, Galina, recalled her father consulting her and Maxim about the possibility of Ustvolskaya being their stepmother. Ustvolskaya's friend, Viktor Suslin, said that she had been "deeply disappointed" in Shostakovich by the time of her graduation in 1947. The relationship with Nazirova seems to have been one-sided, expressed largely through his letters to her, and can be dated to around 1953 to 1956. He married his second wife, Komsomol activist Margarita Kainova, in 1956; the couple proved ill-matched, and divorced three years later.
  
  
  
  In 1954, Shostakovich wrote the Festive Overture, opus 96, that was used as the theme music for the 1980 Summer Olympics. In addition his '"Theme from the film Pirogov, Opus 76a: Finale" was played as the cauldron was lit at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece.
  
  
  
  In 1959, Shostakovich appeared on stage in Moscow at the end of a concert performance of his Fifth Symphony, congratulating Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra for their performance (part of a concert tour of the Soviet Union). Bernstein recorded the symphony later that year in New York for Columbia Records.
  
  
  
   Joining the Party
  
  
  
  The year 1960 marked another turning point in Shostakovich's life: his joining of the Communist Party. The government wanted to appoint him General Secretary of the Composer’s Union, but in order to hold that position Shostakovich was required to attain Party membership. It was understood that Nikita Khrushchev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party from 1958 to 1964, was looking for support from the leading ranks of the intelligentsia in an effort to create a better relationship with the Soviet Union’s artists. This event has been interpreted variously as a show of commitment, a mark of cowardice, the result of political pressure, and as his free decision. On the one hand, the apparat was undoubtedly less repressive than it had been before Stalin's death. On the other, his son recalled that the event reduced Shostakovich to tears, and he later told his wife Irina that he had been blackmailed. Lev Lebedinsky has said that the composer was suicidal. Once he joined the Party, several articles denouncing individualism in music were published in Pravda under his name, though he did not actually write them. In addition, in joining the party, Shostakovich was also committing himself to finally writing the homage to Lenin that he had promised before. His Twelfth Symphony, which portrays the Bolshevik Revolution and was completed in 1961, was dedicated to Vladimir Lenin and called "The Year 1917." Around this time, his health also began to deteriorate.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich's musical response to these personal crises was the Eighth String Quartet, composed in only three days. Shostakovich subtitled the piece, "To the victims of fascism and war", ostensibly in memory of the Dresden fire bombing that took place in 1945. Yet, like the Tenth Symphony, this quartet incorporates quotations from several of his past works and his musical monogram: Shostakovich confessed to Glikman, "I started thinking that if some day I die, nobody is likely to write a work in memory of me, so I had better write one myself." Several of Shostakovich's colleagues, including Natalya Vovsi-Mikhoels and the cellist Valentin Berlinsky were also aware of the Eighth Quartet's biographical intent.
  
  
  
  In 1962 he married for the third time, to Irina Supinskaya. In a letter to his friend Isaak Glikman, he wrote, "her only defect is that she is 27 years old. In all other respects she is splendid: clever, cheerful, straightforward and very likeable." According to Galina Vishnevskaya, who knew the Shostakoviches well, this marriage was a very happy one: "It was with her that Dmitri Dmitriyevich finally came to know domestic peace... Surely, she prolonged his life by several years." In November Shostakovich made his only venture into conducting, conducting a couple of his own works in Gorky: otherwise he declined to conduct, citing nerves and ill health as his reasons.
  
  
  
  That year saw Shostakovich again turn to the subject of anti-Semitism in his Thirteenth Symphony (subtitled Babi Yar). The symphony sets a number of poems by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, the first of which commemorates a massacre of the Jews during the Second World War. Opinions are divided how great a risk this was: the poem had been published in Soviet media, and was not banned, but it remained controversial. After the symphony's premiere, Yevtushenko was forced to add a stanza to his poem which said that Russians and Ukrainians had died alongside the Jews at Babi Yar.
  
  
  
  In 1965 Shostakovich raised his voice in defense of poet Joseph Brodsky, who was sentenced to five years of exile and hard labor. Shostakovich co-signed protests together with Yevtushenko and fellow Soviet artists Kornei Chukovsky, Anna Akhmatova, Samuil Marshak, and the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. After the protests the sentence was commuted, and Brodsky returned to Leningrad. Shostakovich joined the group of 25 distinguished intellectuals in signing the letter to Leonid Brezhnev asking not to rehabilitate Stalin.
  
  
  
   Later life
  
  
  
  Dmitri Shostakovich (center) with his wife Irina and Azerbaijani composer Gara Garayev
  
  In later life, Shostakovich suffered from chronic ill health, but he resisted giving up cigarettes and vodka. Beginning in 1958 he suffered from a debilitating condition that particularly affected his right hand, eventually forcing him to give up piano playing; in 1965 it was diagnosed as polio. He also suffered heart attacks the following year and again in 1971, and several falls in which he broke both his legs; in 1967 he wrote in a letter:
  
  
  
  "Target achieved so far: 75% (right leg broken, left leg broken, right hand defective). All I need to do now is wreck the left hand and then 100% of my extremities will be out of order."
  
  
  
  A preoccupation with his own mortality permeates Shostakovich's later works, among them the later quartets and the Fourteenth Symphony of 1969 (a song cycle based on a number of poems on the theme of death). This piece also finds Shostakovich at his most extreme with musical language, with twelve-tone themes and dense polyphony used throughout. Shostakovich dedicated this score to his close friend Benjamin Britten, who conducted its Western premiere at the 1970 Aldeburgh Festival. The Fifteenth Symphony of 1971 is, by contrast, melodic and retrospective in nature, quoting Wagner, Rossini and the composer's own Fourth Symphony.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich died of lung cancer on 9 August 1975 and after a civic funeral was interred in the Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow. Even before his death he had been commemorated with the naming of the Shostakovich Peninsula on Alexander Island, Antarctica.
  
  
  
  He was survived by his third wife, Irina; his daughter, Galina; and his son, Maxim, a pianist and conductor who was the dedicatee and first performer of some of his father's works. Shostakovich himself left behind several recordings of his own piano works, while other noted interpreters of his music include his friends Emil Gilels, Mstislav Rostropovich, Tatiana Nikolayeva, Maria Yudina, David Oistrakh, and members of the Beethoven Quartet.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich's musical influence on later composers outside the former Soviet Union has been relatively slight, although Alfred Schnittke took up his eclecticism, and his contrasts between the dynamic and the static, and some of André Previn's music shows clear links to Shostakovich's style of orchestration. His influence can also be seen in some Nordic composers, such as Lars-Erik Larsson. Many of his Russian contemporaries, and his pupils at the Leningrad Conservatory, however, were strongly influenced by his style (including German Okunev, Boris Tishchenko, whose 5th Symphony of 1978 is dedicated to Shostakovich's memory, Sergei Slonimsky, and others). Shostakovich's conservative idiom has nonetheless grown increasingly popular with audiences both within and beyond Russia, as the avant-garde has declined in influence and debate about his political views has developed.
  
  
  
   Music
  
   For a complete list, see List of compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich. See also: Category:Compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich (thematical selection of works by Shostakovich).
  
  Shostakovich's works are broadly tonal and in the Romantic tradition, but with elements of atonality and chromaticism. In some of his later works (e.g., the Twelfth Quartet), he made use of tone rows. His output is dominated by his cycles of symphonies and string quartets, each numbering fifteen. The symphonies are distributed fairly evenly throughout his career, while the quartets are concentrated towards the latter part. Among the most popular are the Fifth and Seventh Symphonies and the Eighth and Fifteenth Quartets. Other works include the operas Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, The Nose and the unfinished The Gamblers based on the comedy of Nikolai Gogol; six concertos (two each for piano, violin and cello); two piano trios; and a large quantity of film music.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich's music shows the influence of many of the composers he most admired: Bach in his fugues and passacaglias; Beethoven in the late quartets; Mahler in the symphonies and Berg in his use of musical codes and quotations. Among Russian composers, he particularly admired Modest Mussorgsky, whose operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina he re-orchestrated; Mussorgsky's influence is most prominent in the wintry scenes of Lady Macbeth and the Eleventh Symphony, as well as in his satirical works such as "Rayok". Prokofiev's influence is most apparent in the earlier piano works, such as the first sonata and first concerto. The influence of Russian church and folk music is very evident in his works for unaccompanied choir of the 1950s.
  
  
  
  Shostakovich's relationship with Stravinsky was profoundly ambivalent; as he wrote to Glikman, "Stravinsky the composer I worship. Stravinsky the thinker I despise." He was particularly enamoured of the Symphony of Psalms, presenting a copy of his own piano version of it to Stravinsky when the latter visited the USSR in 1962. (The meeting of the two composers was not very successful, however; observers commented on Shostakovich's extreme nervousness and Stravinsky's "cruelty" to him.)
  
  
  
  Many commentators have noted the disjunction between the experimental works before the 1936 denunciation and the more conservative ones that followed; the composer told Flora Litvinova, "without 'Party guidance'... I would have displayed more brilliance, used more sarcasm, I could have revealed my ideas openly instead of having to resort to camouflage." Articles published by Shostakovich in 1934 and 1935 cited Berg, Schoenberg, Krenek, Hindemith, "and especially Stravinsky" among his influences. Key works of the earlier period are the First Symphony, which combined the academicism of the conservatory with his progressive inclinations; The Nose ("The most uncompromisingly modernist of all his stage-works"); Lady Macbeth. which precipitated the denunciation; and the Fourth Symphony, described by Grove as "a colossal synthesis of Shostakovich's musical development to date". The Fourth Symphony was also the first in which the influence of Mahler came to the fore, prefiguring the route Shostakovich was to take to secure his rehabilitation, while he himself admitted that the preceding two were his least successful.
  
  
  
  In the years after 1936, Shostakovich's symphonic works were outwardly musically conservative, regardless of any subversive political content. During this time he turned increasingly to chamber works, a field that permitted the composer to explore different and often darker ideas without inviting external scrutiny. While his chamber works were largely tonal, they gave Shostakovich an outlet for sombre reflection not welcomed in his more public works. This is most apparent in the late chamber works, which portray what Groves has described as a "world of purgatorial numbness"; in some of these he included the use of tone rows, although he treated these as melodic themes rather than serially. Vocal works are also a prominent feature of his late output, setting texts often concerned with love, death and art.
  
  
  
   Women's Right
  
  
  
  Shostakovich's works have quite a few social justice themes. For example, in Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District, the protagonist is doomed by the patriarchal society, and the opera ends with her tragic death. Shostakovich had actually been brought up with feminism; his godmother, Klavdia Lukashevich, was a feminist activist and was also a powerful influence on the young Dmitri Shostakovich.
  
  
  
   Jewish theme
  
  
  
  Even before the Stalinist anti-Semitic campaigns in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Shostakovich showed an interest in Jewish themes. He was intrigued by Jewish music’s "ability to build a jolly melody on sad intonations." Examples of works that included Jewish themes are the Fourth String Quartet (1949), the First Violin Concerto (1948), and the Four Monologues on Pushkin Poems (1952). He was further inspired to write with Jewish themes when he examined Moiser Beregovsky’s thesis on the theme of Jewish folk music in 1946.
  
  
  
  In 1948, Shostakovich acquired a book of Jewish folk songs, and from this he composed the song cycle From Jewish Poetry. He initially wrote eight songs that were meant to represent the hardships of being Jewish in the Soviet Union. However in order to disguise this, Shostakovich ended up adding three more songs meant to demonstrate the great life Jews had under the Soviet regime. Despite his efforts to hide the real meaning in the work, the Union of Composers refused to approve his music in 1949 under the pressure of the anti-Semitism that gripped the country. From Jewish Poetry could not be performed until after Stalin’s death in March 1953, along with all the other works that were forbidden.
  
  
  
   Posthumous publication
  
  
  
  In 2004, the musicologist Olga Digonskaya discovered a trove of Shostakovich manuscripts at the Glinka State Central Museum of Musical Culture, Moscow. In a cardboard file were some "300 pages of musical sketches, pieces and scores" in the hand of Shostakovich. "A composer friend bribed Shostakovich's housemaid to regularly deliver the contents of Shostakovich's office waste bin to him, instead of taking it to the garbage. Some of those cast-offs eventually found their way into the Glinka.... The Glinka archive 'contained a huge number of pieces and compositions which were completely unknown or could be traced quite indirectly,' Digonskaya said."
  
  
  
  Among these were Shostakovich's piano and vocal sketches for a prologue to an opera, Orango (1932). They have been orchestrated by the British composer Gerard McBurney and this work was premiered in December 2011 by the Los Angeles Philharmonic.
  
  
  
   Criticism
  
  
  
  According to Shostakovich scholar Gerard McBurney, opinion is divided on whether his music is "of visionary power and originality, as some maintain, or, as others think, derivative, trashy, empty and second-hand." William Walton, his British contemporary, described him as "The greatest composer of the 20th century." Musicologist David Fanning concludes in Grove that, "Amid the conflicting pressures of official requirements, the mass suffering of his fellow countrymen, and his personal ideals of humanitarian and public service, he succeeded in forging a musical language of colossal emotional power."
  
  
  
  Some modern composers have been critical. Pierre Boulez dismissed Shostakovich's music as "the second, or even third pressing of Mahler." The Romanian composer and Webern disciple Philip Gershkovich called Shostakovich "a hack in a trance." A related complaint is that Shostakovich's style is vulgar and strident: Stravinsky wrote of Lady Macbeth: "brutally hammering... and monotonous." English composer and musicologist Robin Holloway described his music as "battleship-grey in melody and harmony, factory-functional in structure; in content all rhetoric and coercion."
  
  
  
  In the 1980s, the Finnish conductor and composer Esa-Pekka Salonen was critical of Shostakovich and refused to conduct his music. For instance, he said in 1987:
  
  
  
  Shostakovich is in many ways a polar counter-force for Stravinsky. [...] When I have said that the 7th symphony of Shostakovich is a dull and unpleasant composition, people have responded: "Yes, yes, but think of the background of that symphony." Such an attitude does no good to anyone.
  
  
  
  It is certainly true that Shostakovich borrows extensively from the material and styles both of earlier composers and of popular music; the vulgarity of "low" music is a notable influence on this "greatest of eclectics". McBurney traces this to the avant-garde artistic circles of the early Soviet period in which Shostakovich moved early in his career, and argues that these borrowings were a deliberate technique to allow him to create "patterns of contrast, repetition, exaggeration" that gave his music the large-scale structure it required.
  
  
  
   Personality
  
  
  
  Shostakovich with close friend Ivan Sollertinsky
  
  Shostakovich was in many ways an obsessive man: according to his daughter he was "obsessed with cleanliness"; he synchronised the clocks in his apartment; he regularly sent cards to himself to test how well the postal service was working. Elizabeth Wilson's Shostakovich: A Life Remembered (1994 edition) indexes 26 references to his nervousness. Mikhail Druskin remembers that even as a young man the composer was "fragile and nervously agile". Yuri Lyubimov comments, "The fact that he was more vulnerable and receptive than other people was no doubt an important feature of his genius". In later life, Krzysztof Meyer recalled, "his face was a bag of tics and grimaces".
  
  
  
  In his lighter moods, sport was one of his main recreations, although he preferred spectating or umpiring to participating (he was a qualified football referee). His favourite football club was Zenit Leningrad, which he would watch regularly. He also enjoyed playing card games, particularly patience. He was fond of satirical writers such as Gogol, Chekhov and Mikhail Zoshchenko. The influence of the latter in particular is evident in his letters, which include wry parodies of Soviet officialese. Zoshchenko himself noted the contradictions in the composer's character: "he is... frail, fragile, withdrawn, an infinitely direct, pure child... [but he is also] hard, acid, extremely intelligent, strong perhaps, despotic and not altogether good-natured (although cerebrally good-natured)".
  
  
  
  He was diffident by nature: Flora Litvinova has said he was "completely incapable of saying 'No' to anybody." This meant he was easily persuaded to sign official statements, including a denunciation of Andrei Sakharov in 1973; on the other hand he was willing to try to help constituents in his capacities as chairman of the Composers' Union and Deputy to the Supreme Soviet. Oleg Prokofiev commented that "he tried to help so many people that... less and less attention was paid to his pleas." When asked if he believed in God, Shostakovich said "No, and I am very sorry about it."
  
  
  
   Orthodoxy and revisionism
  
  
  
  Shostakovich represented himself in some works with the DSCH motif, consisting of D-E♭-C-B.
  
  Main article: Testimony (book)
  
  
  
  Shostakovich's response to official criticism and, what is more important, the question of whether he used music as a kind of covert dissidence is a matter of dispute. He outwardly conformed to government policies and positions, reading speeches and putting his name to articles expressing the government line. But it is evident he disliked many aspects of the regime, as confirmed by his family, his letters to Isaak Glikman, and the satirical cantata "Rayok", which ridiculed the "anti-formalist" campaign and was kept hidden until after his death. He was a close friend of Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who was executed in 1937 during the Great Purge.
  
  
  
  It is also uncertain to what extent Shostakovich expressed his opposition to the state in his music. The revisionist view was put forth by Solomon Volkov in the 1979 book Testimony, which was claimed to be Shostakovich's memoirs dictated to Volkov. The book alleged that many of the composer's works contained coded anti-government messages, that would place Shostakovich in a tradition of Russian artists outwitting censorship that goes back at least to the early 19th century poet Pushkin. It is known that he incorporated many quotations and motifs in his work, most notably his signature DSCH theme. His longtime collaborator Evgeny Mravinsky said that "Shostakovich very often explained his intentions with very specific images and connotations."
  
  
  
  The revisionist perspective has subsequently been supported by his children, Maxim and Galina, and many Russian musicians. Volkov has further argued, both in Testimony and in Shostakovich and Stalin, that Shostakovich adopted the role of the yurodivy or holy fool in his relations with the government. Other prominent revisionists are Ian MacDonald, whose book The New Shostakovich put forward further revisionist interpretations of his music, and Elizabeth Wilson, whose Shostakovich: A Life Remembered provides testimony from many of the composer's acquaintances.
  
  
  
  Tombstone of Shostakovich, showing his D-E♭-C-B motif. Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow.
  
  Musicians and scholars including Laurel Fay and Richard Taruskin contest the authenticity and debate the significance of Testimony, alleging that Volkov compiled it from a combination of recycled articles, gossip, and possibly some information direct from the composer. Fay documents these allegations in her 2002 article 'Volkov's Testimony reconsidered', showing that the only pages of the original Testimony manuscript that Shostakovich had signed and verified are word-for-word reproductions of earlier interviews given by the composer, none of which are controversial. (Against this, it has been pointed out by Allan B. Ho and Dmitry Feofanov that at least two of the signed pages contain controversial material: for instance, "on the first page of chapter 3, where [Shostakovich] notes that the plaque that reads 'In this house lived [Vsevolod] Meyerhold' should also say 'And in this house his wife was brutally murdered'.") More broadly, Fay and Taruskin argue
   that the significance of Shostakovich is in his music rather than his life, and that to seek political messages in the music detracts from, rather than enhances, its artistic value.
  
  
  
   Recorded legacy
  
  
  
  A Russian stamp in Shostakovich's memory
  
  In May 1958, during a visit to Paris, Shostakovich recorded his two piano concertos with André Cluytens, as well as some short piano works. These were issued by EMI on an LP, reissued by Seraphim Records on LP, and eventually digitally remastered and released on CD. Shostakovich recorded the two concertos in stereo in Moscow for Melodiya. Shostakovich also played the piano solos in recordings of the Cello Sonata, Op. 40 with cellist Daniil Shafran and also with Mstislav Rostropovich; the Violin Sonata, Op. 134, with violinist David Oistrakh; and the Piano Trio, Op. 67 with violinist David Oistrakh and cellist Miloš Sádlo. There is also a short sound film of Shostakovich as soloist in a 1930s concert performance of the closing moments of his first piano concerto. A colour film of Shostakovich supervising one of his operas, from his last year, was also made.
  
  
  
   Award
  
   Soviet Union Hero of Socialist Labor (1966)
  
   Order of Lenin (1946, 1956, 1966)
  
   Order of the October Revolution (1971)
  
   Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1940)
  
   Order of Friendship of Peoples (1972)
  
   People's Artist of the USSR (1954)
  
   People's Artist of the RSFSR (1948)
  
   International Peace Prize (1954)
  
   Lenin Prize (1958 - for the 11th symphony "1905")
  
   State Stalin Prize in arts (1941 - 1st class, for piano quintet; 1942 - 1st class, 7th ("Leningrad") Symphony; 1946 - 2nd class, a trio, 1948, 1949, 1949, 1949, 1950 - 1st class, for the music for the film Meeting on the Elbe, 1952 - 2nd class, 10 poems for chorus)
  
   USSR State Prize (1968 - for the poem "The Execution of Stepan Razin" for bass, chorus and orchestra)
  
   Glinka State Prize of the RSFSR (1974 - for the 14th string quartet and choral cycle "Fidelity")
  
   National Prize of Ukraine Taras Shevchenko (posthumously, 1976 - USSR State Prize named after Taras Shevchenko - for the opera "Katerina Ismailov," staged in KUGATOB Shevchenko)
  
   Finland Sibelius Award (1958)
  
   United States Oscar nomination for Khovanshchina, Best Score (Musical) in 1961
  
   United Kingdom Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1966)
  
   Austria Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria in Silver (1967)
  
   Denmark Léonie Sonning Music Prize (1974)
    

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