| 姓： | 愛新覺羅 | |||||||||
| 名： | 福臨 | |||||||||
| 網筆號： | 清世祖 | |||||||||
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生平
崇德八年（1643年）二月十六日承襲父位，時年六歲，由叔父睿親王多爾袞及鄭親王濟爾哈朗輔政。1644年改元順治。九月自盛京遷都北京，十月初一日即皇帝位於武英殿。福臨是於順治元年入關的清朝的第一位皇帝。十四歲（1651年）親政。在位十七年（1644-1661）
子女
皇長子：牛鈕（夭折），母為庶妃巴氏
皇次子：裕憲親王福全，母為寧愨妃董鄂氏
皇三子：聖祖仁皇帝玄燁，母為孝康章皇后佟佳氏
皇四子：賜榮親王（夭折），母為孝獻端靜皇后董鄂氏
皇五子：恭親王常寧，母為庶妃陳氏
皇六子：奇授（夭折），母為庶妃唐氏
皇七子：純靖親王隆禧，母為庶妃鈕氏
皇八子：永幹（8歲殤），母為庶妃穆剋圖氏
大公主：（夭折），母為庶妃陳氏
二公主：和碩恭愨長公主，15歲時下嫁給瓜爾佳氏訥爾杜，母為庶妃楊氏
三公主：（夭折），母為庶妃巴氏
四公主：（夭折），母為庶妃烏蘇氏
五公主：（夭折），母為庶妃王氏
六公主：（夭折），母為庶妃納喇氏
養女一：和碩和順公主，13歲時下嫁尚之隆，承澤親王碩塞之二女，其母為納喇氏
養女二：和碩柔嘉公主，12歲時下嫁耿聚忠，安郡王嶽樂之第二女
養女三：固倫端敏公主，18歲時下嫁博爾濟吉持氏班第，簡親王濟度之第二女
至於世祖章皇帝到底是怎麽離位的傳統上有兩種說法。
第一種就是世祖章皇帝在順治十八年因病而死。具體原因是因為愛妃董鄂氏（後追封孝獻端靜皇后）及其愛子（即董鄂妃的兒子）相繼病亡，福臨受到了巨大的精神打擊，身體每況愈下，後又染上了天花，順治十八年（1661年）正月初七日子刻崩於紫禁城內的養心殿，年僅24歲。中國歷史第一檔案館的檔案支持第一種說法。據歷史文獻記載，福臨確實想要出傢，但受到皇宮內保守勢力的極度反對，最終未能成行；而不久則死於天花。他也是清朝歷史上唯一公開皈依禪門的皇帝。
另一種民間傳說就是說因愛妃董鄂妃因病去世，愛宗教的福臨看破紅塵，出傢當了和尚，而且這種說法一般還把董鄂妃與董小宛（秦淮名妓）當作同一人。但是，根據史學界的考證，董小宛25歲死時，董鄂妃也衹有13歲，還未入宮，所以已經基本否定這種說法。
最近歷史學家又提出了第三種說法，即炮擊致死說，認為順治在試圖徵服臺灣時，被鄭成功的大炮炮擊致死。
1663年葬入河北遵化清東陵的孝陵內。有8子、6女
崇德八年（1643年）八月，盛京皇宮中發生了一件大事：太宗皇帝在端坐中突然無疾而終！經過一番兵戎相持的較量，太宗皇太極第九子福臨，在叔父攝政睿親王多爾袞輔佐下即了帝位，改元順治，並於順治元年（1644年）九月由瀋陽進京，在太和門舉行了登極大典，成為清入關後的第一位皇帝。
6歲登上王位的福臨是在多智多勇又獨斷專行的叔父多爾袞與深明大義的寡母孝莊文皇后教導之下成長起來的皇帝。多爾袞攝政7年間，清廷在以武力統一全國的過程中，發兵追剿李自成、張獻忠的農民起義軍和南明抗清勢力，推行剃發易服、圈地等民族高壓政策。多爾袞病逝後，順治開始擺脫傀儡地位，對多爾袞實行了削除封號爵位、罷撤廟享謚號、籍沒傢財等身後懲處。為加強皇權，他廢除了諸王貝勒管理各部事務的舊例，又采取了停止圈地，放寬逃人法等一係列緩和民族矛盾的措施。儘管順治很想有番作為，也頗為中原文化所吸引，但終因他周圍尚未形成一支以他為主導的強有力的政治勢力，致使他在與朝中反對漢化的勳舊大臣的較量中敗下陣來。
政治上的失意，使順治帝沉湎於與其弟媳董鄂氏的愛情之中。隨着與佛教高僧木陳忞等人的交往，他産生了遁入空門的思想。當他摯愛的皇貴妃董鄂氏死後，他的精神支柱完全崩潰，健康狀況每況愈下，24歲時又染上天花，很快便撒手人寰。
順治帝在位不足18年。卒謚體天隆運定統建極英睿欽文顯武大德弘功聖仁純孝章皇帝。廟號世祖。骨灰葬河北遵化清東陵“孝陵”。
清代宮廷大事表
崇德八年(1643年 癸未 明崇禎十六年)
正月 太宗有病，命和碩親王以下，副都統以上，詣堂子行禮。
八月 太宗坐逝於寢宮清寧宮，無疾而終。禮親王代善及諸王文武群臣定議，擁立太宗第九子福臨為嗣皇帝，以鄭親王濟爾哈朗、睿親王多爾袞輔政，明年改元順治。福臨於大政殿舉行即位大典。
九月 葬太宗於盛京昭陵。
十月 上太宗尊謚為應天興國弘德彰武寬溫仁聖睿孝文皇帝，廟號太宗。
順治元年（1644年 甲申）
正月 順治帝禦大政殿（篤恭殿）受賀，命禮親王代善勿拜。鄭親王濟爾哈朗諭部院各官，凡白事先啓睿親王，而自居其次。
二月 祔葬太妃博爾濟吉特氏於福陵。改葬以罪賜死之妃富察氏於陵外。
三月 大學士希福等進刪譯《遼史》、《金史》、《元史》。李自成攻陷北京。明崇禎帝自縊。
四月 固山額真何洛會告肅親王豪格悖妄罪，廢為庶人。晉封多羅饒餘貝勒阿巴泰為多羅饒餘郡王。大學士範文程啓睿親王多爾袞往定中原。以大軍南伐祭告太祖、太宗。
五月 多爾袞率大軍抵達燕京，明文武諸臣士庶郊迎清軍入城。多爾袞進入皇城，居火後餘生的武英殿理事。令官吏軍民以帝禮為明帝發喪。令故明內閣、部院諸臣以原官同滿洲官一體辦事。按製葬明莊烈帝皇后周氏、妃袁氏，熹宗皇后張氏、神宗妃劉氏。明福王朱由崧即位於江南，改元弘光，以史可法為大學士，駐守揚州督師。
六月 多爾袞及諸王、貝勒、貝子、大臣等定議遷都燕京，遣輔國公屯齊喀、和托、固山額真何洛會前往盛京迎駕。遷明太祖神主於歷代帝王廟。鑄各官印兼用國書。
七月 考定歷法，為時憲歷。以遷都祭告上帝、陵廟。多爾袞諭令，因軍事方殷，新補各官可暫服用明式衣冠。設故明長陵以下十四陵官吏。多爾袞致書史可法，勸其主削號歸藩，史可法嚴詞拒絶。始修乾清宮。
八月 順治帝車駕到達廣寧，給明十三陵陵戶祭田，禁止樵牧。
九月 於紫禁城東南建堂子。順治帝車駕到達通州，多爾袞率諸王、貝勒、貝子、文武群臣於行宮朝見順治帝。順治帝自正陽門入宮。初定郊廟樂章。奉安太祖武皇帝、孝慈高皇后、太宗文皇帝神主於太廟。
十月順治帝親詣南郊告祭天地，遣官告祭太廟、社稷。以睿親王多爾袞功最高，命禮部建碑紀績。上太宗尊謚，告祭郊廟、社稷。順治帝禦皇極門（後改稱太和門），舉行入關後的登極典禮，頒詔天下，大赦。加封和碩睿親王多爾袞為叔父攝政王，和碩鄭親王濟爾哈朗為信義輔政王，多羅武英郡王阿濟格為和碩英親王，多羅豫郡王多鐸為和碩豫親王，復封豪格為和碩肅親王。定諸王、貝勒、貝子歲俸。定攝政王及諸王、貝勒、貝子、公等冠服宮室之製。定皇帝鹵簿儀仗。仿照盛京清寧宮之製，定坤寧宮祭薩滿禮。定朝會樂章。定賜宴群臣朝賀大典，內監不得列席。
十一月 設滿洲司業、助教，官員子孫有欲習國書、漢書者，並入國子監就讀。罷明定陵守者，其十二陵仍設太監二人，量給歲時祭品。入關內首次祀天於圜丘。
十二月 出明府庫財物，賞八旗將士及蒙古官員。以太宗第六女固倫公主下嫁固山額真阿山子誇紮。以何洛會、鞏阿岱分別祭祀福陵、昭陵，告慰進軍關內功成。假冒故明太子案發，誅殺相關人員15人。入關後第一次大規模圈地。
清朝在頒布剃發令要求將頭顱四周的頭髮都剃掉，衹留一頂如錢大，結辮下垂。在頭頂留發一錢大，大於一錢要處死！清定：“剃發不如式者亦斬。”順治四年，滸墅關民丁泉“周環僅剃少許，留頂甚大”，被地方官拿獲，以“本犯即無姦宄之心，甘違同風之化，法無可貸”為由上奏，奉朱批：“着就彼處斬”，縣官也以失察“從重議處，傢長、地鄰即應擬罪”，因留發不留頭而慘遭殺害的各族達千萬
秦世禎《撫浙檄草》：“小頂辮發”把頭髮剃去，衹留下銅錢大一點，梳成一根小辮，叫“金錢鼠尾”式。將四周頭髮全部剃去，僅留頭頂中心的頭髮，其形狀一如金錢，而中心部分的頭髮，則被結辮下垂，形如鼠尾.
1647年廣州剃發易服令：“金錢鼠尾，乃新朝之雅政；峨冠博帶，實亡國之陋規。”
福州遺民所撰《思文大紀》：“時剃頭令下，閭左無一免者。金錢鼠尾，幾成遍地腥膻。”
順治二年（1645年 乙酉）
正月 命多羅饒餘郡王阿巴泰為都統，代豪格徵山東。以太宗第七女固倫公主下嫁內大臣鄂齊爾桑子喇瑪思。命房山縣歲以太牢祭金太祖、世宗陵。
二月 始修《律例》。諭豫親王多鐸移師定江南，英親王阿濟格徵討李自成。
三月 始祀遼太祖、金太祖、世宗、明太祖於歷代帝王廟，並定從祀大臣。
四月 葬故明殉難太監王承恩於明帝陵側，給祭田、建碑。豫親王多鐸師至揚州，諭南明史可法投降，史可法拒降被殺，清兵對城內人民持續進行了十天大屠殺，史稱“揚州十日”。以太宗第八女固倫公主下嫁科爾沁土謝圖親王巴達禮子巴雅斯護朗。初行武鄉試。
五月 命內三院大學士馮銓、洪承疇、李建泰、範文程、剛林、祁充格等纂修《明史》。賜諸王以下百官冰，著為令。多鐸師至南京，故明福王朱由崧及大學士逃遁太平，忻城伯趙之竜、大學士王鐸、禮部尚書錢謙益以城投降。命滿洲子弟就學，十月一日赴監考課，春秋五日一演射。定叔父攝政王儀註，凡文移皆曰皇叔父攝政王。免皇后租，並崇文門米麥院。宣詔平定江南捷音。乾清宮修繕竣工，開始修繕太和殿、中和殿、位育宮（即保和殿）。
六月再次強製推行剃發令，皇太妃逝。發佈詔告：清廷興兵，本無意兼併，衹為明清和好；但因李自成興兵導致了明國祚滅亡；清軍自關外整旅入關，乃是代明雪恨…… 以此來消弭漢族的反滿情緒。並命於十月在江南舉行鄉試，以籠絡漢族士人。册封孔子為“大成至聖文宣先師”，多爾袞親自謁拜孔子廟。
閏六月 李自成逃亡湖北九宮山，自縊而死。定群臣公以下及生員耆老頂戴品級。詔諭嚴禁諫官朋黨相爭。定滿洲文武官品級。定諸王、貝勒、貝子、宗室公頂戴式。明唐王朱聿鍵在福州建隆武政權，魯王朱以海在紹興建魯王監國政權。
七月 享太廟。上太祖武皇帝、孝慈武皇后、太宗文皇帝玉册玉寶於太廟。設明太祖守陵太監四人，給祀田二千頃。禁中外軍民衣冠不遵國製。清兵進至嘉定，進行三次大屠殺，史稱“嘉定三屠”。
八月 以英親王阿濟格出師有罪，降郡王，鰲拜等議罰有差。
十月 豫親王多鐸師還，順治帝幸南苑迎勞之。以太宗次女固倫公主下嫁察哈爾汗子阿布鼐。加封和碩豫親王多鐸為和碩德豫親王。
十二月 更定朝儀，開始罷內監朝參。
順治三年（1646年 丙戌）
正月 以肅親王豪格為靖遠大將軍，率師西徵四川。增定俸給之製：最高攝政王年俸銀2000兩，最低驍騎校30兩。鄭成功在福建沿海一帶抗清。
二月 罷江南舊設部院，差在京戶、兵、工三部滿漢侍郎各一人駐江寧，分理部務。
三月 翻譯完成《洪武寶訓》。賜傅以漸等進士及第出身有差。多羅饒餘郡王阿巴泰逝。
四月 攝政王多爾袞諭停諸王大臣啓本。修盛京孔子廟。
五月 多爾袞貯信符於睿王府。重申嚴禁奴僕逃亡的“逃人法”。
十月 和碩德豫親王多鐸還師，上郊勞之。太和殿、中和殿修繕完成。定皇帝行幸迎送禮。
十一月 明唐王朱聿在廣州建立紹興政權。明桂王朱由榔在廣東肇慶建永歷政權。
十二月 位育宮修繕完成。定諸王入朝降輿及列朝坐次儀註。鄭成功在海上起兵抗清。
順治四年（1647年 丁亥）
正月 因輔政鄭親王濟爾哈朗府邸殿堂臺基逾製及擅用銅獅銅鶴，罰銀2000兩。定親王世子例，其爵秩視郡王，儀仗照親王例。
三月 賜呂宮等進士及第有差。諭京官三品以上及督、撫、提、鎮各送一子入朝侍衛，察才人使，無子者以弟及從子代之。命郊社太牢仍用腥。《大清律》成。停止圈地。
七月 加封和碩德豫親王多鐸為輔政叔德豫親王。建射殿（即箭亭）於左翼門外。多爾袞罷鄭親王聽政，衹令豫親王參與。順治帝幸邊外閱武。
十月 更定鑾儀衛品級，每級官員各降一級。
十二月 禮部尊諭新定服製。定攝政王對皇帝停止行跪拜禮。是年，在京畿大規模圈地。
順治五年（1648年 戊子）
正月 和碩肅親王豪格師還，衍禧郡王羅洛宏卒於軍，至是喪歸，輟朝三日。
三月 和碩鄭親王濟爾哈朗因罪降為多羅郡王。和碩肅親王豪格有罪論死，順治帝以不忍置之於法，幽禁之。尋因激憤死於禁所。
閏四月 復濟爾哈朗爵為和碩親王。
六月 太廟成。
七月 初設六部漢尚書、都察院左都御史。定諸王、貝勒、貝子、公、公主、和碩格格等應用金器數目。
八月 允許滿漢官民互相嫁娶。
十一月 祀天於圜丘，以太祖武皇帝配享。追尊太祖以上四世為皇帝，並奉册寶於太廟。
順治六年（1649年 己醜）
正月 定內三院官製。
三月 輔政和碩德豫親王多鐸薨，攝政王多爾袞師次居庸，還京臨喪。
四月 皇太後（即太宗中宮皇后博爾濟吉特氏）逝。
六月 英親王阿濟格嚮攝政王多爾袞爭叔王銜，論其為驕妄罪並禁議部事。
十二月 多爾袞妻元妃死，令兩旗牛錄章京以上官員及妻皆衣縞素，六旗牛錄章京官員以上皆去纓。
順治七年（1650年 庚寅）
正月 多爾袞納肅親王豪格妻。
二月 上太後謚為孝端正敬仁懿莊敏輔天協盛文皇后，合葬昭陵。
五月 多爾袞至連山親迎朝鮮國之女，是日成婚。
七月 順治帝幸攝政王多爾袞府邸。
十一月 攝政王多爾袞有疾，獵於邊外。
十二月 初九日，攝政王多爾袞逝於喀喇城。順治帝親自祭奠於郊外，臣民為其服製。收攝政王信符，貯藏內庫。尊攝政王為懋德修道廣業定功安民立政誠敬義皇帝，廟號成宗。議英王阿濟格罪。順治帝親政。
順治八年（1651年 辛卯）
正月 和碩英親王阿濟格謀亂，幽禁之。十日，禮部上順治帝親政儀註，十二日，順治帝親政，禦太和殿。
二月 上昭聖慈壽皇太後尊號。蘇剋薩哈、詹岱、穆齊倫首告攝政王多爾袞逆節皆實，籍其傢，誅殺其黨羽；追罪多爾袞 ，削其尊號及其母妻追封，撤廟享。
閏二月 幽禁阿濟格於別室，籍其傢。定阿附多爾袞諸臣罪，剛林、祁充格俱獲罪。
三月 命諸王、貝勒、貝子分管六部、理藩院、都察院事。定王公朝集例。定齋戒例。許滿洲、蒙古、漢軍子弟科舉，以甲第除授。
四月 遣官祭祀嶽鎮海瀆、帝王陵寢、先師孔子闕裏。定元旦、鼕至、皇帝萬壽為三大節及其儀註。定諸王大臣陪祭、扈從、接駕、送駕儀註及駕出巡幸，別造香寶隨行，並鑄扈從各印，加“行在”二字。
六月 定諸陵壇廟祀典。詔明神宗陵如其他十二陵，以時致祭，設守陵戶。命修繕祖陵，設守陵戶，定祭禮。復朝日、夕月禮。定皇后大婚儀及皇后儀仗製。
八月 定順天府鄉試滿洲、蒙古為一榜，漢軍、漢人為一榜，會試、殿試如之。戊午，册立科爾沁卓禮剋圖親王親王吳剋善女博爾濟吉特氏為皇后。
九月 定朝儀。改承天門為天安門。建朝日壇於朝陽門外，夕月壇於阜成門外。
十月 賜阿濟格死。封肇祖、興祖陵山曰啓運山，景祖、顯祖陵山曰積慶山，福陵山曰天柱山，昭陵山曰隆業山。
順治九年（1652年 壬辰）
二月 頒布六諭碑文於天下。加封鄭親王濟爾哈朗為叔和碩鄭親王。
三月 罷諸王、貝勒、貝子管理部務。賜滿洲、蒙古貢士麻勒吉，漢軍及漢貢士鄒忠倚等進士及第出身有差。
四月 定諸王以下官員輿服製。允禮部議，一月三朝，春秋一舉經筵。定常朝儀註。設宗人府官。
五月 更定詹事府官品級。定皇后、皇妃納采禮製。
七月 定名皇城北門為地安門。
八月 更定王公以下婚娶禮。
九月 更定王以下祭葬禮。幸太學釋奠。擬定親往外邊迎達賴喇嘛。
十月 尊太宗大貴妃為懿靖大貴妃，淑妃為康惠淑妃。
十二月 順治帝於南苑召見五世達賴喇嘛。每旗設宗學，凡未受封宗室之子十歲以上均可入學。
順治十年（1653年 癸巳）
正月 諭令改變僅有滿臣奏事的局面，此後，凡章奏，令滿漢侍郎、卿以上會同奏進。更定多羅貝勒以下歲俸。順治帝閱讀《通鑒》，問大臣歷史上的各個聖明之君誰最優，陳名夏以唐太宗對，而順治帝以為明太祖的各種立法可垂永久。
三月 幸南臺較射。賜太常卿湯若望號通玄教師。命各部院奏事停用緑頭牌。
四月 親試翰林官成剋鞏等。陳名夏事件發生，28名漢官遭到訓斥。
五月 追封舒爾哈齊為和碩親王，額爾袞、界堪、雅爾哈齊、祜塞為多羅郡王。
六月 追封塔察篇古、穆爾哈齊為多羅貝勒。慈寧宮成。增置內三院漢大學士，院各二人。設立十三衙門，諭戒宦官幹政，所設太監級不過四品。
七月 以皇太後諭，發內廷節省銀八萬兩賑濟遇水災民。
八月 以太宗十四女和碩公主下嫁平西王吳三桂子吳應熊。二十四日諭內院，查歷代廢後事例具聞。二十六日，諭禮部，以皇后為睿王所定，未經選擇為由，廢除皇后為靜妃。二十七日，諸臣上疏，廢皇后之事要慎重詳審。
十月 命大學士、學士於太和門內更番入值。
順治十一年（1654年 甲午）
正月 罷織造官。
二月 朝日於東郊。始行耕耤禮。定每年仲春亥日行耕耤禮。
三月 皇三子玄燁（即康熙皇帝）生。以多羅慧哲郡王額爾袞、多羅宣獻郡王界堪、多羅通達郡王雅爾哈齊配享太廟。
四月 以皇太後命，停命婦更番入侍後妃舊例。
五月 定皇后、嬪妃、親王福金、固倫公主以下，輔國公夫人以上之頂珠服飾例。幸西苑，賜大臣宴。
六月 立科爾沁鎮國公綽爾濟女博爾濟吉特氏為皇后。停宗室子弟習漢字諸書。定鑾儀衛制度。
十二月 和碩承澤親王碩塞薨。
順治十二年（1655年 乙未）
正月 修《順治大訓》。纂《資政要覽》，順治帝親寫序文。以修建乾清宮、景仁宮、承乾宮、永壽宮，遣官告祭天地、太廟。
三月 頒布重視文教上諭。設日講官。
四月 詔修《太祖聖訓》、《太宗聖訓》。
五月 鄭親王濟爾哈朗逝。輟朝七日。
六月 封博果鐸為和碩莊親王。命名宮禁為紫禁城，後山為景山，西苑南臺為瀛臺。命內十三衙門立鐵牌，嚴禁內監幹政。
九月 定武會試中式者殿試如文進士。
十月 定纂修《玉牒》之製。
順治十三年（1656年 丙申）
正月 修《通鑒全書》、《孝經演義》。
三月 初幸瀛臺。
閏五月 乾清宮、坤寧宮、交泰殿及景仁宮、永壽宮、承乾宮、鐘粹宮、儲秀宮、翊坤宮修繕完成。
六月 諭善待滿洲包衣傢人。
七月 和碩襄親王博穆博果爾逝。順治帝開始移居乾清宮。
八月 承皇太後訓示，編《內則衍義》書成，順治帝親寫序言。
九月 追封和碩肅親王豪格為和碩武肅親王。諭禮部，晉內大臣鄂碩之女賢妃董鄂妃為皇貴妃。
十一月 興京陵成。
十二月 册內大臣鄂碩女董鄂氏為皇貴妃，頒恩赦。加上皇太後尊號為昭聖慈康恭簡安懿章慶皇太後。命禮部籌建奉先殿。準開玉牒館纂修《玉牒》，每十年一開館。定三年舉行一次大閱禮。
順治十四年（1657年 丁酉）
正月 祈𠔌於上帝，以太祖武皇帝配享。諭令停止八旗舉行鄉會兩試。
二月 祭社稷。
三月 奉太宗文皇帝配享圜丘及祈𠔌壇。以太祖武皇帝、太宗文皇帝配享方澤。以配享禮成，大赦天下。順天、江南等地發生科場舞弊案。
四月 設置盛京奉天府。
九月 初禦經筵。
十月 以開日講祭告先師孔子於弘德殿。幸南苑。始行閱武。修孔子廟。昭事殿、奉先殿成。召見海會寺僧憨璞聰。
十一月 奉先殿修成，奉列朝帝後神位，定元旦、鼕至、萬壽、册封、月朔望，奉帝位於前殿，帝親行禮。
十二月 以皇太後疾愈，賚旗兵，賑貧民。
是年 編製《賦役全書》
順治十五年（1658年 戊戌）
正月 因皇后於皇太後病中有失定省之儀，命停其箋奏，衹存皇后之號，册寶照舊。順治帝親試丁酉科順天舉人，考場設在太和門，以滿兵監視。因皇太後病愈，下詔大赦。停祭祀堂子。因皇太後病愈，祀圜丘，祀方澤，祀太廟社稷。
二月 因內監交接外廷，命內大臣嚴訊。
三月 提審內監吳良輔交結外官，受賄鑽營，擬斬。追封科爾沁巴圖魯王女為悼妃。追封皇四子為和碩榮親王，建墳園如製。
五月 裁撤詹事府。
六月 停諸王以下孀居福金歲給俸祿銀米，照八旗孀居命婦例各半俸一年。
七月 改內三院大學士為殿閣大學士。設翰林院及掌院學士官。
九月 以內院大學士覺羅巴哈納、金之俊為中和殿大學士，額色黑、成剋鞏為保和殿大學士，蔣赫德、劉正宗為文華殿大學士，洪承疇、傅以漸、鬍世安為武英殿大學士，衛周祚為文淵閣大學士，李霨為東閣大學士。
十一月 定宮中女官員額品級。
順治十六年（1659年 己亥）
二月 以雲貴蕩平，命今秋舉行會試。
五月 發內帑銀三十萬，以其半賑濟雲貴貧民，一半當作兵餉。
九月 尊興京祖陵為永陵。
十一月 順治帝獵於近郊，先後次湯泉、三營屯。遣官祭祀明帝諸陵，並增陵戶，加以修葺，禁止樵采。
十二月 定世職承襲例。加公主封號。
順治十七年（1660年 庚子）
正月 京師文廟成。以禦極十七年以來，天下未治，下詔，本年正月祭告天地、太廟、社稷，抒忱引責，自今而後，元旦、鼕至、壽令節慶停止所上表章，並頒恩赦。
二月 定每年孟春合祭天地日月及諸神於大享殿。諭禮部：“嚮來孟春祈𠔌禮於大享殿舉行，今既行合祭天地日月於大享殿，以後祈𠔌於圜丘舉行”。
三月 諭禮部：“朕載稽舊製，歲終祫祭之外，有奉先殿合祭之禮。自後元旦、皇太後萬壽及朕壽節，合祭於奉先殿。其詳議禮儀以聞”。定王、貝勒、貝子、公妻女封號。更定王公、侯、伯以下，章京以上盔纓製。
六月始命翰林官於景運門入值。增祀商中宗、高宗、周成王、康王、漢文帝、宋仁宗、明孝宗於歷代帝王廟。罷遼太祖廟祀及宋臣潘美、張瀎從祀。以祈雨步至南郊齋宿。祀天於圜丘。命修舉天下名山大川、帝王聖賢祀典。以順治帝之兄承澤親王碩塞之女撫養宮中，封為和碩順公主，下嫁平南王尚可喜第七子尚之隆。
八月 十九日，皇貴妃董鄂妃薨，輟朝五日，以宮女多人殉葬，喪禮逾製。二十一日，追封董鄂妃氏為皇后。
九月 十日，火化董鄂妃。幸昌平，觀故明諸陵。
十月 大覺禪師玉林琇勸阻順治帝削發為僧。
順治十八年 （1661年 辛醜）
正月 初二日，順治帝患痘，病危。召原任大學士麻勒吉、學士王熙起草遺詔。初七日，逝於養心殿。遺詔中對十八年的朝政進行檢討，共有十四項罪責。遺詔立第三子玄燁為太子，特命內大臣索尼、蘇剋薩哈、遏必隆、鰲拜四大臣輔政，輔佐年僅八歲的幼帝。初八日，遣官頒行遺詔於全國。初九日，玄燁即皇帝位。
二月 移順治帝梓宮於景山壽皇殿。裁撤十三衙門。誅殺內監吳良輔。設立武備院，專門製作收藏宮中所用軍械及陳設器物。詔令江寧、蘇州、杭州三織造隸內務府。
三月 為順治帝上尊謚“章皇帝”，廟號“世祖”。
四月 以一等阿達哈哈番侍衛傅達理隨葬順治帝，予祭葬，謚忠烈。 鄭成功收復臺灣。江南蘇、鬆、常、鎮四府發生奏銷案。
六月 罷內閣，復內三院。
十一月 康熙帝親祀於圜丘。世祖章皇帝升祔太廟。
十二月 平西王吳三桂率大軍入緬，緬甸人執明永歷帝朱由榔以獻。宗人府進《玉牒》。
是年 為防內地民衆與鄭成功抗清勢力聯繫，實行海禁，勒令江南、浙江、福建、廣東沿海居民分別內遷三十裏至五十裏，並盡燒船衹，片板不準下海，此即“遷海令”。
註：此表按年號紀年排定，公元紀年衹括註到年。
清初,統治者頒布剃頭令：頭頂衹留發一錢大,大於一錢要處死。
清初的滿人皆是此風俗：頭頂衹有金錢大小一片頭髮，蓄做手指粗細的小辮子，須得能穿過清銅錢的方孔纔算合格。滿人稱之為金錢鼠尾。後來經過了200年，纔逐漸演化成清末時期的剃半光頭。
清兵攻陷廣州時,清頒布剃發易服令說：“金錢鼠尾，乃新朝之雅政；峨冠博帶，實亡國之陋規。”
清一代男子的發式經歷了數次演變：嘉慶以前為金錢鼠尾，嘉慶初年進入中期，開始流行豬尾，清末演變為半光頭。 其實滿族女人也剃發，要到成年婚嫁後纔可蓄發。
那種清末纔有的、現在不合事實地壟斷了所有清裝戲的陰陽頭髮式，放在清初就是死罪，因為清初規定：“剃發不如式者亦斬。”順治四年，滸墅關民丁泉“周環僅剃少許，留頂甚大”，被地方官拿獲，以“本犯即無姦宄之心，甘違同風之化，法無可貸”為由上奏，奉朱批“着就彼處斬”，縣官也以失察“從重議處，傢長、地鄰即應擬罪”。
1、後金時期以剃發為漢人歸降的標準，男人的大部分頭髮被剃掉，衹留腦後小手指細的一綹，擰成繩索一樣下垂，稱金錢鼠尾式。配合這樣的發式，鬍須衹留上唇左右十餘根。
2、清初時期以剃發為治國之策，自遼東地區廣大漢族民衆的反抗至清入關後的無數次反剃發鬥爭，成千上萬的漢人為之付出了巨大犧牲。而此時的蓄發部位已悄然無聲地逐步由腦後移到了頭頂，但仍可稱金錢鼠尾式。
3、清代中葉，經過清初大屠殺以後，發式約自嘉慶初年起有所變化。頭頂着發的部位雖沒有變，但面積已遠不止於一個金錢大，而是足有四或五個金錢大，相當於一掌心的面積，蓄發數量明顯增加。鬍須亦從衹留上唇左右幾根變成包括下巴在內的全部。
4、清代後期，即嘉慶以後男子的發式逐步演變為將頂發四周邊緣衹剃去寸許，而中間保留長發、分三綹編成辮子一條垂在腦後，名為辮子或稱發辮。
5、清代末期，在覺悟了的知識青年和學生掀起的革命鬥爭中，把剪辮子作為一項重要內容。從清末開始，到清朝滅亡之時，剪辮子成了全國範圍從下到上又從上到下的革命運動。
抵抗 漢族人民為保護世代相承的文物衣冠進行了此起彼伏的鬥爭。滿清入侵者對此進行了暴力鎮壓。1645年發生的嘉定三屠即與“剃發易服”有關
剃發易服造成的社會矛盾
“剃發易服”是清初主要的社會矛盾之一。針對當時各地漢人的抗爭此起彼伏的情況，當時的陳名夏曾說過：“留發復衣冠，天下即可太平。”然而不久他就因為說了這句話而被滿門抄斬。順治二年十月，原任陝西河西道孔聞謤（孔子後人）上書：“近奉剃頭之例，四氏子孫又告廟遵旨剃發，以明歸順之誠，豈敢再有妄議。但念先聖為典禮之宗，顔、曾、孟三大賢並起而羽翼之。其定禮之大莫要於冠服。……惟臣祖當年自為物身者無非斟酌古製所載章甫之冠，所衣縫掖之服，遂為萬世不易之程，子孫世世守之。自漢、唐、宋、金、元以迄明時，三千年未有令之改者，誠以所守者是三代之遺規，不忍令其湮沒也。即剃頭之例，當時原未議及四氏子孫，自四傢剃發後，章甫縫掖不變於三千年者未免至臣傢今日而變，使天下雖知臣傢之能盡忠，又惜臣傢未能盡孝，恐於皇上崇儒重道之典有未備也。應否蓄發，以復本等衣冠，統惟聖裁。” 多爾袞回應如下：“剃發嚴旨，違者無赦。孔聞謤疏求蓄發，已犯不赦之條，姑念聖裔免死。況孔子聖之時，似此違製，有玷伊祖時中之道。著革職永不敘用。 ”順治十年，刑部逮捕了兩個因為扮演旦角而沒有剃發的人，清廷因此下詔：“剃頭之令，不遵者斬，頒行已久，並無戲子準與留發之例。今二犯敢於違禁，好生可惡。着刑部作速刊刻告示，內外通行傳飭，如有藉前項戲子名色留發者限文到十日內即行剃發；若過限仍敢違禁，許諸人即為拿獲，在內送刑部審明處斬，在外送該管地方官奏請正法。如見者不行舉首，勿論官民從重治罪。” 由此可見一斑。
影響 全國平定後，清朝滿族統治者取得勝利，漢族男子普遍接受剃發結辮，改穿滿族衣冠。也有不願改換衣冠者逃到海外，或遁入空門帶發修行。
辛亥革命推翻清朝後，剃發令廢除，不少人（包括滿人，由於怕受到漢人報復，因此也改變發型）遂剪去辮子，但仍有如張勳等保皇人士，堅持留辮子並率領辮子軍，以表示對清朝的效忠。而當時在日本殖民統治下的臺灣，剃發與纏足、吸食鴉片並列為臺灣三大陋習之一，但與後兩者不同，日本人未對臺灣人的發型進行強製規範，而臺灣人在受到日本統治影響後，多為自發性主動剪去辮子。
而經過兩百多年影響，改良過的滿人服飾，取代了漢服成為多數中國人認知的代表中國人個民族服飾或傳統服飾。諸如旗袍、長袍馬褂等等。2001年在上海舉行的APEC會議，會後領袖代表所穿着的傳統服飾，雖稱為唐裝但實際上即是馬褂。
當今中國社會有部分人士主張“回覆漢服”的運動，希望推廣鼓勵漢人重新穿着傳統漢服，不過在現代中國服裝高度西化影響下，未能成為潮流。剃發易服，是指中國明末清初時期滿族統治者用暴力手段強迫全國漢族人改剃滿族發型、改穿滿族服裝的政令。
漢族自古以來就非常重視衣冠服飾。《孝經》有言：“身體發膚，受之父母，不敢毀傷，孝之始也。”漢人成年之後就不可剃發，男女都把頭髮綰成發髻盤在頭頂。滿族的發型與漢人迥異，該族男子把前顱頭髮剃光，後腦頭髮編成一條長辮垂下。漢人的服裝漢服以交領、右裧、無扣等為主要特色，滿裝的主要特點是立領、對襟、盤扣等。
清朝由居於中國東北的滿族人建立。在入關之前，滿族統治者在關外已然推行“剃發易服”政策。對被徵服的漢人一律強令改變發式、更換服裝，投降的明朝將士也必須剃發易服，作為臣服的標志。
清軍於1644年（明崇禎十七年）入關時曾頒發“剃發令”，因引起漢人的不滿和反抗，於是公開廢除此令。1645年清兵進軍江南後，漢臣孫之獬受到其他漢大臣的排擠，惱羞成怒之下嚮攝政王多爾袞提出重新頒發“剃發令”。於是，多爾袞下令再次頒發“剃發令”，規定清軍所到之處，無論官民，限十日內盡行剃頭，削發垂辮，不從者斬。其執行口號是：“留頭不留發，留發不留頭”。漢族人民為保護世代相承的文物衣冠進行了此起彼伏的鬥爭。清朝統治者對此進行了暴力鎮壓，例如1645年發生的嘉定三屠事件即與“剃發易服”有關。此起彼伏的鬥爭歷經37之年久，最終結果是滿族封建統治者取得勝利，漢族大部分生者都剃發結辮，改穿滿族衣冠；堅持不願改換衣冠者要麽被殺，要麽逃到海外，要麽遁入空門，帶發修行。
清朝滿族統治者推行“剃發易服”的原因：一般認為，滿族統治者希望通過剃發易服來打擊、摧垮廣大漢族人民尤其是上層人士的民族精神；保持滿族的統治地位，保持滿族不被漢族同化。後來的歷史表明，滿族統治者的這一措施基本達到了預期效果。漢人逐漸淡忘本民族服飾，習慣了滿族的發式和服裝。到辛亥革命推翻清帝國，號召民衆剪去辮子時，仍然有許多人不願意剪，其中原因之一就是害怕剪去辮子後被官府殺頭，可見“留頭不留發，留發不留頭”的“剃發易服”政策對漢族影響極深。
“剃發易服”是清初主要的社會矛盾之一。針對當時各地漢人的抗爭此起彼伏的情況，當時的陳名夏曾說過：“免剃頭復衣冠，天下即可太平”。然而不久他就因為說了這句話而被滿門抄斬。
“1644年，這是中國歷史上“天崩地裂”的一年，這年3月，李自成北上攻取燕京，崇禎帝自縊殉國，李自成派唐通招撫山海關總兵吳三桂。吳三桂經過考慮，决定歸順新朝，並回京朝見“新君”李自成，在回京途中，因聽聞傢産被抄，愛妾被虜，所以改變初衷，回師山海關，襲擊唐通部。李自成聞訊，决定徵剿吳三桂，21日，雙方激戰山海關，22日晨，吳三桂情勢危急，帶隨從衝出重圍，至關外嚮駐紮在關外覬覦已久的多爾滾部剃發稱臣，歸降滿洲軍，雙方合兵。26日，李自成敗退回北京，旋即西撤，清軍入關，“定鼎燕京”。
伴隨着滿洲入關而來就是剃發易服令
此前，遼東漢民早已深受剃頭之荼。早在滿洲建國時期，滿洲統治者就強令投降的漢人效法滿洲人的發式，把剃發作為歸順的標志，如天聰五年（1631年）清太宗在大凌河之役勝利時令“歸降將士等剃發”，崇德三年（1638年）又下令：“若有效他國衣帽及令婦人束發裹足者，是身在本朝，而心在他國。自今以後，犯者俱加重罪。”
清軍入關，繼續推行這個政策。順治元年（1644年）四月二十二日，清軍打敗李自成進入山海關的第一天就下令剃頭。五月初一日，攝政王多爾滾率領清軍過通州，知州迎降，多爾滾“諭令剃發”。初二進北京，次日多爾滾給兵部和原明朝官民分別發出命令，命兵部派人到各地招撫，要求“投誠官吏軍民皆着剃發，衣冠悉遵本朝制度”。這是清朝進入北京後正式下達剃發和易衣冠的法令。
但是這一政策遭到漢族人民的強烈反對，在朝漢族官員遵令剃發的為數寥寥，不過孫之獬等最無恥的幾個人。不少官員觀望不出，甚至護發南逃，畿輔地區的百姓也常揭竿而起。多爾滾見滿洲貴族的統治還不穩固，自知操之過急，被迫宣佈收回成命。順治元年五月二十日諭旨中說：“予前因歸順之民無所分別，故令其剃發以別順逆。今聞甚拂民願，反非予以文教定民心之本心矣。自茲以後，天下臣民照舊束發，悉從其便。” 所以清軍入關後，剃發、易衣冠的政策衹實行了一個月。
然而，這一政策並未就此完結。當滿洲統治者認為天下大定之時，立刻以民族徵服者的姿態，悍然下令全國男性官民一律剃發。順治二年（1645年）六月初五日，在接到攻占南京的捷報之時，多爾滾即遣使諭給在江南前綫的總指揮豫親王多鐸命令“各處文武軍民盡令剃發，倘有不從，以軍法從事”。十五日諭禮部道：“嚮來剃發之製，不即令畫一，姑令自便者，欲俟天下大定始行此製耳。今中外一傢，君猶父也，民猶子也；父子一體，豈可違異？若不畫一，終屬二心……”同年七月，又下令“衣冠皆宜遵本朝之製”。要求禮部通告全國軍民剃發。規定實行期限，自佈告之日起，京城內外限於十日內，各地方，亦是在通令到達後的十日內“盡行剃發”。規定懲治辦法：“……自今佈告之後，京城內外限旬日，直隸各省地方自部文到日亦限旬日，盡令剃發。遵依者為我國之民，遲疑者同逆命之寇，必置重罪；若規避惜發，巧辭爭辯，决不輕貸。”這是對民衆的。同時要求地方官員嚴厲執行，更不許疏請維持束發舊製，否則“殺無赦。”這是一道嚴令，衹能執行，不許違抗。很多文章都指出，滿清的辮子絶不僅僅是一個頭髮問題，而是一個政治問題！滿洲統治者其實把辮子作為的“良民證”使用！多爾滾在順治元年五月講到剃發令時，就明它的功能是“以別順逆”：“因歸順之民，無所分別，故令其剃發，以別順逆”！
剃發令在清初各地引起的震動極為重大，它激起了漢族各階層人士的反對，反抗以至於大規模的武裝鬥爭幾乎遍及全國，導致了長期的政局不穩，以至生靈塗炭。
順治皇帝遺詔
清代皇帝的自我批評——三讀順治遺詔
作者：馮伯群
奉天承運，皇帝詔曰：
朕以涼德承嗣丕基，十八年於茲矣。自親政以來，紀綱法度、用人行政，不能仰法太祖、太宗謨烈，因循悠乎，苟安目前，且漸習漢俗，於淳樸舊製日有更張，以致國治未臻，民生未遂，是朕之罪一也。
朕自弱齡即遇皇考太宗皇帝上賓，教訓撫養，惟聖母皇太後慈育是依，大恩罔極，高厚莫酬，惟朝夕趨承，冀盡孝養，今不幸子道不終，誠悃未遂，是朕之罪一也。
皇考賓天時，朕止六歲，不能衰經行三年喪，終天抱恨，帷事奉皇太後，順志承顔，且冀萬年之後，庶盡子職，少抒前憾，今永違膝下，反上廑聖母哀痛，是朕之罪一也。
宗皇諸王貝勒等，皆係太祖、太宗子孫，為國藩翰，理應優遇，以示展親。朕於諸王貝勒等，晉接既正東，恩惠復鮮，以致情誼睽隔，友愛之道未周，是朕之罪一也。
滿洲諸臣，或歷世竭忠，或纍年效力，宣加倚托，盡厥猷為，朕不能信任，有纔莫展。且明季失國，多由偏用文臣，朕不以為戒，反委任漢官，即部院印信，間亦令漢官掌管，以致滿臣無心任事，精力懈弛，是朕之罪一也。
朕夙性好高，不能虛己延納，於用人之際，務求其德於己相侔，未能隨材器使，以致每嘆乏人。若捨短錄長，則人有微技，亦獲見用，豈遂至於舉世無材，是朕之罪一也。
設官分職，惟德是用，進退黜陟不可忽視，朕於廷臣中，有明知其不肖，刀不即行罷斥，仍復優容姑息，如劉正宗者，偏私躁忌，朕已洞悉於心，乃容其久任政地，誠可謂見賢而不能舉，見不肖而不能退，是朕之罪一也。
國用浩繁，兵餉不足，然金花錢糧，盡給宮中之費，未常節省發施，及度支告匱，每令會議，即諸王大臣會議，豈能別有奇策，衹得議及裁減俸祿，以贍軍需，厚己薄人，益上損下，是朕之罪一也。
經營殿宇，造作器具，務極精工，求為前代後人所不及，無益之地，糜費甚多，乃不自省察，罔體民艱，是朕之罪一也。
端敬皇后於皇太後剋盡孝道，輔佐朕躬，內政聿修，朕仰奉慈綸，追念賢淑，喪祭典禮概從優厚，然不能以禮止情，諸事太過，豈濫不經，是朕之罪一也。
朕性閑靜，常圖安逸，燕處深宮，禦朝絶少，以致與廷臣接見稀疏，上下情誼否塞，是朕之罪一也。
人之們事，孰能無過，在朕日禦萬幾，自然多有違錯，惟肯聽言納諫，則有過必知。朕每自恃聰明，不能聽言納諫。古雲，良賈深藏若虛，君子盛德，容貌若愚。朕於斯言，大相違背，以致臣士緘然，不肯進言，是朕之罪一也。
朕既知過，每自尅責生悔，乃徒尚虛文，未能者改，以致過端日積，愆戾逾多，是朕之罪一也。
太祖、太宗創垂基業，所關至重，元良儲嗣，不可久虛，朕子玄燁，佟氏妃所生也，年八歲，岐嶷穎慧，剋承宗祧，茲立為皇太子，即遵典製，持服二十七日，釋服，即皇帝位。特命內大臣索尼、蘇剋薩哈、遏必隆、鰲拜為輔臣，伊等皆勳舊重臣，朕以腹心寄托，其勉天忠盡，保翊衝主，佐理政務，而告中外，鹹使聞知。
順治十八年正月初七日。
愛新覺羅·福臨，是滿清王朝入關後的第一代皇帝，年號為順治。
這位順治皇帝六歲登基，十四歲親政，二十四歲去世，打理朝政、主持軍國大事十年，政績頗多。但民間於這位青年皇帝傳說較多的卻是他與董鄂妃的愛情及其本人消極厭世鬧着要出傢的故事。其實順治在政治上是很有作為的。他親政之初，國內軍事、政治、經濟各方面都是危機四伏，而這位長期生活在關外的滿洲皇帝連漢文的奏章都看不太懂，更不要說學習歷代漢傢皇帝的治國經驗了。但他以皇帝之尊，並未沉溺於享樂，而是極其刻苦地學習漢族文化，天不亮就起床讀書，為了背誦一些名篇名著，徹夜不睡。在每日處理大量的軍務政務的同時，汲取了大量的文化知識，不斷完善他的統治方法和手段。
在軍事上，面對全國蜂起的戰亂，他廣泛聽取各方面意見，製定了重撫輕剿的策略，大膽放手地任用漢族降官，不斷取得軍事上的勝利，穩定了國內局勢。在政治上，他整頓吏治、嚴懲貪官，力求建立廉潔、高效的行政機構。在經濟上，他招撫流民，鼓勵開荒，免除自明末以來對百姓的種種科派，連各地嚮皇上進貢土特産品也下令免除，救災救荒，大力發展生産。
順治在治理國傢方面，清明之舉不少，其中比較突出的一條是他能誠心聽取下情，容許臣下犯顔直諫，即使提的意見非常尖銳，他也不以為忤。相反，臣下不提意見，他反而不高興。如此大度的氣節，不僅遠遠超過他的先輩，對其後代也發生着深刻影響。清朝諸帝大多勤政而有作為，能聽得不同意見，很少如前代皇帝，一語不合，便把提意見甚至提建議的大臣打個皮開肉綻，直到要了人傢腦袋。這裏順治皇帝的表率不能不說對他的後人有着重要的影響。更難得的是，當時的福臨，衹有十幾歲，二十出頭，以我們今天許多家庭的條件來看，還不過是個孩子，但那時的福臨就能有這般見識，這般作為，實屬難能可貴了。
前面所錄的詔書，是順治染上天花後，自知不起，召來他的親信大臣禮部侍郎兼翰林院掌院學士王熙、學士麻勒吉撰擬的遺詔，這份遺詔是順治帝臨終前最後一次自責自切；也是他自我批評精神的最後體現。
遺詔除最後交待了帝位的繼承人和輔政大臣名單外，其餘內容全部是順治檢討自己執政以來的罪纍计達十四條之多，可說地地道道是一道“罪己詔”了。
第一條，順治檢討說，自己並無高厚的德行，卻繼承了祖宗大業，但卻沒有治理好國傢，沒有緻福於百姓，這是自己的一條罪過。
第二條，說自己先母親去世，不能孝養母親，是自己的罪過。
第三條，再強調父親去世時，自己因尚年幼，未盡孝儀，本應在母親去世時給予彌補，但今不能承歡母後，反給母親帶來痛苦，是自己的罪過。
第四條說，對宗室諸王貝勒等滿洲親貴未能照應周全，是自己的罪過。
第五條說，在施政之中偏嚮任用漢族大臣，疏遠了滿洲官員，是自己的罪過。
第六條說，自己用人所持標準過高，沒能很好地發現人才、使用人才，是自己的罪過。
第七條說，自己對不稱職的官員未能及時撤換，是自己的罪過。
第八條說，自己在宮中花費過多，影響了官員的俸祿，是自己的罪過。
第九條說，自己在宮殿建造和器具使用上花錢太多，未能體諒百姓生活的艱辛，是自己的罪過。
第十條說，自己寵愛的董鄂妃去世時，自己不能控製自己的感情，喪葬之禮違反定製，過於鋪張，是自己的罪過。
第十一條，說自己過分信用太監，致使其營私舞弊，是自己的罪過。
第十二條，說自己圖清閑，很少上朝，致使與大臣們缺少聯繫，是自己的罪過。
第十三條，說自己自以為聰明，聽不得不同意見，以致大臣們不肯進言，是自己的罪過。
第十四條，說自己知錯而未能改錯，以致過錯越來越多，是自己的罪過。
實事求是地說，順治檢討了自己這麽多的“罪”，實在是有點過分。這十四條中，第一條可以說是近乎官樣文章，有點像今天一些人總結報告中常見的“由於自己水平不高、能力有限、工作做得不好，距離上級領導的要求和群衆的期望還差得很遠”之類的套話。
第二條、第三條是比較動情的話，福臨的母後，即孝莊皇太後，在順治登基，保住順治的皇位，幫助他處理對各種復雜的關係方面都發揮了重要的作用，福臨未能剋盡孝道，深感愧對母親，此情此感，確實是發自內心。
第四條、第五條所說的對滿洲親貴、滿洲大臣未能倚重優遇的話有點言不隨心。遏製滿洲親貴的勢力，大膽任用漢官，正是順治帝施政中成功的舉措，也正是這種以漢治漢的方針策略，使清軍入關之初動蕩的形勢得以逐步穩定，生産得以恢復發展，順治在世時一直堅守這種用人方略，對滿洲親貴們的不滿情緒一再加以壓製。那麽臨終之時，為何一反平時之態又對此作起檢討呢?這裏大概有兩個方面的原因：一是福臨雖然在治國施政上註意重用漢人，但作為滿洲貴族的最高代表，滿洲的那些王公大臣，畢竟還是他自己的“傢裏人”，漢人再能幹，也不過是用其所長，再親也不是“自己人”，滿人對漢人的猜忌之心，對順治帝來說也不可能完全擺脫；與此相關的第二個原因是滿洲親貴縱有種種不滿，也是血濃於水，對他們過於嚴厲也有不妥之處。所以也許就應了那句老話：“人之將死，其言也善”，結合順治多愁善感的性格，臨終之時一反常態，念及滿洲親情，就此做些檢討也是情理之中。
第六、七、八、九、十一、十二、十三、十四條所涉及之事，應該說順治的表現是很不錯的，作為一位青年人，順治在處理軍國大事，宮中事務上，每每有超凡之見、超常之舉是很難得的，比起前明一些昏憒平庸的皇帝們，順治應該算是很不錯的一位皇帝了，儘管如此，順治在遺詔之中仍在自責自艾，便有點兒我們今天所說的“高標準、嚴要求”了。
真正應該檢討一下的是第十條，順治的愛妃去世，順治確實因傷心過度鬧得夠嗆，朝野上下震動一時。說起來這位董鄂妃確實是位值得人心疼的好妃子，她美麗端莊，善良賢惠，不貪財，不爭寵，對上孝敬皇太後，在宮中忍辱負重，以德報
怨，與其他後妃和睦相處，太後、皇后及其他妃子生病，董妃可以幾天幾夜不離病榻，盡心服侍，以致自己由於超負荷的身體透支而多次病倒。董妃的自我犧牲，保障了後宮的安寧，為順治全力以赴處理政事創造了很好的條件。但感情歸感情，封建社會皇傢的名份、制度是不可擅動的。順治為董妃治喪，確如他自己所檢討的“諸事太過”。
第一次讀到順治遺詔，還是二十年前在大學讀書時，上古文獻課學的一篇課文。由人品和學問都讓人敬佩的張成德先生講授，使我更加深了對這篇文章的理解。也就是那時，我知道了所謂皇帝的罪己詔原來真是言詞懇切。以前總以為逢有天災變異，皇帝下詔罪己不過是應景而已。而順治這篇遺詔卻不是表面文章，從自我批評的角度來看，應該說是比較深刻的。而且象文中出現的“夙性好高”，“自恃聰明”等語也真有點“觸及靈魂”的意思。所以自那時起，順治的這篇遺詔以及遺詔中所反映出來的嚴以責己的精神給我留下了深刻的印象，而這篇由張先生親手用蠟紙刻印的講義，我也一直留到今天。儘管紙張已微微變黃，二十年間又幾次搬傢，許多裝幀講究的課本，都丟掉了，這份講義始終留在身邊，偶爾拿出來念一念字簡句順，朗朗上口，從中又生發出一些一些的聯想，也覺挺有意思的。
第二次讀這篇文章，是1985年在皇史參觀清宮秘檔真跡展覽時，見到了當年張挂公佈，供軍民人等一體觀看的遺詔真跡。題圖中的這張照片就是當時拍攝下來的。皇帝的自我批評居然是挂在墻上讓老百姓隨便看的，這確實讓我吃了一驚。
第三次與這份遺詔相見，是最近的事了。它所引動人們所作的思考仍一如既往。儘管有人認為這份遺詔在順治去世後已經皇太後與滿洲王公矯政改，但退一步講所謂改動之處，也不過是四、五兩條與滿洲親貴們利益相關的內客。即使如此，遺詔中所體現的深刻自責的精神還是原汁原味兒的。結合順治帝生前一係列表現，與遺詔中所體現的精神是完全一致的。
順治十七年，也就是福臨去世的前一年，他在祭告天地宗廟時，總結了自己繼位十七年以來的行為表現，從頭到尾沒有絲毫的自吹自擂，沒有給自己評功擺好。相反通篇都是對自己的檢討反省，認為自己有負上天，愧對祖宗，對不起皇太後，讓天下百姓失望，據此，他下令，今後逢元旦、鼕至、萬壽三大節，不得再給自己上慶賀的表章。
前不久，一個偶然的機會，我在中國第一歷史檔案館庫房見到一份標名為“上傳稿”的檔案，上書文字如下：
內三院於順治十年初三日辰時接出聖諭；近來言官條奏，多係細務，未見有規切朕躬者。朕一日萬機，豈無未合天意、未順人心之事?爾諸臣得無畏憚忌諱而不敢進諫者?朕雖不德，於古帝王納言容直每懷欣慕。朕躬如有過失，爾諸臣須直諫無隱，即偶有隔閡，不妨再三開陳，庶得者改誤失，力行正道，希臻至平。進言切當者，必加旌奬，言之過者，亦不譴責。內三院即傳與大小諸臣，卑鹹悉朕意。欽此，合行傳知。
從這份檔案看，年輕的順治皇帝確實是真心實意地希望臣下給自己提出意見，而且希望不要淨說些瑣碎的具體事務，要直接針對自己的言行，指出有何不當之處，倘若我一時接受不了，也應該再三陳述，說對了有奬，言詞過激也不會怪罪你們。
順治帝這麽說，也的確是這麽做的。有一位叫朱之弼的給事中曾上疏指責順治，說“今日之病在六部，六部之病在尚書，尚書之病在推諉，推諉之病在皇上不擇人，不久任，不責成效，不定賞罰。”這位大臣倒真是不客氣，把官僚衙門産生種種弊端的原因，一古腦兒全扣在了皇帝頭上，矛頭直指順治，確實讓人很難下臺。但這位青年皇帝儘管也很要面子，但想到是自己提倡臣下進言，所以還真咽下了這口氣，表示確實是自己用人不當，賞罰不明。
還有一次他下詔說國傢沒有治理好，百姓生活不安定，邊疆戰事不斷，屢屢徵兵徵糧，這都是自己領導無方所造成的，並下令自即日起給他上的奏章都不許稱聖。幾年後，一位在工科任給事中的馬屁精姚延啓上疏大事贊美他的文治武功，請求恢復稱聖，結果順治不吃這套，將這位溜須小人臭駡一頓了事。
《順治遺詔》此件檔案現存於中國第一歷史檔案館
順治時期文字獄
朝人“言論自由之人權”的第一次惡化，起於順治四年——廣東和尚函可身攜一本紀錄抗清志士悲壯事跡的史稿《變記》，被南京城門的清兵查獲，在嚴刑折磨一年後，定讞流放瀋陽。次年，又有毛重倬等坊刻製藝序案，毛重倬為坊刻製藝所寫的序文不書“順治”年號，被大學士剛林認為是“目無本朝”，有關“正統”的“不赦之條”。由此規定：“自今闈中墨牘必經詞臣造訂，禮臣校閱，方許刊行，其餘房社雜稿概行禁止”，從此誕生了中國言論檢查官，開始了中國的言論出版審查專製，中國人的“言論自由之人權”由此大倒退。 清人“言論自由之人權”的第二次惡化，是順治十八年（166１）至康熙二年（1663）的莊廷竜明史案。浙江湖州富戶莊廷竜雙目皆盲，受到“左丘失明，厥有《國語》”的鼓勵，出錢購買明末人朱國禎一部未完成的《明史》，然後延攬名士，增潤刪節，補寫崇禎朝和南明史實，竊改為己作，定名《明史輯略》。因所續諸傳多有冒犯清朝開國事，被落職知縣吳知榮在敲詐未遂後舉報京城，從順治十八年查至康熙二年，歷時二年，重闢７０餘人，凌遲１８人，已故莊廷竜，也被“戳其屍”。這一次惡化的重要標志在於，“文字獄”可以“株連極廣”，不僅九族須滅，所有撰稿者、作序者、校對者、抄寫刻字者以及購書者，“一個也不能少”，“皆不免於難”。中國“文化恐怖主義”的言論鉗製至此上了一個新臺階。清人“言論自由之人權”的第三次惡化，起於雍正三年十二月的汪景祺以《西徵隨筆》問斬梟示案。汪景祺之所以成為雍正朝第一個以文字之故被殺的文人，是因雍正“恨屋及烏”所株連的——雍正在鏟除功臣年羹堯後，發現黨附年羹堯的“入幕之賓”汪景祺曾稱頌年羹堯為“宇宙之第一偉人”，雍正恨得咬牙切齒，但卻深知，僅僅以汪景祺黨附年羹堯，高歌年羹堯，罪不致死，於是就藉在年寓中查抄出汪景祺所寫的《讀書堂西徵隨筆》大做文章，栽贓誣陷其書中有“ 皇帝揮毫不值錢”之詩句，有“功臣不可為”和“歷代年號論”等“誹謗先帝”的“悖謬狂亂，至於此極”之大罪，令 “着將汪景祺立斬梟示，其妻子發遺黑竜江給與窮披甲人為奴，其期服之親兄弟親侄俱革職，發遺寧古塔，其五服以內之族人現任及候選候補者，俱著查出，一一革職”。汪景祺案不僅僅創造了株連政敵的“幫閑文人”之先例，而且立下了可將“文字獄”案犯梟示十年的創舉——汪景祺立 斬後，其頭骨在北京菜市口梟示（懸挂）了十年！這一殘酷“文字獄”使許多士子“避席畏聞文字獄，著書衹為稻梁謀 ”，紛紛立下了“不當烈士”的犬儒座右銘，中國文化人的氣節從此每下愈況。
A committee of Manchu princes chose the young Fulin to succeed his father Hong Taiji in September 1643 when he was only five. Two co-regents were also appointed: Nurhaci's fourteenth son Dorgon, and Nurhaci's nephew Jirgalang. From 1643 until Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650, political power lay mostly in the hands of Dorgon. After the young emperor started to rule personally in 1651, he tried, with mixed success, to fight corruption and to reduce the political influence of the Manchu nobility. He died of smallpox, a lethal disease that was endemic in China, but against which the Manchus had no immunity. He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who had already survived smallpox, and who subsequently reigned for sixty years as the Kangxi Emperor.
Under the leadership of Dorgon and the Shunzhi Emperor, the Qing dynasty conquered most of the territory of the fallen Ming and its last claimants and established the basis of Qing rule over China despite highly unpopular policies like the "haircutting command" of 1645, which forced Qing subjects to shave their forehead and braid their remaining hair into a queue. Because the Shunzhi reign is not well documented, it constitutes a relatively little-known period of Qing history.
When Hong Taiji, the second Qing Emperor, died on 9 September 1643 without having named a successor, the fledgling Qing state faced a possibly serious crisis. Several contenders started to vie for the throne. With his uterine brothers Dodo and Ajige, Dorgon controlled the Plain and Bordered White Banners, whereas Hong Taiji's eldest son Hooge had the loyalty of his father's two Yellow Banners.
The decision about who would become the new Qing emperor fell to the Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers, which was the Manchus' main policymaking body until the emergence of the Grand Council in the 1720s. Many Manchu princes advocated that Dorgon, a proven military leader, should become the new emperor, but Dorgon refused and insisted that one of Hong Taiji's sons should succeed his father. To recognize Dorgon's authority while keeping the throne in Hong Taiji's descent line, the members of the council named Hong Taiji's ninth son Fulin as the new Emperor, but decided that Dorgon and Jirgalang (a nephew of Nurhaci who controlled the Bordered Blue Banner) would act as the five-year-old child's regents.
On 8 October 1643, Fulin was officially crowned Emperor of the Qing dynasty; it was decided that he would reign under the era name "Shunzhi."
Dorgon's regency (1643–1650)
Prince Regent Dorgon in imperial regalia. He reigned as a quasi emperor from 1643 to his death in 1650, a period during which the Qing conquered almost all of China.
A quasi emperorOn 17 February 1644, Jirgalang, who was a capable military leader but looked uninterested in managing state affairs, willingly yielded control of all official matters to Dorgon. After an alleged plot by Hooge to undermine the regency was exposed on 6 May of that year, Hooge was stripped of his title of Imperial Prince and his co-conspirators were executed. Dorgon soon replaced Hooge's supporters (mostly from the Yellow Banners) with his own, thus gaining closer control of two more Banners. By early June 1644, he was in firm control of the Qing government and its military.
The fall of the Ming and the Qing takeoverJust as Dorgon and his advisors were pondering how to attack the Ming, peasant rebellions were ravaging northern China and dangerously approaching the Ming capital Beijing. In February 1644, rebel leader Li Zicheng had founded the Shun Dynasty in Xi'an and proclaimed himself king. In March his armies had captured the important city of Taiyuan in Shanxi. Seeing the progress of the rebels, on 5 April the Ming Chongzhen Emperor requested the urgent help of any military commandant in the Empire. But it was too late: on 24 April Li Zicheng breached the walls of Beijing, and the Emperor hanged himself the next day on a hill behind the Forbidden City. He was the last Ming emperor to reign in Beijing.
Soon after the emperor had called for help, powerful Ming general Wu Sangui had left his stronghold of Ningyuan north of the Great Wall and started marching toward the capital. On 26 April, his armies had moved through the fortifications of Shanhai Pass (the eastern end of the Great Wall) and were marching toward Beijing when he heard that the city had fallen. He returned to Shanhai Pass. Li Zicheng sent two armies to attack the Pass but Wu's battle-hardened troops defeated them easily on 5 May and 10 May. Then on 18 May, Li Zicheng personally led 60,000 of his troops out of Beijing to attack Wu. At the same time, Wu Sangui wrote to Dorgon to request the Qing's help in ousting the bandits and restoring the Ming dynasty.
An old Chinese map of the complex of fortifications of Shanhai Pass. After Wu Sangui let Qing troops through the pass on 27 May 1644, Wu and the Qing defeated rebel troops led by Li Zicheng in the decisive Battle of Shanhai Pass.Meanwhile Wu Sangui's departure from the stronghold of Ningyuan had left all territory outside the Great Wall under Qing control. Dorgon's Chinese advisors, the two most illustrious of which were Hong Chengchou and Fan Wencheng (范文程), urged the Manchu prince to seize the opportunity of the fall of Beijing to claim the Mandate of Heaven for the Qing dynasty. When Dorgon received Wu's letter, he was already leading an expedition to attack northern China and therefore had no intention to restore the Ming. When Dorgon asked Wu to work for the Qing instead, Wu had little choice but to accept.
After Wu formally surrendered to the Qing in the morning of 27 May, his elite troops charged the rebel army repeatedly, but were unable to break the enemy lines. Dorgon waited until both sides were weakened before ordering his cavalry to gallop around Wu's right wing to charge Li's left flank. Li Zicheng's troops were quickly routed and fled back toward Beijing. After their defeat at the Battle of Shanhai Pass, the Shun troops looted Beijing for several days until Li Zicheng left the capital on 4 June, one day after he had defiantly proclaimed himself Emperor of the Great Shun.
The circular mound of the Altar of Heaven, where the Shunzhi emperor conducted sacrifices on 30 October 1644, ten days before being officially proclaimed Emperor of China. The ceremony marked the moment when the Qing dynasty seized the Mandate of Heaven.After six weeks of mistreatment at the hands of rebel troops, the Beijing population sent a party of elders and officials to greet their liberators on 5 June. They were startled when, instead of meeting Wu Sangui and the Ming heir apparent, they saw Dorgon, a horseriding Manchu with his shaved forehead, present himself as the Prince Regent. In the midst of this upheaval, Dorgon installed himself in the Wuying Palace (武英殿), "the only reasonably undamaged structure" after Li Zicheng had set fire to the palace complex on 3 June.
Just two days after entering the city, Dorgon issued special proclamations to officials around the capital, assuring them that if the local population accepted to shave their forehead and surrender, the officials would be allowed to stay at their post. He had to repeal this command three weeks later after several peasant rebellions erupted around Beijing, threatening Qing control over the capital region.
Dorgon greeted the Shunzhi Emperor at the gates of Beijing on 19 October 1644. On 30 October the young emperor performed sacrifices to Heaven and Earth at the Altar of Heaven. A formal ritual of enthronement for Fulin was held on 8 November, during which the merits of Dorgon as regent were compared to those of the Duke of Zhou. During the ceremony, Dorgon's official title was raised from "Prince Regent" to "Uncle Prince Regent" (Shufu shezheng wang 叔父攝政王), in which the Manchu term for "Uncle" (ecike) represented a rank higher than that of imperial prince. Three days later Dorgon's co-regent Jirgalang was demoted from "Prince Regent" to "Assistant Uncle Prince Regent" (Fu zheng shuwang 輔政叔王). In June 1645, Dorgon eventually decreed that all official documents should refer to him as "Imperial Uncle Prince Regent" (Huang shufu shezheng wang 皇叔父攝政王), which left him one step short of claiming the throne for himself.
The conquest of ChinaHistorian Dai Yingcong has called Dorgon "the mastermind of the Qing conquest." Under his reign, the Qing subdued the capital area, received the capitulation of Shandong local elites and officials, and conquered Shanxi and Shaanxi, then turned their eyes to Jiangnan as they were also pursuing the last remnants of regimes established by Li Zicheng (killed in 1645) and Zhang Xianzhong (Chengdu taken in early 1647). The Qing also eliminated remnants of the loyalist Southern Ming regime in Nanjing (1645), Fuzhou (1646), and Guangzhou (1647), and chased Zhu Youlang, the last monarch of the Southern Ming, into the far southwestern reaches of China.
Suppressing the banditsSee also: Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng
Very soon after entering Beijing in June 1644, Dorgon despatched Wu Sangui and his troops to pursue Li Zicheng, the rebel leader who had driven the last Ming emperor to suicide, but had been defeated by the Qing in late May at the Battle of Shanhai Pass. Wu managed to engage Li's rearguard many times, but Li still managed to cross Gu Pass (故關) into Shanxi; Wu then broke pursuit to return to Beijing. Li Zicheng then reestablished a power base in Xi'an (Shaanxi province), where he had declared the foundation of his Shun dynasty in February 1644. After repressing revolts against Qing rule in Hebei and Shandong in the Summer and Fall of 1644, in October of that year Dorgon sent several armies to extirpate Li Zicheng from his Shaanxi stronghold. Qing armies led by Ajige, Dodo, and Shi Tingzhu (石廷柱) won consecutive engagements against Shun forces in Shanxi and Shaanxi, forcing Li Zicheng to leave his Xi'an headquarters in February 1645. Li retreated through several provinces until he was killed in September 1645, either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry.
In early 1646 Dorgon sent two expeditions to Sichuan to try to destroy Zhang Xianzhong's regime: the first expedition did not reach Sichuan because it was caught up against remnants; the second one, under the direction of Hooge (the son of Hung Taiji who had lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan in October 1646. Hearing that a Qing army led by a major general was approaching, Zhang Xianzhong fled toward Shaanxi, splitting his troops into four divisions that were ordered to act independently if something were to happen to him. Before leaving, he ordered a massacre of the population of his capital Chengdu. Zhang Xianzhong was killed in a battle against Qing forces near Xichong in central Sichuan on 1 February 1647. Hooge then easily took Chengdu, but found it in a state of desolation he had not expected. Unable to find food in the countryside, his soldiers looted the area, killing resisters, and even resorted to cannibalism as food shortages grew acute.
Jiangnan
A late-Qing woodblock print representing the Yangzhou massacre of May 1645. Dorgon's brother Dodo ordered this massacre to scare other southern Chinese cities into submission, but by the late nineteenth century the massacre was used by anti-Qing revolutionaries to arouse anti-Manchu sentiment among the Han Chinese population.A few weeks after the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide in Beijing in April 1644, some descendants of the Ming imperial house started arriving in Nanjing, which had been the auxiliary capital of the Ming dynasty. Agreeing that the Ming needed an imperial figure to rally support in the south, the Nanjing Minister of War Shi Kefa and the Fengyang Governor-general Ma Shiying (馬士英) agreed to form a loyalist Ming government around the Prince of Fu, Zhu Yousong, a first cousin of the Chongzhen emperor who had been next in line for succession after the dead emperor's sons, whose fates were still unknown. The Prince was crowned as emperor on 19 June 1644 under the protection of Ma Shiying, who had arrived in Nanjing two days earlier with a large war fleet. It was decided that the next lunar year would be the first year of the Hongguang (弘光) reign. This Hongguang regime was ridden with factional bickering that facilitated the Manchu conquest of Jiangnan, which was launched from Xi'an in April 1645. Greatly aided by the surrender of Southern Ming commanders Li Chengdong (李成東) and Liu Liangzuo (劉良佐), the Qing army took the key city of Xuzhou north of the Huai River in early May 1645, leaving Shi Kefa in Yangzhou as the main defender of the Southern Ming's northern frontiers.
A man in San Francisco's Chinatown around 1900. The Chinese habit of wearing a queue came from Dorgon's July 1645 edict ordering all men to shave their forehead and tie their hair into a queue like the Manchus.Several contingents of Qing forces converged on Yangzhou on 13 May 1645. Shi Kefa's small force refused to surrender, but could not resist Dodo's artillery: on 20 May Qing cannon breached the city wall and Dodo ordered the "brutal slaughter" of Yangzhou's entire population, probably to instill fear in the population of other Jiangnan cities so that they would surrender to the Qing instead of fighting on. On 1 June Qing armies crossed the Yangzi River and easily took the garrison city of Zhenjiang, which protected access to Nanjing. The Qing arrived at the gates of Nanjing a week later, but the Hongguang emperor had already fled. The city surrendered without a fight on 16 June after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the city's inhabitants. Within less than a month, the Qing had captured the fleeing Ming emperor (he died in Beijing the following year) and seized Jiangnan's main cities, including Suzhou and Hangzhou; by then the frontier between the Qing and the Southern Ming had been pushed south to the Qiantang River.
On 21 July 1645, after the Jiangnan region had been superficially pacified, Dorgon issued "the most untimely promulgation of his career." He ordered all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a queue just like the Manchus. The punishment for non-compliance was death. To the Manchus this policy might both be a symbolic act of submission and in practical terms an aid in telling friend from foe, however for the Han Chinese it went against their traditional Confucian values. The haircutting command united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, and thus "broke the momentum of the Qing conquest." Hundreds of thousands of people were killed before all of China was brought into compliance.
The Southern MingMain article: Southern Ming Dynasty
The Longwu Emperor of the Southern Ming, whom Qing troops captured and killed in Fujian in October 1646.Meanwhile the Southern Ming had not been eliminated. When Hangzhou fell to the Qing on 6 July 1645, Prince of Tang Zhu Yujian, a ninth-generation descendant of Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang, retreated up the Qiantang River and proceeded to Fujian from a land route that went through northeastern Jiangxi and mountainous areas in northern Fujian. Crowned as the Longwu Emperor in the coastal city of Fuzhou on 18 August, he depended on the protection of Zheng Zhilong (known in many western sources as "Nicholas Iquan"), a seatrader with exceptional organizational skills who had surrendered to the Ming in 1628. The childless emperor adopted Zheng's eldest son, granted him the imperial surname, and gave him a new personal name: Chenggong. The name Koxinga by which this adopted son is known to Westerners is a distortion of his title "Lord of the Imperial Surname" (Guoxingye 國姓爺). Only in October 1645 did the Longwu emperor hear that another Ming pretender, the Prince of Lu Zhu Yihai, had named himself regent in Zhejiang, and thus represented another center of loyalist resistance. But the two regimes failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were. In February 1646, Qing armies seized land west of the Qiantang River from the Lu regime and defeated a ragtag force representing the Longwu emperor in northeastern Jiangxi. In May of that year Qing forces besieged Ganzhou, the last Ming bastion in Jiangxi. In July, a new Southern Campaign led by Manchu Prince Bolo sent the Zhejiang regime of Prince Lu into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in Fujian. Zheng Zhilong, the Longwu emperor's main military defender, fled to the coast. On the pretext of relieving the siege of Ganzhou in southern Jiangxi, the Longwu court left their base in northeastern Fujian in late September 1646, but the Qing army caught up with them. Longwu and his empress were summarily executed in Tingzhou (western Fujian) on 6 October. After the fall of Fuzhou on 17 October, Zheng Zhilong surrendered to the Qing and his son Koxinga fled to the island of Taiwan with his fleet.
A cannon cast in 1650 by the Southern Ming. (From the Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence.)
Portrait of Shang Kexi by Johan Nieuhof (1655). Shang recaptured Guangzhou from Ming loyalist forces in 1650 and organized a massacre of the city's population. Known to the Dutch as the "Old Viceroy" of Guangdong, he was one of the Three Feudatories who rebelled against the Qing in 1673.The Longwu Emperor's younger brother Zhu Yuyue, who had fled Fuzhou by sea, soon founded another Ming regime in Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong province, taking the reign title Shaowu (紹武) on 11 December 1646. Short of official costumes, they had to purchase robes from local theater troops. On 24 December, Prince of Gui Zhu Youlang established the Yongli (永曆) regime in the same vicinity. The two Ming regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small Qing force led by former Southern Ming commander Li Chengdong (李成東) captured Guangzhou, killing the Shaowu Emperor and sending the Yongli Emperor fleeing to Nanning in Guangxi. Li Chengdong suppressed more loyalist resistance in Guangdong in 1647, but mutinied against the Qing in May 1648 because he resented having been named only regional commander of the province he had conquered. The concurrent rebellion of another former Ming general in Jiangxi helped the Yongli regime to retake most of southern China, leaving the Qing in control of only a few enclaves in Guangdong and southern Jiangxi. This resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New Qing armies managed to reconquer the central provinces of Huguang (present-day Hubei and Hunan), Jiangxi, and Guangdong in 1649 and 1650. The Yongli emperor fled to Nanning and from there to Guizhou. Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi––one of the "Three Feudatories" who would rebel against the Qing in 1673––captured Guangzhou after a ten-month siege and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people.
The northwest
"Moghul embassy" (actually emissaries from a Mughal prince who ruled Turfan in Central Asia) as portrayed in 1656 by Dutch visitors to Shunzhi's Beijing.In 1646 sultan Abu al-Muhammad Haiji Khan, a Mughal prince who ruled Turfan, sent an embassy requesting the resumption of trade with China, which had been interrupted by the fall of the Ming dynasty. The mission was sent without solicitation, but the Qing accepted to receive it, allowing it to conduct tribute trade in Beijing and Lanzhou (Gansu). Later in 1646, forces assembled by a Muslim leader known in Chinese sources as Milayin (米喇印) revolted against Qing rule in Ganzhou (Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named Ding Guodong (丁國棟). Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the fallen Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital Lanzhou. Morris Rossabi sees these rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese as a sign that they were "not motivated solely by religious considerations and did not plan to establish a purely Muslim state." To pacify the rebels, the Qing government quickly despatched Meng Qiaofang (孟喬芳), governor of Shaanxi, a former Ming official who had surrendered to the Qing in 1631. Both Milayin and Ding Guodong were captured and killed in 1648, and by 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties. Tribute and trade with Hami and Turfan, which had aided the rebels, were resumed in 1656. In 1655, however, the Qing court had announced that tributary missions from Turfan would be accepted only once every five years.
Transition and personal rule (1651–1661)
Portrait of the Shunzhi Emperor in adulthood.Dorgon's sudden death triggered a period of fierce factional struggles and opened the way for deep political reforms. Because Dorgon's supporters were still influential at court, Dorgon was given an imperial funeral and posthumously elevated to imperial status as the "Righteous Emperor" (yi huangdi 義皇帝). On the same day of mid-January 1651, however, several officers of the White Banners led by former Dorgon supporter Ubai arrested Dorgon's brother Ajige for fear he would name himself as the new regent; Ubai and his officers named themselves as presidents of several Ministries and prepared to take charge of the Qing government. Meanwhile Jirgalang, who had been stripped of his title of regent in 1647, gathered support among Banner officers who had been disgruntled during Dorgon's rule. Oboi, who would become the main regent for the Kangxi Emperor in 1661, was among these officers, and Jirgalang appointed him to the Council of Deliberative Princes to reward him for his support. On 1 February, Jirgalang announced that the emperor, who was about to turn thirteen, would now assume personal power. After building up more support, Jirgalang moved to the attack. In late February or early March 1651 he accused Dorgon of usurping imperial prerogatives: Dorgon was found guilty and all his posthumous honors were removed. Jirgalang continued to purge former members of Dorgon's clique and to bestow high ranks and nobility titles upon a growing number of followers in the Three Imperial Banners (shang san qi 上三旗), so that by 1652 all of Dorgon's former supporters had been either killed or effectively removed from government.
The Shunzhi Emperor in his mature years.The Emperor stripped both Dorgon and Dorgon's brother Dodo of their titles and assumed full imperial authority.
To counteract the power of the Imperial Household Department and the Manchu nobility, in July 1653 Shunzhi established the Thirteen Offices (十三衙門), which were manned by Chinese eunuchs rather than Manchu bondservants. Eunuchs had been kept under tight control during Dorgon's regency, but the young emperor used them to counter the influence of other power centers like the Empress Dowager and former regent Jirgalang. By the late 1650s eunuch power became formidable again: they handled key financial and political matters, offered advice on official appointments, and even composed edicts. Because eunuchs isolated the emperor from the bureaucracy, Manchu and Chinese officials feared a return to the abuses of eunuch power that had plagued the late Ming. Despite the emperor's attempt to impose strictures on eunuch activities, Shunzhi's favorite eunuch Wu Liangfu (吳良輔), who had helped the young emperor defeat the Dorgon faction in the early 1650s, was caught in a corruption scandal in 1658. The fact that Wu only received a reprimand for his accepting bribes did not reassure the Manchu elite, which saw eunuch power as a degradation of Manchu power. The Thirteen Offices would be eliminated (and Wu Liangfu executed) by Oboi and the other regents of the Kangxi Emperor in March 1661 soon after Shunzhi's death.
A portrait of Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a Jesuit missionary the Shunzhi Emperor affectionately called mafa ("grand'pa" in Manchu).During his short reign, the Shunzhi emperor encouraged the Han Chinese to participate in government activities. He was a scholar and employed Han Chinese to teach his children. He was also an open minded emperor and relied on the advice of Johann Adam Schall von Bell 湯若望, a Jesuit missionary from Cologne in Germany, for guidance ranging from astronomy, technologies, to tips for governing an empire. In late 1644, Dorgon had put Schall in charge of preparing a new calendar because his eclipse predictions had proven more reliable than those of the official astronomer. After Dorgon's death Schall also developed a personal relationship with the young emperor, who called him "grand-father" (mafa in Manchu). At the height of his influence in 1656 and 1657, Schall reports that Shunzhi often visited his house and talked to him late into the night. He was excused from prostrating himself in the presence of the emperor, was granted land to build a church in Beijing, and was even given imperial permission to adopt a son (because the emperor worried that Schall did not have an heir), but the Jesuits' hope of converting the emperor to Christianity was crushed when Shunzhi became a devout follower of Chan Buddhism in 1657.
The Emperor married his mother's niece, but demoted the Empress several years later.
Because of power issues in the Qing's ancestors' way, Shunzhi ultimately took another step to consolidate the power of the emperor. According to the old way, the 8 Banners were passed with succession much like how Nurhaci decided to give his Yellow Banners to Dorgun, but could potentially be controlled by someone like Huang Taji who switched the Banners. To solve this problem, Shunzi ordered the Upper 3 Banners- Plain Yellow, Striped Yellow, and Plain White to be under the control of the emperor. This would be maintained until Yongzheng and Qianlong's reign when they took the last step and controlled all 8 Banners.
After he assumed personal rule in 1651, the Emperor tried to root out corruption in the realm, but with little success.
Death and succession
Electron micrograph of the smallpox virus. Because they had no immunity to this highly contagious and lethal disease, the Manchus were particularly fearful of it. The Shunzhi emperor died of smallpox, and Kangxi was chosen to succeed him because he had already survived the disease.In September 1661, Shunzhi's favourite concubine Donggo suddenly died as a result of grief over the loss of a child. Overwhelmed with grief himself, the emperor fell into dejection for months, until he contracted smallpox on 2 February 1661. On 4 February, officials Wang Xi (王熙) and Margi (the latter a Manchu) were called to the emperor's bedside to record his last will. On the same day, his seven-year-old third son Xuanye was chosen to be his successor, probably because he had already survived smallpox. The emperor died on 5 February 1661 in the Forbidden City at the age of twenty-two.
An official court portrait of Oboi, who in 5 February 1661, was named as the main regent to the newly enthroned Kangxi Emperor.The emperor's last will, which was made public on the evening of 5 February, appointed four regents for his young son: Oboi, Soni, Suksaha, and Ebilun, who had all helped Jirgalang to purge the court of Dorgon's supporters after Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650. It is difficult to determine whether Shunzhi had really named these four Manchu nobles as regents, because they and Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang clearly tempered with the emperor's testament before promulgating it. His will expressed the emperor's regret about his Chinese-style ruling (his reliance on eunuchs and his favoritism toward Chinese officials), his neglect of Manchu nobles and traditions, and his headstrong devotion to his concubine rather than to his mother. Though the emperor had often issued self-deprecating edicts during his reign, the policies his will rejected had been central to his government since he had assumed personal rule in the early 1650s. The will as it was formulated gave "the mantle of imperial authority" to the four regents, and served to support their pro-Manchu policies during the period known as the Oboi regency, which lasted from 1661 to 1669.
Because court statements did not clearly announce the cause of the emperor's death, rumors soon started to circulate that he had not died but in fact retired to a Buddhist monastery to live anonymously as a monk, either out of grief for the death of his beloved consort, or in a coup by the Manchu nobles his will had named as regents. These rumors were not so incredible, because the emperor had become a fervent follower of Chan Buddhism in the late 1650s, even letting monks move into the imperial palace. But much circumstantial evidence––including an account by one of these monks that the emperor's health greatly deteriorated in early February 1661 because of smallpox, and the fact that a concubine and an Imperial Bodyguard committed suicide to accompany the emperor in burial––suggests that Shunzhi's death was not staged.
Contrary to Manchu customs at the time, which usually dictated that a deceased person should be cremated, the Shunzhi Emperor was buried. He was interred in what later came to be known as the Eastern Qing Tombs, 125 kilometers/75 miles northeast of Beijing, one of two Qing imperial cemeteries. His tomb was part of the Xiaoling (孝陵) mausoleum complex, known in Manchu as the Hiyoošungga Munggan.
Family
AncestorsHis father was the previous Qing emperor Hong Taiji; his mother was Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang.
Father: Hong Taiji (1592–1643), emperor of the Qing dynasty (of whom Fulin was the 9th son).
Mother: Bumbutai (1613–1688), or concubine Zhuang; daughter of a Mongol prince of the Borjigit clan (the descendants of Genghis Khan's brother Hasar); known posthumously as Empress Xiaozhuangwen (Manchu: Hiyoošungga Ambalinggū Genggiyenšu Hūwanghu).
Paternal grandfather: Nurhaci (1559–1626), founder of the Qing dynasty.
Paternal grandmother: Monggo (1573–1603), of the Yehenara clan; posthumously known as Empress Xiaocigao.
Empresses and consortsAlthough only nineteen Empresses and Consorts are recorded for Shunzhi in the Aisin Gioro genealogy made by the Imperial Clan Court, burial records show that he had at least thirty-two of them. Eleven bore him children. There were two Empresses in his reign, both relatives of Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang from the Borjigit clan. After the 1644 conquest, Imperial Consorts and Empresses were usually known by their titles and by the name of their patrilineal clan.
First Empress: the Demoted Empress Suoerna, from the Borjigit clan; niece of Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang. She was made Empress in 1651, but the monarch disliked her so much that he had her demoted in 1653.
Second Empress: Empress Xiaohuizhang (d. 1718) from the Borjigit clan. She was named Empress in 1654.
Concubine from the Tunggiya clan (1640–1663). Her family was of Jurchen origin but had lived among Chinese for generations. It had Chinese family name Tong (佟) but switched to the Manchu clan name Tunggiya. She was made Empress Dowager Cihe in 1661 when Kangxi became emperor. She is known posthumously as Empress Xiaokangzhang.
Imperial Noble Consort from the Donggo clan (1639–1660), posthumously raised to Empress Xiao Xian Duan Jing. She had a Han Chinese mother. The Emperor was deeply in love with her and was very grieved when she died soon after their first son (Shunzhi's fourth) had died in infancy. He died of smallpox shortly thereafter.
ChildrenEleven of Shunzhi's thirty-two spouses bore him a total of fourteen children, but only four sons (Fuquan, Xuanye, Changning, and Longxi) and one daughter (Princess Gongyi Chang) lived old enough to marry. Unlike later Qing emperors, the names of Shunzhi's sons did not include a generational character.
Sons1.Niuniu 牛鈕 (13 December 1651 – 9 March 1652). Born to Consort Ba 巴.
2.Fuquan 福全 (8 September 1653 – 26 January 1706). Born to Consort Ningyi 寧懿 from the Donggo clan. Became Prince Yu (裕親王) in 1667.
3.Xuanye 玄燁 (Manchu: Hiowan Yei) (4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722), later became the Kangxi Emperor. Born to Empress Xiaokangzhang.
4.4th son (5 November 1657 – 25 February 1658), who died before he was given a name. Born to Imperial Noble Consort Donggo. Posthumously granted the title of Prince Rong (榮親王).
5.Changning 常寧 (8 December 1657 – 20 July 1703). Born to Consort Chen 陳. Became Prince Gong (恭親王) in 1671.
6.Qishou 奇授 (3 January 1660 – unknown date, at the age of seven sui). Born to Consort Tang 唐.
7.Longxi 隆禧 (30 May 1660 – 20 August 1679). Born to Consort Niu 鈕. Became Prince Chun (純親王) in 1674; posthumouly called Prince Chun Jing (純靖親王). He fathered a son who died heirless.
8.Yonggan 永幹 (23 January 1661 – unknown date, at the age of eight sui). Born to Consort Muktu 穆克圖.
Daughters1st Daughter (1652–1653). Born to Consort Chen 陳.
2nd Daughter (1653–1685): second-rank Princess (M.: hošoi gungju) Gongyi Chang (Ch.: heshuo Gongyi Chang gongzhu 和碩恭懿長公主). Married in 1667. Born to Consort Yang 楊.
3rd Daughter (1653–1658). Born to Consort Ba 巴.
4th Daughter (1654–1661). Born to Consort Usu 烏蘇.
5th Daughter (1654–1660). Born to Consort Wang 王.
6th Daughter (1657–1661). Born to Consort Nala 那拉.
Adopted daughtersPrincess Heshun (1648–1691). Married to Shang Zilong in 1660.
Princess Roujia (1652–1673). Married to Guan Juzhong in 1663.
Princess Duanmin (1653–1729). Married to Bandi in 1670.
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