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安妮 布萊德斯特裏特，清教徒詩人，1630年從英國來到新大陸馬薩諸塞灣殖民地，以《第十個繆斯在美國出現》聞名。
人物簡介
生平：
安妮1612年出生於英格蘭北安普頓，是林肯伯爵的管傢托馬斯·達德利和多蘿西·約剋的女兒。由於她的家庭地位，她成長在有文化的環境中，是一個受過良好教育的女性。在那個時代，她學習了歷史，多國語言和文學。1628年十六歲時，她嫁給了西蒙·布拉德斯特裏特。安妮的父親和丈夫後來都擔任了馬薩諸塞灣殖民地的總督。
1630年，安妮和西蒙，以及安妮的父母，作為溫斯洛普清教徒移民艦隊的一員，在阿貝拉號上移民到美國。
1630年6月14日，作為清教徒嚮新英格蘭(1620-1640年)遷徙的一部分，她和西蒙、父母以及其他航海者在現在的拓荒村(馬薩諸塞州的塞勒姆)首次感受到了美國的土地。由於州長約翰恩迪科特(John Endecott)和村裏其他居民的疾病和饑餓，他們的逗留時間非常短暫。大多數人立即沿着海岸嚮南遷移到馬薩諸塞州的查理斯敦，在那裏停留了一段時間，然後沿着查爾斯河嚮南遷移，在馬薩諸塞州的波士頓發現了“山上的城市”。布拉德斯特裏特一傢很快又搬到了現在的馬薩諸塞州的劍橋。
1632年，安妮在劍橋生下了她的第一個孩子塞繆爾。儘管健康狀況不佳，但她有八個孩子，社會地位也不錯。在安妮還是個少女時，她曾感染天花，這也使她的身體變差，以至在以後的日子裏她一直承受着關節處麻痹的痛苦。
17世紀40年代早期，西蒙再次催促他的妻子，懷着她的第六個孩子，第六次從馬薩諸塞州的伊普斯維奇搬到安多弗教區。北安多佛是由史蒂文斯、奧斯古德、約翰遜、法納姆、巴剋和布拉德斯特裏特等傢族於1646年創建的原始城鎮。安妮和她的傢人住在馬薩諸塞州北部的安多弗市中心。他們從未住在現在被稱為“安多弗”的南部地區。
安妮的父親和她的丈夫在1636年創立哈佛的過程中都發揮了重要作用。她的兩個兒子都是大學畢業生，塞繆爾(1653屆)和西蒙(1660屆)。1997年10月，哈佛社區為紀念她成為美國第一個出版的詩人，專門為她建了一扇門。布拉德斯特裏特門位於坎納迪宿舍旁，坎納迪宿舍是哈佛校園裏最新的宿舍。
1650年，約翰·伍德布裏奇牧師在倫敦出版的《來自那些地方的一位貴婦人》(A Gentlewoman from Those Parts)創作的第十首《繆斯》(Muse)在美國迅速崛起，使安妮成為英國和新世界出版的第一位女性詩人。
1666年7月10日，他們位於安多弗北部的傢在一場大火中被燒毀，布拉德斯特裏特一傢無傢可歸，幾乎沒有私人物品。那時，安妮的健康狀況正在慢慢惡化。她患了肺結核，不得不面對失去親人的痛苦。但她的意志依然堅強，這反映了她對宗教的虔誠和對聖經經文的瞭解。
1672年9月16日，安妮·布拉德斯特裏特在馬薩諸塞州安多弗北部去世，享年60歲。她的墳墓的確切位置尚不確定，但許多歷史學家認為她的屍體在安多佛北部學院路和奧斯古德街的舊墓地裏。
1676年安妮去世四年後，西蒙·布拉德斯特裏特第二次與一位名叫安妮的女士結婚。1697年，西蒙去世，葬在塞勒姆。梅裏馬剋山𠔌的這個地區現在被稱為“詩人之𠔌”。在北安多佛公墓的一個紀念碑是為了紀念1650年在倫敦出版的《第十繆斯女神》350周年(2000年)。
文學創作
她的姐夫未經她的同意，就將她的詩帶到英國，以《第十位繆斯在美洲出現》(The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America, 1650)為題發表，這使她感到意外。美洲第一版的《第十位繆斯》經修訂及擴增後出版，書名改為《一些風格各異、充滿智慧的詩歌》(Several Poems Compiled with Great Variety of Wit and Learning)。
其中大部分詩都是冗長的模仿性作品，衹有最後兩首《凡人的虛榮》(Of the vanity of all worldly creatures)和《大衛對掃羅和約拿單的哀悼》(David's Lamentation for Sauland Jonathan)獨具風格，意境純真。
她後來的一些詩歌是為她的家庭而寫，表現了她全心接受清教徒教義以後在精神上的成長過程。這些詩，如《靈與肉》(The Flesh and the Spirit)，因為沒有說教而受人喜愛。她也寫過一些動人的和更富有個人色彩的詩，其中《獻給我親愛的丈夫》(To My Dear and Loving Husband)、《人世正凋萎，萬物有終極》(All things within this fading worldhath end)描寫她在生孩子之前的思想；《心痛手顫寫詩句》(With troubled heart and trembling hand I write)寫一個孫兒之死。
Born to a wealthy Puritan family in Northampton, England, Bradstreet was a well-read scholar especially affected by the works of Du Bartas. She was married at sixteen, and her parents and young family migrated at the time of the founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. A mother of eight children and the wife and daughter of public officials in New England, Bradstreet wrote poetry in addition to her other duties. Her early works read in the style of Du Bartas, but her later writings develop into her unique style of poetry which centers on her role as a mother, her struggles with the sufferings of life, and her Puritan faith. Her first collection, The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America, was widely read in America and England.
Background
In a portrait that was painted by her later poems, Bradstreet is described as 'an educated English woman, a kind, loving wife, devoted mother, Empress Consort of Massachusetts, a questing Puritan and a sensitive poet.'
Bradstreet's first volume of poetry was The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America, published in 1650. It was met with a positive reception in both the Old World and the New World.
Life
Anne was born in Northampton, England, 1612, the daughter of Thomas Dudley, a steward of the Earl of Lincoln, and Dorothy Yorke. Due to her family's position, she grew up in cultured circumstances and was a well-educated woman for her time, being tutored in history, several languages, and literature. At the age of sixteen she married Simon Bradstreet. Both Anne's father and husband were later to serve as governors of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Anne and Simon, along with Anne's parents, emigrated to America aboard the Arbella as part of the Winthrop Fleet of Puritan emigrants in 1630. She first stood on American soil on June 14, 1630, at what is now Pioneer Village (Salem, Massachusetts) with Simon, her parents, and other voyagers as part of the Puritan migration to New England (1620–1640). Due to the illness and starvation of Gov. John Endecott and other residents of the village, their stay was very brief. Most moved immediately south along the coast to Charlestown, Massachusetts, for another short stay before moving south along the Charles River to found "the City on the Hill," Boston, Massachusetts.
The Bradstreet family soon moved again, this time to what is now Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1632, Anne had her first child, Samuel, in Newe Towne, as it was then called. Despite poor health, she had eight children and achieved a comfortable social standing. Having previously been afflicted with smallpox as a teenager in England, Anne would once again fall prey to illness as paralysis overtook her joints in later years. In the early 1640s, Simon once again pressed his wife, pregnant with her sixth child, to move for the sixth time, from Ipswich, Massachusetts, to Andover Parish. North Andover is that original town founded in 1646 by the Stevens, Osgood, Johnson, Farnum, Barker, and Bradstreet families, among others. Anne and her family resided in the Old Center of North Andover, Massachusetts. They never lived in what is now known as "Andover" to the south.
Both Anne's father and her husband were instrumental in the founding of Harvard in 1636. Two of her sons were graduates, Samuel (Class of 1653) and Simon (Class of 1660). In October 1997, the Harvard community dedicated a gate in memory of her as America's first published poet (see last paragraph below). The Bradstreet Gate is located next to Canaday Hall, the newest dormitory in Harvard Yard.
Memorial marker for Anne Bradstreet in the Old North Parish Burial Ground, North Andover, Massachusetts
In 1650, Rev. John Woodbridge had The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America composed by "A Gentlewoman from Those Parts" published in London, making Anne the first female poet ever published in both England and the New World. On July 10, 1666, their North Andover family home burned (see "Works" below) in a fire that left the Bradstreets homeless and with few personal belongings. By then, Anne's health was slowly failing. She suffered from tuberculosis and had to deal with the loss of cherished relatives. But her will remained strong and as a reflection of her religious devotion and knowledge of Biblical scriptures, she found peace in the firm belief that her daughter-in-law Mercy and her grandchildren were in heaven.
Anne Bradstreet died on September 16, 1672, in North Andover, Massachusetts, at the age of 60 of tuberculosis. The precise location of her grave is uncertain but many historians believe her body is in the Old Burying Ground at Academy Road and Osgood Street in North Andover. In 1676, four years after the death of Anne, Simon Bradstreet married for a second time to a lady also named Anne (Gardiner). In 1697 Simon died and was buried in Salem.
This area of the Merrimack Valley is today described as "The Valley of the Poets."
A marker in the North Andover cemetery commemorates the 350th anniversary (2000) of the publishing of The Tenth Muse in London in 1650. That site and the Bradstreet Gate at Harvard, the memorial and pamphlets inside the Ipswich Public Library in Ipswich, MA, as well as the Bradstreet Kindergarten in North Andover may be the only places in America honoring her memory. As of 2015, the Bradstreet Kindergarten was torn down in North Andover. In the fall of 2018, The Anne Bradstreet Early Childhood Center was opened near Massachusetts Avenue in North Andover. Housing both preschool and kindergarten, the Anne Bradstreet ECC replaced the aged building named for her that had been on Main Street.
Writing
Background
Anne Bradstreet's education gave her advantages that allowed her to write with authority about politics, history, medicine, and theology. Her personal library of books was said to have numbered over 800, although many were destroyed when her home burned down. This event itself inspired a poem titled "Upon the Burning of Our House July 10th, 1666". At first, she rejects the anger and grief that this worldly tragedy has caused her; she looks toward God and the assurance of heaven as consolation, saying:
And when I could no longer look,
I blest His grace that gave and took,
That laid my goods now in the dust.
Yea, so it was, and so 'twas just.
It was his own; it was not mine.
Far be it that I should repine.
However, in opposition to her Puritan ways, she also shows her human side, expressing the pain this event had caused her, that is, until the poem comes to its end:
Farewell my pelf; farewell my store.
The world no longer let me love
My hope, and treasure lies above.
Title page, second (posthumous) edition of Bradstreet's poems, 1678
As a younger poet, Bradstreet wrote five quaternions, epic poems of four parts each (see works below) that explore the diverse yet complementary natures of their subject. Much of Bradstreet's poetry is based on observation of the world around her, focusing heavily on domestic and religious themes, and was considered by Cotton Mather a monument to her memory beyond the stateliest marble. Long considered primarily of historical interest, she won critical acceptance in the 20th century as a writer of enduring verse, particularly for her sequence of religious poems "Contemplations", which was written for her family and not published until the mid-19th century. Bradstreet's work was deeply influenced by the poet Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas, who was favored by 17th-century readers.
Nearly a century later, Martha Wadsworth Brewster, a notable 18th-century American poet and writer, in her principal work, Poems on Diverse Subjects, was influenced and pays homage to Bradstreet's verse.
Despite the traditional attitude toward women of the time, she clearly valued knowledge and intellect; she was a free thinker and some consider her an early feminist; unlike the more radical Anne Hutchinson, however, Bradstreet's feminism does not reflect heterodox, antinomian views. Based on her poems, Bradstreet could also be considered to be a complementarian. An example of this is in her poem "In Honour of that High and Mighty Princess Queen Elizabeth of Happy Memory", in which she praises Queen Elizabeth as proof that the common perceptions men held about women were wrong. She tends to focus on Elizabeth's ability to excel in more masculine areas, such as war, as we see in the lines below.
Her Victories in foreign Coasts resound?
Ships more invincible than Spain's, her foe
She rack't, she sack'd, she sunk his Armadoe.
Her stately Troops advanc'd to Lisbon's wall,
Don Anthony in's right for to install.
She frankly help'd Franks' (brave) distressed King,
The States united now her fame do sing.
In 1647 Bradstreet's brother-in-law, Rev. John Woodbridge, sailed to England, carrying her manuscript of poetry. Although Anne later said that she did not know Woodbridge was going to publish her manuscript, in her self-deprecatory poem, ""The Author to Her Book"", she wrote Woodbridge a letter while he was in London, indicating her knowledge of the publication plan. Anne had little choice, however— as a woman poet, it was important for her to downplay her ambitions as an author. Otherwise, she would have faced criticism for being "unwomanly." Anne's first work was published in London as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America "by a Gentlewoman of those Parts".
Title page, The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America, printed at London, 1650
The purpose of the publication appears to have been an attempt by devout Puritan men (i.e. Thomas Dudley, Simon Bradstreet, John Woodbridge) to show that a godly and educated woman could elevate her position as a wife and mother, without necessarily placing her in competition with men.
In 1678 her self-revised Several Poems Compiled with Great Variety of Wit and Learning was posthumously published in America, and included one of her most famous poems, "To My Dear and Loving Husband".
This volume is owned by the Stevens Memorial Library of North Andover and resides in the Houghton Library [permanent dead link] vault at Harvard.
A quotation from Bradstreet can be found on a plaque at the Bradstreet Gate in Harvard Yard: "I came into this Country, where I found a new World and new manners at which my heart rose." Unfortunately the plaque seems to be based on a misinterpretation; the following sentence is "But after I was convinced it was the way of God, I submitted to it and joined to the church at Boston." This suggests her heart rose up in protest rather than in joy.
Role of women
Marriage played a large role in the lives of Puritan women. In Bradstreet's poem, "To My Dear And Loving Husband," she reveals that she is one with her husband. "If ever two were one, then surely we." The Puritans believed marriage to be a gift from God. In another of Bradstreet's works, "Before the Birth of One of Her Children", Bradstreet acknowledges God's gift of marriage. In the lines, "And if I see not half my days that's due, what nature would, God grant to yours, and you;" Bradstreet is saying that if she was to die soon, what would God give her husband. She could be referring to him possibly remarrying after she dies. Another line shows that she believes that it is possible for her husband to remarry. By using the lines, "These O protect from stepdame's injury", Bradstreet is calling for her children to be protected from the abuse of a future step mother. The fact that Bradstreet believes that God will grant her husband a new wife if she dies shows how much Puritan women believed in marriage.
Throughout "Letter to Her Husband, Absent upon Public Employment," Bradstreet states how she feels lost when her husband is not around and that life is always better when he is around. In Bradstreet's poems, it can be assumed she truly loved her husband and missed him when he was away from her and the family. Bradstreet does not resent her husband for leaving her with the family and with all of the household needs; she just misses him and wants him back with her.
The primary roles of women in a Puritan society were to be wives and mothers, and provide the family with their everyday needs. Women were expected to make the clothing for the family, cook the meals, keep the household clean, and teach the children how to live a Puritan lifestyle. Various works of Bradstreet are dedicated to her children. In works such as "Before the Birth of One of Her Children" and "In Reference to Her Children", Bradstreet shows the love that she has for her children, both unborn and born. In Puritan society, children were also gifts from God, and she loved and cared for all of her children just as she loved and cared for her husband. She always believes they too are bound with her to make "one."
Reception
Because writing was not considered to be an acceptable role for women at the time, Bradstreet was met with criticism. One of the most prominent figures of her time, John Winthrop, criticized Ann Hopkins, wife of prominent Connecticut colony governor Edward Hopkins. He mentioned in his journal that Hopkins should have kept to being a housewife and left writing and reading for men, "whose minds are stronger." Despite heavy criticism of women during her time, Bradstreet continued to write which led to the belief that she was interested in rebelling against societal norms of the time.
A prominent minister of the time, Thomas Parker, was also against the idea of women writing and sent a letter to his own sister saying that publishing a book was outside of the realm of what women were supposed to do. No doubt he was opposed to the writing of Bradstreet as well. These negative views were likely augmented by the fact that Puritan ideologies stated that women were vastly inferior to men.
Literary style and themes
Background
Bradstreet let her homesick imagination marshall her store of learning, for the glory of God and for the expression of an inquiring mind and sensitive, philosophical spirit.
We see examples of this homesick imagination in her poem "Dialogue Between Old England and New" which emphasizes the relationship between the motherland and the colonies as parental; and gives assurance that the bond between the two countries will continue. It also implies that whatever happens to England will also affect America. The poem often refers to England as "mother" and America as "Daughter", which emphasizes the bond Bradstreet feels herself to her home country.
Alas, dear Mother, fairest Queen and best,
With honour, wealth, and peace happy and blest,
What ails thee hang thy head, and cross thine arms,
And sit i' the dust to sigh these sad alarms?
What deluge of new woes thus over-whelm
The glories of thy ever famous Realm?
What means this wailing tone, this mournful guise?
Ah, tell thy Daughter; she may sympathize.
Intended audience
Anne Bradstreet's works tend to be directed to members of her family and are generally intimate. For instance, in Bradstreet's "To My Dear and Loving Husband", the poem's intended audience is her husband, Simon Bradstreet. The focal point of this poem is the love that she has for her husband. "I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold". To Bradstreet, her husband's love is worth more than some of the best treasures that this earth has to offer. She also makes it a point to show to her husband that nothing can fill the love that she has for her husband. The lines, "My love is such that rivers cannot quench," the rivers represent death, which she says the fire of her love is invulnerable to. The last line of the poem sums this up with the words, "Then when we live no more, we may live ever."
In "A Letter to Her Husband Absent upon Public Employment" Bradstreet writes a letter to her husband who is away from her working at his job. Bradstreet uses various metaphors to describe her husband. The most visible use of metaphor that Bradstreet uses is comparing her husband to the seasons. When summer is gone, winter soon arrives. Summer can be seen as a time of happiness and warmth. Winter on the other hand can be seen as being gloomy and cold. Bradstreet's husband is her Sun and when he is with her it is always summer. She is happy and warm from the love that her husband brings when he is around. When her husband leaves home for work, everything then becomes winter. It is a sad, cold time for Bradstreet and she wishes for her husband to soon return. "Return, return, sweet Sol, from Capricorn." She wants her husband to know that she needs him and without him everything feels gloomy. She is not concerned with what others think. It is not intended for anyone else except her husband. Bradstreet knows that the situation is inevitable, summer can't be around always and soon winter will follow. Her husband's job is important. He can't be there always and he must go away at times. "Till nature's sad decree shall call thee hence." One thing that keeps her going is that even though they are far away from each other, they are one with each other.
By reading Bradstreet's works and recognizing her intended audience, one can get an idea of how life was for Puritan women. According to U.S. History.org Puritan women were required to attend worship services, yet they could not to speak or offer prayer. Women were also not allowed to attend town meetings or be involved in the decisions that were discussed. If Puritan women were to be seen and not heard in public, then one can say that most of their works are not meant for public consumption.
Bradstreet was not responsible for her writing becoming public. Bradstreet's brother-in-law, John Woodbridge, sent her work off to be published. Bradstreet was a righteous woman and her poetry was not meant to bring attention to herself. Though Bradstreet's works are renowned in today's world, it still was a great risk to have had her work published during the time in which she lived. Her being a published author would have not been considered as a typical role of the Puritan woman.
Themes
The role of women is a common subject found in Bradstreet's poems. Living in a Puritan society, Bradstreet did not approve of the stereotypical idea that women were inferior to men during the 1600s. Women were expected to spend all their time cooking, cleaning, taking care of their children, and attending to their husband's every need. In her poem "In Honour of that High and Mighty Princess Queen Elizabeth of Happy Memory," Bradstreet questions this belief.
"Now say, have women worth? or have they none? Or had they some, but with our queen is't gone? Nay Masculines, you have thus taxt us long, But she, though dead, will vindicate our wrong, Let such as say our Sex is void of Reason, Know tis a Slander now, but once was Treason."
Another recurring subject in Bradstreet's work is mortality. In many of her works, she writes about her death and how it will affect her children and others in her life. The recurrence of this mortality theme can be viewed as autobiographical. Because her work was not intended for the public, she was referring to her own medical problems and her belief that she would die. In addition to her medical history (smallpox and partial paralysis), Bradstreet and her family dealt with a major house fire that left them homeless and devoid of all personal belongings. She hoped her children would think of her fondly and honor her memory in her poem, "Before the Birth of One of Her Children." "If any worth or virtue were in me, Let that live freshly in thy memory."
Bradstreet is also known for using her poetry as a means to question her own Puritan beliefs; her doubt concerning God's mercy and her struggles to continue to place her faith in him are exemplified in such poems as "Verses upon the Burning of our House" and "In Memory of My Dear Grandchild". Her works demonstrate a conflict that many Puritans would not have felt comfortable discussing, let alone writing.
In "The Prologue," Bradstreet demonstrates how society trivialized the accomplishments of women. The popular belief that women should be doing other things like sewing, rather than writing poetry.
"I am obnoxious to each carping tongue Who says my hand a needle better fits, A poet's pen all scorn I should thus wrong. For such despite they cast on female wits: If what I do prove well, it won't advance, They'll say it's stol'n, or else it was by chance."
In "To My Dear and Loving Husband," Bradstreet confesses her undying love for Simon saying "Thy love is such I can no way repay, The heavens reward thee manifold, I pray." Her deep passions can be found again in "A Letter to Her Husband, Absent upon Public Employment." Her overt affections for her husband help readers to understand Bradstreet's temerity.
Anne Bradstreet wrote in a different format than other writers of her time. This mainly is due to the fact that she wrote her feelings in a book not knowing someone would read them. In her poem "A letter to my Husband" she speaks about the loss of her husband when he is gone.
"I like the earth this season morn in black, my sun is gone." Here Anne is expressing her feelings of missing her husband when he is away.
"To my faults that well you know I have let be interred in my oblivious grave; if any worth of virtue were in me, let that live freshly in they memory". Anne expresses the feeling she has of wanting her children to remember her in a good light not in a bad light.
Tone
Bradstreet often used a sarcastic tone in her poetry. In the first stanza of "The Prologue" she claims "for my mean pen are too superior things" referring to society's belief that she is unfit to write about wars and the founding of cities because she is a woman. In stanza five Bradstreet continues to display irony by stating "who says my hand a needle better fits". This is another example of her sarcastic voice because society during this time expected women to perform household chores rather than write poetry.
Although Anne Bradstreet endured many hardships in her life, her poems are usually written in a hopeful and positive tone. Throughout her poem In "Memory of My Dear Grandchild Simon Bradstreet," she mentions that even though she has lost her grandson in this world, she will one day be reunited with him in Heaven. In "Upon the Burning of Our House," Bradstreet describes her house in flames but selflessly declares "there's wealth enough, I need no more." Although Bradstreet lost many of her material items she kept a positive attitude and remained strong through God.
Quaternions
Bradstreet wrote four quaternions, "Seasons," "Elements," "Humours," and "Ages," which made possible her "development as a poet in terms of technical craftsmanship as she learned to fashion the form artistically."
Bradstreet's first two quaternions were her most successful. The central tension in her work is that between delight in the world and belief of its vanity.
Selected works
Before the Birth of One of Her Children
A Dialogue between Old England and New
A Letter to Her Husband, Absent upon Public Employment
Another
Another (II)
For Deliverance From A Fever
Deliverance from Another Sore Fit
Contemplations (poem)
In Honour of that High and Mighty Princess, Queen Elizabeth
In Reference to her Children, 23 June 1659
The Author to Her Book
The Flesh and the Spirit
The Four Ages of Man (quaternion)
Four Seasons of the Year (quaternion)
Four Elements (quaternion)
Of The Four Ages of Man (quaternion)
The Four Monarchies (quaternion)
The Prologue
To Her Father with Some Verses
To My Dear and Loving Husband
Upon a Fit of Sickness, Anno 1632 Aetatis Suae, 19
Upon My Son Samuel His Going For England, November 6, 1657
Upon Some Distemper of Body
Verses upon the Burning of our House
The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650) and, from the Manuscripts. Meditations Divine and Morall, Letters, and Occasional Poems, Facsimile ed., 1965, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ISBN 978-0-8201-1006-6.
An Exact Epitome of the Three First Monarchies (1650) (a.k.a. Exact Epitome of the Four Monarchies)
In Memory of My Dear Grandchild Elizabeth Bradstreet, Who Deceased August, 1665, Being a Year and Half Old
References
Pender, Patricia (2015). "Constructing a Canonical Colonial Poet: Abram E. Cutter's Bradstreetiana and the 1867 Works". The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America. 109 (2): 223–246. doi:10.1086/681959. ISSN 0006-128X. JSTOR 10.1086/681959.
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