阅读哥白尼 Nicolaus Copernicus在百家争鸣的作品!!! | |||
哥白尼尼古拉•哥白尼（拉丁语名字：Nicolaus Copernicus，波兰语名字：Mikołaj Kopernik，1473年2月19日～1543年5月24日）是波兰天文学家，是第一位提出太阳为中心——日心说的欧洲天文学家，一般认为他著的《天体运行论》是现代天文学的起步点。
哥白尼 （Nicolaus Copernicus 1473年2月19日 --- 1543年5月24日）出生于波兰维斯杜拉河畔的托伦市的一个富裕家庭。18岁时就读于波兰旧都的克莱考大学，学习医学期间对天文学产生了兴趣。1496年，23岁的哥白尼来到文艺复兴的策源地意大利，在博洛尼亚大学和帕多瓦大学攻读法律、医学和神学，博洛尼亚大学的天文学家徳•诺瓦拉（de novara，1454-1540）对哥白尼影响极大，在他那里学到了天文观测技术以及希腊的天文学理论。后来在费拉拉大学获宗教法博士学位。哥白尼作为 一名医生，由于医术高明而被人们誉名为“神医”。哥白尼成年的大部分时间是在费劳恩译格大教堂任职当一名教士。哥白尼并不是一位职业天文学家，他的成名是在业余时间完成的。在意大利期间，哥白尼就熟悉了希腊哲学家阿里斯塔克斯（前三世纪）的学说，确信地球和其它行星都围绕太阳运转这个日心说是正确的。他大约在40岁时开始在朋友中散发一份简短的手稿，初步阐述了他自己有关日心说的看法。哥白尼经过长年的观察和计算终于完成了他的伟大著作《天体运行论》。他在《天体运行论》（de revolutionibus orbium coelestium）中观测计算所得数值的精确度是惊人的。例如，他得到恒星年的时间为365天6小时9分40秒，比现在的精确值约多30秒，误差只有百万分之一；他得到的月亮到地球的平均距离是地球半径的60.30倍，和现在的60.27倍相比，误差只有万分之五。
1533年，60岁的哥白尼在罗马做了一系列的讲演，提出了他的学说的要点，并未遭到教皇的反对。但是他却害怕教会会反对，甚至在他的书完稿后，还是迟迟不敢发表。直到在他临近古稀之年才终于决定将它出版。1543年5月24日去世的那一天才收到出版商寄来的一部他写的书。
尼古拉·哥白尼 - 生平
哥白尼
哥白尼（Nicolaus Copernicus），1473年生于波兰西部托伦城圣阿娜港，死与1543年。他的父亲是富商，曾任过市政官吏，在他10岁时，父亲去世，由舅父路加斯·瓦兹路德抚养。瓦兹路德于1489年开始任艾姆兰教会主教，他曾留学意大利，博学多才，思想开朗，提倡研究实际，这对少年时期的哥白尼有较深刻的影响。
哥白尼18岁时到波兰首都克拉科夫的雅盖隆大学学习。23岁时到文艺复兴的中心意大利求学，10年中，先在波伦亚大学的法律学院学习3年半，又到首都罗马居住1年。1501年到帕多瓦大学。后又到法拉腊大学学习。在此期间他曾访问过达·芬奇。1506年回到波兰后，在其舅父身边当医生。
1512年，舅父去世后，哥白尼开始到波罗的海之滨的弗洛恩堡大教堂任神甫，此后的30余年，他一直在教会任职。在这一期间，他完成了著名著作《天体运行论》。1506年到1512年间，他完成了日心说观点的简要《浅说》。1530年发表了论文摘要，曾受到教皇克力门七世的赞许。《天体运行论》初稿曾于1512--1516年、1525年和1540年作了三次重大修改。1543年正式出版时，他已神志不清，不久便与世长辞了。
哥白尼一生最伟大的成就是创立了“日心说”。他所著《天体运行论》以科学的观点否定了在西方统治了一千多年的地心说，这是天文学史上一次伟大的革命，引起了人类宇宙观的重大革新，沉重地打击了封建神权统治，从此自然科学便开始从神学中解放出来，走上了大踏步发展的征程。
《天体运行论》的发表具有划时代的伟大意义。这本巨著的著成，花费了哥白尼一生的心血。在神教至上，教会拥有巨大权力，人们的精神被千余年长期束缚处于愚昧落后的时代，哥白尼学说的产生，表现了他惊人的勇气、胆略、毅力和科学态度。
哥白尼博物馆
哥白尼学说的产生是社会发展的必然结果，15世纪开始，天文学受到了社会发展的巨大推动，特别是文艺复兴运动给神学以沉重的打击，亚里士多德、托勒密的地心说，作为基督教的教义已开始受到怀疑。航海业的发展，对天文学和历法等提出了新的要求。资本主义的产生和发展，已感到地心说是一个思想解放的巨大障碍。在哥白尼以前已有许多人对地心说提出了质疑，并且取得了天文观测中的许多科学依据，天文仪器也有了很大的改进。这无疑为哥白尼学说的创立奠定了基础。哥白尼的巨大贡献在于，系统地总结了前人的经验，又作了严缜周密的数年如一日的实际观测，从而完成了日心说的完整理论。
哥白尼的日心说认为，太阳是宇宙的中心，并规定地球有三种运动，即绕轴的自转，绕太阳的公转和用以解释二分岁差的地轴的回转运动。这些观点最早出现于1530年哥白尼写的小册子《短论》上，并以手抄本形式在他的朋友中传阅。数学家乔治·莱蒂克斯（George Rheticus,1514--1576）曾给予鼓励和支持，并与哥白尼共同研究二年多，1540年曾刊印出版。
在《天体运行论中》，哥白尼深刻地剖析了托勒密的学说，澄清了许多错误的认识，同时对亚里士多德的运动理论也在全面分析的基础上加以否定。他认为，地球同其他天体一样，都具有引力和匀速圆周运动，并无特殊之处。
由于时代的限制和科学研究条件的制约，哥白尼虽然提出了崭新的学说，但他在方法上却是保守的。他始终认为天体运动是匀速圆周运动。他的体系虽然比托勒密的体系简单得多，但与后来开普勒创立的体系相比要复杂得多。日心说的稳固的科学基础是在以后开普勒发现行星运动三定律和牛顿发现万有引力定律才建立起来的。
哥白尼的日心说，在中国也很有影响，最早是由清代数学家李善兰在其翻译的《谈天》18卷中正确地加以介绍而在中国传播的。
可以说，哥白尼是历史上最杰出的天文学家。同时，他兴趣广泛，精通多种语言，对神学和教会法也有深刻的了解。他还是著名的医生、机械师，在数学、地理学、文学、绘画方面也是第一流的学者。他对经济学也颇有研究。
尼古拉·哥白尼 - 历史背景
尼古拉·哥白尼的肖像画 Nicolaus Copernicus Portrait from Toruń, 1580
哥白尼的科学成就，是他所处的时代的产物，又转过来推动了时代的发展。
十五、六世纪的欧洲，正是从封建社会向资本主义社会转变的关键时期，在这一二百年间，社会发生了巨大的变化。14世纪以前的欧洲，到处是四分五裂的小城邦。后来，随着城市工商业的兴起，特别是采矿和冶金业的发展，涌现了许多新兴的大城市，小城邦有了联合起来组成国家的趋势。到15世纪末叶，在许多国家里都出现了基本上是中央集权的君主政体。当时的波兰不仅有像克拉科夫、波兹南这样的大城市，也有许多手工业兴盛的城市。1526 年归并于波兰的华沙已成为一个重要的商业、政治、文化和地理的中心，在16世纪末成了波兰国家的首都。
与这种政治经济变革相适应，文化、科学上也开始有所反映。当时，欧洲是“政教合一”，罗马教廷控制了许多国家，圣经被宣布为至高无上的真理，凡是违背圣经 的学说，都被斥为“异端邪说”，凡是反对神权统治的人，都被处以火刑。新兴的资产阶级为自己的生存和发展，掀起了一场反对封建制度和教会迷信思想的斗争， 出现了人文主义的思潮。他们使用的战斗武器，就是未被神学染污的古希腊的哲学、科学和文艺。这就是震撼欧洲的文艺复兴运动。文艺复兴首先发生于意大利，很快就扩大到波兰及欧洲其它国家。
与此同时，商业的活跃也促进了对外贸易的发展。在“黄金”这个符咒的驱使下，许多欧洲冒险者远航非洲、印度及整个远东地区。远洋航行需要丰富的天文和地理知识，从实际中积累起来的观测资料，使人们感到当时流行的“地静天动”的宇宙学说值得怀疑，这就要求人们进一步去探索宇宙的秘密，从而推进了天文学和地理学的发展。1492年，意大利著名的航海家哥伦布发现新大陆，麦哲伦和他的同伴绕地球一周，证明地球是圆形的，使人们开始真正认识地球。
中世纪建筑
在教会严密控制下的中世纪，也发生过轰轰烈烈的宗教革命。因为天主教的很多教义不符合圣经的教诲，而加入了太多教皇的个人意志以及各类神学家的自身成果，所以很多信徒开始质疑天主教的教义和组织，发起回归圣经的行动来。
捷克的爱国主义者、布拉格大学校长扬•胡斯（1369～1415年）在君士坦丁堡的宗教会议上公开谴责德意志封建主与天主教会对捷克的压迫和剥削。他虽然被反动教会处以火刑，但他的革命活动在社会上引起了强烈的反应。捷克农民在胡斯党人的旗帜下举行起义，这次运动也波及波兰。1517年，在德国，马丁•路德 （1483～1546年）反对教会贩卖赎罪符，与罗马教皇公开决裂。1521年，路德又在沃尔姆国会上揭露罗马教廷的罪恶，并提出建立基督教新教的主张。 新教的教义得到许多国家的支持，波兰也深受影响。
就在这样一个大变革大动荡的年代里，1473年2月19日哥白尼在维斯瓦河畔的托伦城诞生了。他的父亲是个当议员的富商，他有一个哥哥和两个姐姐。哥白尼10岁的时候，他的父亲死了，他被送到舅舅务卡施大主教家中抚养。务卡施是一个人文主义者，他和当时波兰进步的知识界来往极为密切，并与意大利卓越的革命家、人文主义者菲利普•布奥纳克西是挚友。在哥白尼念中学的时候，务卡施就带着他参加人文主义者的聚会。1491年，按照舅父的安排，哥白尼到克拉科夫大学去学习天文和数学。
当时，波兰已经产生了一些有名的天文学家，如马尔卿•克洛尔，他于1450年写成《亚尔峰斯星象表订正》一书，并在许多国家讲学。又如著名的天文学家沃伊切赫，曾编制天文历表，他就在克拉科夫大学讲课，是哥白尼求学时的数学和天文教授。哥白尼的“太阳中心学说”就是在克拉科夫大学求学时孕育起来的。
尽管《圣经》没有涉及诸如“地球是宇宙的中心”以及“天圆地方”等各类天文知识。但是在中世纪，天文学也有着延伸于古希腊的，经过经院神学家们构架好的官 方论点。为了巩固封建统治，天主教会的宗教裁判所烧掉了许多珍贵的科学著作，有时一天竟烧掉20大车。1327年，意大利天文学家采科•达斯科里被活活烧死，他的“罪名”就是违背圣经的教义，论证地球呈球状，在另一个半球上也有人类存在。
尼古拉·哥白尼 - 日心说发展及其意义
匈牙利 邮票 《日心说与哥白尼》
哥白尼的“日心说”发表之前，“地心说”在中世纪的欧洲一直居于统治地位。自古以来，人类就对宇宙的结构不断地进行着思考，早在古希腊时代就有哲学家提出 了地球在运动的主张，只是当时缺乏依据，因此没有得到人们的认可。 在古代欧洲，亚里士多德和托勒密主张“地心说”，认为地球是静止不动的，其它的星体都围着地球这一宇宙中心旋转。这个学说的提出与基督教《圣经》中关于天 堂、人间、地狱的说法刚好互相吻合，处于统治地位的教廷便竭力支持地心学说，把“地心说”和上帝创造世界融为一体，用来愚弄人们，维护自己的统治。因而 “地心学”说被教会奉为和《圣经》一样的经典，长期居于统治地位。
随着事物的不断发展，天文观测的精确度渐渐提高，人们逐渐发现了地心学说的破绽。到文艺复兴运动时期，人们发现托勒密所提出的均轮和本轮的数目竟多达八十 个左右，这显然是不合理、不科学的。人们期待着能有一种科学的天体系统取代地心说。在这种历史背景下，哥白尼的地动学说应运而生了。 约在1515年前，哥白尼为阐述自己关于天体运动学说的基本思想撰写了篇题为《浅说》的论文，他认为天体运动必须满足以下七点： 不存在一个所有天体轨道或天体的共同的中心；地球只是引力中心和月球轨道的中心，并不是宇宙的中心；所有天体都绕太阳运转，宇宙的中心在太阳附近；地球到太阳的距离同天穹高度之比是微不足道的；在天空中看到的任何运动，都是地球运动引起的；在空中看到的太阳运动的一切现象，都不是它本身运动产生的，而是地 球运动引起的，地球同时进行着几种运动；人们看到的行星向前和向后运动，是由于地球运动引起的。地球的运动足以解释人们在空中见到的各种现象了。
此外，哥白尼还描述了太阳、月球、三颗外行星(土星、木星和火星)和两颗内行星(金星、水星)的视运动。书中，哥白尼批判了托勒密的理论。科学地阐明了天体运行的现象，推翻了长期以来居于统治地位的地心说，并从根本上否定了基督教关于上帝创造一切的谬论，从而实现了天文学中的根本变革。 他正确地论述了地球绕其轴心运转、月亮绕地球运转、地球和其它所有行星都绕太阳运转的事实。但是他也和前人一样严重低估了太阳系的规模。他认为星体运行的轨道是一系列的同心圆，这当然是错误的。他的学说里的数学运算很复杂也很不准确。但是他的书立即引起了极大的关注，驱使一些其它天文学家对行星运动作更为 准确的观察，其中最著名的是丹麦伟大的天文学家泰寿•勃莱荷，开普勒就是根据泰寿积累的观察资料，最终推导出了星体运行的正确规律。
尼古拉·哥白尼的肖像画
Nicolaus Copernicu
这是一个前所未闻的开创新纪元的学说，对于千百年来学界奉为定论的托勒密地球中心说无疑是当头一棒。 虽然阿里斯塔克斯比哥白尼提出日心学说早1700多年，但是事实上哥白尼得到了这一盛誉。阿里斯塔克斯只是凭借灵感做了一个猜想，并没有加以详细的讨论， 因而他的学说在科学上毫无用处。哥白尼逐个解决了猜想中的数学问题后，就把它变成了有用的科学学说──一种可以用来做预测的学说，通过对天体观察结果的检 验并与地球是宇宙中心的旧学说的比较，你就会发现它的重大意义。 显然哥白尼的学说是人类对宇宙认识的革命，它使人们的整个世界观都发生了重大变化。但是在估价哥白尼的影响时，我们还应该注意到，天文学的应用范围不如物 理学、化学和生物学那样广泛。
从理论上来讲，人们即使对哥白尼学说的知识和应用一窍不通，也会造出电视机、汽车和现代化学厂之类的东西。但是不应用法拉第、麦克斯韦、拉瓦锡和牛顿的学说则是不可想象的。 仅仅考虑哥白尼学说对技术的影响就会完全忽略它的真正意义。哥白尼的书对伽利略和开普勒的工作是一个不可缺少的序幕。他俩又成了牛顿的主要前辈。是这两者的发现才使牛顿有能力确定运动定律和万有引力定律。 哥白尼的日心宇宙体系既然是时代的产物，它就不能不受到时代的限制。反对神学的不彻底性，同时表现在哥白尼的某些观点上，他的体系是存在缺陷的。哥白尼所指的宇宙是局限在一个小的范围内的，具体来说，他的宇宙结构就是今天我们所熟知的太阳系，即以太阳为中心的天体系统。宇宙既然有它的中心，就必须有它的边界，哥白尼虽然否定了托勒玫的“九重天”，但他却保留了一层恒星天，尽管他回避了宇宙是否有限这个问题，但实际上他是相信恒星天球是宇宙的“外壳”，他仍 然相信天体只能按照所谓完美的圆形轨道运动，所以哥白尼的宇宙体系，仍然包含着不动的中心天体。
但是作为近代自然科学的奠基人，哥白尼的历史功绩是伟大 的。确认地球不是宇宙的中心，而是行星之一，从而掀起了一场天文学上根本性的革命，是人类探求客观真理道路上的里程碑。 哥白尼的伟大成就，不仅铺平了通向近代天文学的道路，而且开创了整个自然界科学向前迈进的新时代。从哥白尼时代起，脱离教会束缚的自然科学和哲学开始获得 飞跃的发展。
尼古拉·哥白尼 - 《天体运行论》的诞生
准备
哥白尼与天体论
哥白尼在一个秋雨绵绵的日子离开意大利。当时天空出现了彗星断天的异象，广大地区瘟疫流行。正在这时，罗马教皇亚历山大又误喝了谋害别人的毒酒而丧命。意 大利教会就趁机提出种种“警告”，招摇撞骗，愚弄人民。当哥白尼回到波兰时，天空出现另一个罕见的星象，教会也在大肆活动，闹得首都克拉科夫乌烟瘴气。
原来，教会宣告天空将连续出现四次土星和木星“会合”的异象，说这是上天对世人的一个严重警告。世上将出现一个冒牌的先知，洪水和瘟疫将接连而来，并将引起社会骚乱和国家崩溃。这种种谣言闹得人心不安，有钱的人拚命寻欢作乐，希望摆脱对于未来的恐惧；穷苦的老百姓为了向教会购买“赎罪符”，更是弄得倾家荡产，难以活命。天空一向是教会敲诈勒索的摇钱树，他们把“天堂中的位置”装在自己的钱包里，大量兜售“赎罪符”，搜括民财。当时波兰赫赫有名的宗教裁判官铁哲尔就说过，向他孝敬钱财的人可以消灾免祸，连死去的人也可以赎洗罪孽。他的口头禅是：“银钱投入圣柜，灵魂升入天堂！”
这时，哥白尼和他的朋友们也在克拉科夫研究两星“会合”的问题。哥白尼发现教会的说法包含数据的错误，显然是妖言惑众。于是，他和朋友们决定各自在不同的地区进行观测，以便一起来揭发教会的邪招。
当第四次“会合”发生的时候，哥白尼正在赫尔斯堡他舅父务卡施的主教官邸，主持与十字骑士团的斗争，虽然政务繁忙，哥白尼仍然坚持观测星象。
观测的结果证实了哥白尼的预见。“会合”的日期，和教会所说的不符，而和哥白尼的推算却是相符的——它提前了一个多月。哥白尼的朋友们也观测到同一个星象。
在赫尔斯堡，由于朋友们不断催促，哥白尼把他的“太阳中心学说”写出了一个提纲，取了一个朴素的名字，叫《试论天体运行的假设》，抄送给他的几个心腹朋友。它宣布：“所有的天体都围绕着太阳运转，太阳附近就是宇宙中心的所在。地球也和别的行星一样绕着圆周运转。它一昼夜绕地轴自转一周，一年绕太阳公转一周……。”
哥白尼所宣布的是一个巨大的学说体系的轮廓，它在参加聚会的朋友中间引起了许多争论。哥白尼对许多疑问都作了解答。在结束辩论的时候，他引用了古罗马大诗人西塞罗的话：“没有什么东西赶得上宇宙的完整，赶得上德行的纯洁。”他用这句话表明了一具信念，那就是：宇宙是完整的、对称的、和谐的，是具有可以理解的规律和秩序的。
《试论天体运行的假设》是哥白尼学说的第一块基石，但要在这块基石上建立起宏伟的理论大厦，还需要做许多准备工作。
1512年，务卡施病死，哥白尼离开了赫尔斯堡，迁居到教区大教堂所在寺的弗隆堡。弗隆堡濒临波罗的海，是个小小的渔港。哥白尼在弗隆堡定居以后，就买下城堡的一座箭楼。这座箭楼本来是作战用的，三角形的楼顶向前倾侧，几乎伸到围墙的外边。楼顶的最上层有三个窗口，那里是哥白尼的工作室。下面两层是卧房， 各有一个射击用的枪眼。从最上层的窗口可以向四面八方观测天象。遇到楼顶妨碍观测的时候，外边的露台就成了他的观测台。他在这里一直住到去世。
这时，哥白尼已将他未来的著作取名为 《运行》。在他看来，运动才是生命的真谛——运动存在于万物之中，上达天空，下至深海。没有什么东西是静止的，一切东西都在生长、变化、消失，千秋万代继 续不停。《运行》这一著作，就是要揭示大自然这一最本质的秘密。哥白尼的这一观点，肯定了客观世界的存在和它的规律性，闪耀着朴素的唯物主义哲学的光辉。
哥白尼对地球的形状，曾多次作过间接的观测。早在1500年11月6日，他就在罗马近郊的一个高岗上观测月食，研究地球投射在月球表面的弧状阴影，从而证 实了亚里士多德关于地球呈球状的论断。在定居弗隆堡时，他曾多次站在波罗的海岸边观察帆船。有一次，哥白尼请求一艘帆船在桅顶绑上一个闪光的物体，他站在岸边看着这艘帆船慢慢驶运。他描写这次观察的情况说：“随着帆船的远去，那个闪光的物体逐渐降落，最后完全隐没，好像太阳下山一样。”这次观察使他得出一 个结论：“就连海面也是圆形的。”
在阴湿多雾的波罗的海的岸边，逢到严寒的冬夜，天空没有云影，星星在蓝天闪烁着耀眼的寒光，哥白尼总是利用这种难得的机会，穿上皮袄，束紧风帽，把仪器搬 到箭楼的露台上，进行通宵达旦的观测。他所用的仪器都是自己动手做的，一共有三种。测量行星距离的“三弧仪”，是用枞树杆削成的，用墨水划上刻度，照准器也是雕出来的。测量月球和行星位置的“捕星器”，是用六根树条绕成圆圈做成的。测定太阳中天时高度的“象限仪”，是一块很大的正方形木板，右上角装着带刻度的木环，搁架上有个“水准仪”，其实只是一个盛了水的玻璃管。观测日食本来要在水里观测倒影，为了减少提水上箭楼的麻烦，他打破常规，改用一块带孔眼的 护窗板把日影映到墙上。哥白尼就是利用这些简陋的设备，在弗隆堡前后进行了有纪录可查的50多次观测，其中包括日食、月食、火星、金星、木星和土星的方位 等等。这些观测在望远镜发明以前能做得那么精确，是很不容易的，难怪后来许多杰出的天文学家都非常钦佩。
1516年秋天，盘踞在波兰以北的十字骑士团，屡次进犯边境。教会借重哥白尼的声望和才学，派他担任俄尔斯丁教产总管，去对付大军压境的强敌。
就在那烽火连天的岁月里，哥白尼开始撰写他的不朽著作——《运行》。他在俄尔斯丁城堡的哨塔上布置了一个简单的观测台，并随身带去一些必要的资料。当时整 部著作的内容已有个轮廓了，全书计划写成八卷（出版时是六卷）。第一卷已经动笔了，但是进展很慢，这是因为大敌当前，哥白尼必须全力以赴地对付敌人的挑衅和骚扰。
1519年秋天，哥白尼辞去教产总管的职务，又回到弗隆堡，用他的全部精力来撰写 《运行》。但是，战争的风暴很快席卷到这里，弗隆堡陷入十字骑士团的重围之中。敌人烧杀虏掠，断绝粮草，企图迫使守军投降。这时，教堂的神父都逃跑了，有的甚至叛国投敌。但哥白尼仍旧留在城中，同居民一起支援守军作战。他们还修筑运河，兴修水利，哥白尼设计修建的水闸和水磨，在当时对支持战争和繁荣经济是 具有重大意义的。
第二年秋天，哥白尼再度担任俄尔斯丁教产总管。这时十字骑士团已经侵占了附近的许多城堡，直逼俄尔斯丁。哥白尼把由他保管的钱财全部拿出来支持作战，并亲自部署防务，登城督战。十字骑士团用燃烧弹攻城，哥白尼叫人用浸湿的皮子去捂灭敌人的燃烧弹。经过五天五夜的激烈战斗，城市依然屹立着。十字骑士团大公霍亨仑恼羞成怒，特地派人到弗隆堡去，把他的藏书、手稿和仪器一把火烧光。但哥白尼始终坚守城堡，霍亨仑无可奈何，只好撤军，同意休战。战后，波兰国王齐格蒙特论功行赏，委派哥白尼为俄尔斯丁的行政长官。
成书
1525年秋天，哥白尼写作《运行》的工作，才在弗隆堡全力展开。这时，哥白尼的箭楼上来了一个女管家，名叫安娜。安娜出身名门，性情娴淑，衷心爱慕哥白尼，毅然抛弃世俗的成见，和被教会剥夺了结婚权利的哥白尼同居。哥白尼在安娜的帮助和照顾下，书桌上的手稿迅速地一叠叠地增加起来了。
中文版《天体运行论》
《运行》的第一卷 鸟瞰式地介绍了宇宙的结构。在论证的开始，哥白尼列举了许多观测资料来证明地球是圆形的。接着他指出了地球呈圆状的理由。他说：“所有的物体都倾向于将自己凝聚成为这种球状，正如同一滴水或一滴其它的流体一样，总是极力将自己形成一个独立的整体。”“物体呈球状的原因在 于它的重量，即在于物体的微粒或者说原子的一种自然倾向，要把自己凝聚成一个整体，并收缩成球状。”他对这个问题的解答，给一百多年以后牛顿发现万有引力开辟了道路。
关于原子他还写了这样一段：“所谓原子，是最细微的、不能再分割的微粒，它们重叠地或是成倍地相聚在一起，但由于它们看不见，并不立即形成看得见的物体； 可是它们的数量可以增加到这种程度，足够累积到可以看见的大小。”这一段话是针对唯心主义者的论调而说的，他们借口“原子无法看见”而抹煞原子的存在。在唯心主义者的唆使下，这一段话在《运行》出版时被删去了；在以后300年间的三中版本里都不见一个字。
《运行》的第二卷介绍了有关的数学原理，其中平面三角和球面三角的演算方法都是哥白尼首创的。这里陈述了三角形的规则，即从三角形的已知某些边和角去推算其它边和角的规则。这包括了三边是直线的平面三角形和三边是球面上圆弧作成的球面三角形。
《运行》的第三卷是恒星表。
《运行》的第四卷介绍地球的绕轴运行和周年运行。
第五卷论述了地球的卫星——月球。哥白尼非常重视研究月球，特别是月食。他认为在月食的时候，人们可以从月球、地球和太阳的相对位置，得到关于宇宙的真实 结构的暗示。“因为，当宇宙别的部份都是澄明的和充满日光的时候，所谓黑夜就不是什么别的东西，而只是地球本身的阴影。这个阴影形成一个圆椎形，尾端尖 削。月亮一接触到这个阴影，就会失去光泽，而当它出现在阴影正中央时，它的位置正好和太阳相对。”
他的最后一卷准备写关于行星运行的理论。
《运行》的不朽的贡献，在于它根据相对运动的原理，解释了行星运行的视运动。在哥白尼以前，这一原理从来没有被人这样详尽地阐述过，也没有人从这一原理得出过这样重要的结论。
哥白尼对这个问题是这样说：“所有被我们观测的物体的位置变动，不是由于被观测的物体的运动所引起，就是由于观测者的运动，或由于物体和人的不一致的变动 所引起的。”既然地球是我们在它的移动中进行观测的基地，那么我们观测到的天空中的运动，例如太阳的运动，就可能是一种表面的运动，是一种由于地球本身的 运动所引起的幻觉，而其它天体的运动，就可能是那个天体以及地球的不一致的运动所引起的结果。因此，如果承认‘地球从西向东地自转’，那么显然会觉得好像 是太阳、月亮、和星辰在升起和降落。”
“事情正是像维吉里乌斯所阐明的，”哥白尼写道，“他让伊尼斯说：我们驶出港埠，而陆地和城市却在后退’。因为船只驶过风平浪静的海面时，所有外界的东 西，在船上的人看来，正好像它们在按照船只的运动移动着，只是方向相反——他们觉得，他们自己和身边的东西都留在原处。这同一情况毫无疑问可能出现在地球 运动的现象中，并引起整个宇宙都在旋转的印象。”
哥白尼还论证说：“地球虽是一个巨大的球体，但比起宇宙来却微不足道。”他注意到地平线把天球剖分为均匀的两半，曾利用这一现象来证实宇宙是无限的这个论 断。“根据这一论断，可见宇宙跟地球相比是无法测度的，它是一个无边无际的庞然大物。”哥白尼还认为太阳是行星中相对不动的中心。
哥白尼的功绩在于：他用科学的太阳中心说，推翻了在天文学上统治了几千年的地球中心说。这是天文学上一次重大的革命，引起了人类宇宙观的革新。
尼古拉·哥白尼 - 历史地位
哥白尼绘制的宇宙图
哥白尼的“日心说”沉重地打击了教会的宇宙观，这是唯物主义和唯心主义斗争的伟大胜利。因此使天文学从宗教神学的束缚下解放出来，自然科学从此获得了新生，这在近代科学的发展上具有划时代的意义。
哥白尼是欧洲文艺复兴时期的一位巨人。他用毕生的精力去研究天文学，为后世留下了宝贵的遗产。由于时代的局限，哥白尼只是把宇宙的中心从地球移到了太阳， 并没有放弃宇宙中心论和宇宙有限论。在德国的开普勒总结出行星运动三定律、英国的牛顿发现万有引力定律以后，哥白尼的太阳中心说才更加的稳固。从后来的研究结果证明，宇宙空间是无限的，它没有边界，没有形状，因而也就没有中心。虽然哥白尼的观点并不完全正确，但是他的理论人类的宇宙观带来了巨大的变革。
恩格斯在《自然辩证法》中对哥白尼的《天体运行论》给予了高度的评价。他说：“自然科学借以宣布其独立并且好像是重演路德焚烧教谕的革命行动，便是哥白尼那本不朽著作的出版，他用这本书(虽然是胆怯地，而且可说是只在临终时)来向自然事物方面的教会权威挑战，从此自然科学便开始从神学中解放出来。”
尼古拉·哥白尼 - 宗教信仰
尼古拉·哥白尼
写出了《天体运行》的哥白尼，他自始至终都是一个虔诚的天主教徒。他用科学的观察否定了天主教会毫无《圣经》根据却又影响深广的旧有知识。
他对宗教的虔诚达到什么程度呢？让我们从他那部杰作《天体之运行：导言》里找出他作的答复吧。他在《导言》里是这样写的：“如果真有一种科学能够使人心灵高贵，脱离时间的污秽，这种科学一定是天文学。因为人类果真见到天主管理下的宇宙所有的庄严秩序时，必然会感到一种动力促使人趋向于规范的生活，去实行各种道德，可以从万物中看出来造物主确实是真美善之源。”
在哥白尼别的著作里同样充满了天主的名字以及天主的智慧与慈爱。他一生维护着天主教的信仰，他对从天主教的革命出的新教派给予了反击。
哥白尼死于1543年，享年七十岁。死前他为自己预作墓志铭，其铭文是：“你不必赏我像赏给圣保罗的恩宠，但求你赏赐我像你给圣伯多禄的宽赦和右盗的仁慈。”
一直以反基督教着称的思想家罗素也这么评价哥白尼，说：“哥白尼是一位波兰教士，抱着真纯无暇的正统信仰……他的正统信仰很真诚，他不认为他的学说与《圣经》相抵触。”（《西方哲学史》）
尼古拉·哥白尼 - 与哥白尼相关的历史事件
1687年，牛顿的《自然哲学的数学原理》的问世，标志着哥白尼体系的最后胜利。
1685年在大马士革已有了哥白尼学说体系的译本和详尽的说明。
意大利文艺复兴时期的唯物主义哲学家布鲁诺，由于批判《圣经》并坚决赞同哥白尼的日心说，1660年２月，在罗马鲜花广场被烧死。
17世纪30年代至1646年波兰传教士穆 尼阁(nieolas smoglenski,1609——1655年)来华为第一阶段 在这短短的十几年时间里,以徐光启组建和主持历局,编译系统介绍西方天文学的大型丛书《崇祯历书》为契机,哥白尼的名字在中国学者 当中迅速传播。
1634年，《论宇宙或光》脱稿,此书以哥白尼学说为基础,与教会的观点不相容,而伽利略又正遭致教会迫害,笛卡尔只得暂不发表。
1634年编成的《崇祯历书》中译用了《天体运行论》中的大量材料,但由于传教士的隐瞒、歪曲,哥白尼学说却没有被介绍过来。
1633年6月22日，宗教法庭宣布哥白尼学说为邪说，判处伽利略终身监禁，宣布（对话）为禁书，然后，逼迫伽利略进行发誓。
1633年，伽利略受到宗教裁利所审利,利处终身监禁,其著作《关于托勒密和哥白尼两大世界体系的对话》被列入《禁书目录》
1632年，伽利略着书立说捍卫哥白尼体系时已年过半百。
伽利略在1632年发表了《关于托勒密和哥白尼两大世界的对话）给哥白尼体系以决定性支持，1638年发表了《关于力学与位移运动两门新科学的讨论及数学证明》批驳了统治欧洲达两千多年之久的亚里斯多德关于运动和运动原因的理论，创建了实验、物理思维和数学演绎三者巧妙结合的研究方法。
1632年，伽利略《关于托勒密和哥白尼两大体系的对话》问世。
1632年，伽利略发表《关于托勒密和哥白尼两大宇宙体系的对话》以新的观测事实再次猛烈抨击荒谬的托勒密宇宙体系。
1622年来华的汤若望在其后来写的《历法西传》中,已提到哥白尼,并说“已上哥白尼所著,后人多祖述焉。
1618～1621年，开普勒发表了《哥白尼天文学概要》简明扼要地叙述了哥白尼的理论，并以自己的发现补充、修正和发展了哥白尼的学说。
1618～1621年，开普勒写了《哥白尼天文学概要》一书，把天文学的研究概括为5个方面: 观测天象；提出对观测到的天象进行解释的假说；宇宙论的物理或哲学；推算天体过去与未来的方位； 有关的仪器制造和使用的机械学。
尼古拉·哥白尼 - 趣闻轶事
人小志大
哥白尼从小受到良好的学校教育，喜欢观察天象。他常常独自仰望繁星密布的夜空。有一次，哥哥不解地问哥白尼：“你整夜守在窗边，望着天空发呆，难道这表示你对天主的孝敬？”哥白尼回答说：“不。我要一辈子研究天时气象，叫人们望着天空不害怕。我要让星空跟人交朋友，让它给海船校正航线，给水手指引航 程。”
千呼万唤始出来
由于托勒玫的地心说在当时已经成为维持教会统治的神学理论基础，哥白尼深知发表日心说的后果，这样写到：“我清楚地知道，一旦他们弄清楚我在论证天体运行的时候认为地球是运动的，就会竭力主张我必须为此受到宗教裁判……”，“他们就会大叫大嚷，当即把我轰下台。”因此，哥白尼迟迟不愿意发表他的著作《天体运行论》。直到1539年春天，在德国青年学者雷迪卡斯（1514—1576年）和其它一此朋友的敦促下，哥白尼才同意发表。1541年秋天，雷迪卡斯把修改稿带到纽伦堡，请路德派的一位神学家奥幸德匿名撰写一篇前言，宣称“这部书不可能是一种科学的事实，而是一种富于戏剧性的幻想”。在这样的情况下，才于1543年3月出版，从写成初稿到出版，前后竞搁置了近“四个九年”。
Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published just before his death in 1543, is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the scientific revolution. His heliocentric model, with the Sun at the center of the universe, demonstrated that the observed motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth at rest in the center of the universe. His work stimulated further scientific investigations, becoming a landmark in the history of science that is often referred to as the Copernican Revolution.
Among the great polymaths of the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, quadrilingual polyglot, classical scholar, translator, artist, Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and economist. Among his many responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an avocation—yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world.
Life
Toruń birthplace (ul. Kopernika 15, left). Together with the house at no. 17 (right), it forms the Muzeum Mikołaja Kopernika.
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473, in the city of Thorn (Toruń) in Royal Prussia, part of the Kingdom of Poland.
His father was a merchant from Kraków and his mother was the daughter of a wealthy Toruń merchant. Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas (Andrew) became an Augustinian canon at Frombork (Frauenburg). His sister Barbara, named after her mother, became a Benedictine nun and, in her final years (she died after 1517), prioress of a convent in Chełmno (Culm, Kulm). His sister Katharina married the businessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left five children, whom Copernicus looked after to the end of his life.
Copernicus neither married nor had children.
Father's family
The father’s family can be traced to a village in Silesia near Nysa (Neiße). The village's name has been variously spelled Kopernik, Köppernig, Köppernick, and today Koperniki. In the 14th century, members of the family began moving to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków (Cracow, 1367), and to Toruń (1400). The father, likely the son of Jan, came from the Kraków line.
Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in records for the first time as a well-to-do Catholic merchant who dealt in copper, selling it mostly in Danzig (Gdańsk). He moved from Kraków to Toruń around 1458. Toruń, situated on the Vistula River, was at that time embroiled in the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66), in which the Kingdom of Poland and the Prussian Confederation, an alliance of Prussian cities, gentry and clergy, fought the Teutonic Order over control of the region. In this war predominantly German-culture and German speaking Hanseatic cities like Danzig (Gdańsk) and Thorn (Toruń), the hometown of Nicolaus Copernicus, chose to support the Polish king, who promised to respect the cities' traditional vast independence, which the Teutonic Order had challenged. The father of Nicolaus was actively engaged in the politics of the day, and supported Poland and the cities against the Teutonic Order. In 1454 he mediated negotiations between Poland’s Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Prussian cities for repayment of war loans. In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the Teutonic Order formally relinquished all claims to its western provinces, which as Royal Prussia remained a region of Poland for the next 300 years.
The father married Barbara Watzenrode, the astronomer's mother, between 1461 and 1464. He died sometime between 1483 and 1485. Upon the father’s death, young Nicolaus’ maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (1447–1512), took the boy under his protection and saw to his education and career.
Mother's family
Copernicus' maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger
Nicolaus’ mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the daughter of Lucas Watzenrode the Elder and his wife Katherine (née Modlibóg). Not much is known about her life, but she is believed to have died when Nicolaus was a small boy. The Watzenrodes, who were Roman Catholic, had come from the Świdnica (Schweidnitz) region of Silesia and had settled in Toruń after 1360, becoming prominent members of the city’s patrician class. Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family relationships by marriage, they were related to wealthy families of Toruń, Danzig and Elbląg (Elbing), and to the prominent Czapski, Działyński, Konopacki and Kościelecki noble families. The Modlibógs (literally, in Polish, "Pray to God") were a prominent Roman Catholic Polish family who had been well known in Poland's history since 1271. Lucas and Katherine had three children: Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, who would become Copernicus' patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother; and Christina, who in 1459 married the merchant and mayor of Toruń, Tiedeman von Allen.
Lucas Watzenrode the Elder was well-regarded in Toruń as a devout man and honest merchant, and he was active politically. He was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Knights and an ally of Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon. In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz (Graudenz) conference that planned to ally the cities of the Prussian Confederation with Casimir IV in their subsequent war against the Teutonic Knights. During the Thirteen Years' War that ensued the following year, he actively supported the war effort with substantial monetary subsidies, with political activity in Toruń and Danzig, and by personally fighting in battles at Łasin (Lessen) and Marienburg (Malbork). He died in 1462.
Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomer's maternal uncle and patron, was educated at the University of Krakow (now Jagiellonian University) and at the universities of Cologne and Bologna. He was a bitter opponent of the Teutonic Order and its Grand Master, who once referred to Watzenrode as “the devil incarnate.” In 1489 Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against the preference of King Casimir IV, who had hoped to install his own son in that seat. As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king until Casimir IV’s death three years later. Watzenrode was then able to form close relations with three successive Polish monarchs: John I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund I the Old. He was a friend and key advisor to each ruler, and his influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper. Watzenrode came to be considered the most powerful man in Warmia, and his wealth, connections and influence allowed him to secure Copernicus’ education and career as a canon at Frombork (Frauenberg) Cathedral.
Language
German-language letter from Copernicus to Duke Albert of Prussia, giving medical advice for George von Kunheim (1541)
Copernicus is postulated to have spoken Latin, German, and Polish with equal fluency. He also spoke Greek and Italian. The vast majority of Copernicus’ surviving works are in Latin, which in his lifetime was the language of academia in Europe. Latin was also the official language of the Roman Catholic Church and of Poland's royal court, and thus all of Copernicus’ correspondence with the Church and with Polish leaders was in Latin.
There survives a German-language correspondence between Copernicus and Duke Albert of Prussia. Some scholars hold that German should be considered Copernicus’ native language because Thorn/Toruń was then predominantly German-speaking, because a German-language correspondence survives to illustrate Copernicus' proficiency in that language, and because, while studying law at Bologna in 1496, he signed into the German natio (Natio Germanorum)—a student organization which, according to its 1497 by-laws, was open to German-speaking students of all kingdoms and states.
On the other hand, Renaissance Poles wrote variously in Latin, in Polish or in both languages.
Name
In Copernicus’ day, people were often called after the places where they lived. Like the Silesian village that inspired it, Copernicus’ surname has been spelled variously. Today the English-speaking world knows the astronomer principally by the Latinized name, "Nicolaus Copernicus."
The surname likely had something to do with the local Silesian copper-mining industry, though some scholars assert that it may have been inspired by the dill plant (in Polish, "koperek" or "kopernik") that grows wild in Silesia.
As was to be the case with William Shakespeare a century later, numerous spelling variants of the name are documented for the astronomer and his relatives. The name first appeared as a place name in Silesia in the 13th century, where it was spelled variously in Latin documents. Copernicus "was rather indifferent about orthography." During his childhood, the name of his father (and thus of the future astronomer) was recorded in Toruń as Niclas Koppernigk around 1480. At Kraków he signed his name "Nicolaus Nicolai de Torunia." At Bologna in 1496, he registered in the Matricula Nobilissimi Germanorum Collegii resp. Annales Clarissimae Nacionis Germanorum of the Natio Germanica Bononiae as Dominus Nicolaus Kopperlingk de Thorn – IX grosseti. At Padua, Copernicus signed his name "Nicolaus Copernik", later as "Coppernicus." He signed a self-portrait, a copy of which is now at Jagiellonian University, "N Copernic." The astronomer Latinized his name to Coppernicus, generally with two "p"s (in 23 of 31 documents studied), but later in life he used a single "p". On the title page of De revolutionibus, Rheticus published the name as (in the genitive, or possessive, case) "Nicolai Copernici".
Education
Collegium Maius, Kraków
Nicolaus Copernicus Monument in Kraków
Copernicus' uncle Watzenrode maintained contacts with the leading intellectual figures in Poland and was a friend of the influential Italian-born humanist and Kraków courtier, Filippo Buonaccorsi. Watzenrode seems first to have sent young Copernicus to the St. John's School at Toruń where he himself had been a master. Later, according to Armitage (some scholars differ), the boy attended the Cathedral School at Włocławek, up the Vistula River from Toruń, which prepared pupils for entrance to the University of Krakow, Watzenrode's alma mater in Poland's capital.
In the winter semester of 1491–92 Copernicus, as "Nicolaus Nicolai de Thuronia," matriculated together with his brother Andrew at the University of Krakow (now Jagiellonian University). Copernicus began his studies in the Department of Arts (from the fall of 1491, presumably until the summer or fall of 1495) in the heyday of the Kraków astronomical-mathematical school, acquiring the foundations for his subsequent mathematical achievements. According to a later but credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Copernicus was a pupil of Albert Brudzewski, who by then (from 1491) was a professor of Aristotelian philosophy but taught astronomy privately outside the university; Copernicus became familiar with Brożek's widely read commentary to Georg von Peuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum and almost certainly attended the lectures of Bernard of Biskupie and Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuły and probably other astronomical lectures by Jan of Głogów, Michael of Wrocław, Wojciech of Pniewy and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.
Copernicus' Kraków studies gave him a thorough grounding in the mathematical-astronomical knowledge taught at the university (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy), a good knowledge of the philosophical and natural-science writings of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes (which later would play an important role in shaping his theory), stimulated his interest in learning, and made him conversant with humanistic culture. Copernicus broadened the knowledge that he took from the university lecture halls with independent reading of books that he acquired during his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to this period, probably, also date his earliest scientific notes, now preserved partly at Uppsala University. At Kraków Copernicus began collecting a large library on astronomy; it would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during the Deluge and is now at the Uppsala University Library.
Copernicus' four years at Kraków played an important role in the development of his critical faculties and initiated his analysis of the logical contradictions in the two "official" systems of astronomy—Aristotle's theory of homocentric spheres, and Ptolemy's mechanism of eccentrics and epicycles--the surmounting and discarding of which constituted the first step toward the creation of Copernicus' own doctrine of the structure of the universe.
Without taking a degree, probably in the fall of 1495, Copernicus left Kraków for the court of his uncle Watzenrode, who in 1489 had been elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (after November 1495) sought to place his nephew in a Warmia canonry vacated by the 26 August 1495 death of its previous tenant. For unclear reasons—probably due to opposition from part of the chapter, who appealed to Rome--Copernicus' installation was delayed, inclining Watzenrode to send both his nephews to study law in Italy, seemingly with a view to furthering their ecclesiastic careers and thereby also strengthening his own influence in the Warmia chapter.
Leaving Warmia in mid-1496—possibly with the retinue of the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going to Italy—in the fall (October?) of that year Copernicus arrived in Bologna and a few months later (after 6 January 1497) signed himself into the register of the Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation," which also included Polish youths from Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as well as students of other nationalities.
It was only on 20 October 1497 that Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry, which had been granted to him two years earlier. To this, by a document dated 10 January 1503 at Padua, he would add a sinecure at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in Wrocław (Breslau), Silesia, Bohemia. Despite having received a papal indult on 29 November 1508 to receive further benefices, through his ecclesiastic career Copernicus not only did not acquire further prebends and higher stations (prelacies) at the chapter, but in 1538 he relinquished the Wrocław sinecure. It is uncertain whether he was ordained a priest; he may only have taken minor orders, which sufficed for assuming a chapter canonry.
Via Galliera 65, Bologna, site of house of Domenico Maria Novara. Plaque on portico commemorates Copernicus.
"Here, where stood the house of Domenico Maria Novara, professor of the ancient Studium of Bologna, NICOLAUS COPERNICUS, the Polish mathematician and astronomer who would revolutionize concepts of the universe, conducted brilliant celestial observations with his teacher in 1497–1500. Placed on the 5th centenary of [Copernicus'] birth by the City, the University, the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna, the Polish Academy of Sciences. 1473 [—] 1973."
During his three-year stay at Bologna, between fall 1496 and spring 1501, Copernicus seems to have devoted himself less keenly to studying canon law (he received his doctorate in law only after seven years, following a second return to Italy in 1503) than to studying the humanities--probably attending lectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni and Alessandro Achillini--and to studying astronomy. He met the famous astronomer Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple and assistant. Copernicus was developing new ideas inspired by reading the "Epitome of the Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496). He verified its observations about certain peculiarities in Ptolemy's theory of the Moon's motion, by conducting on 9 March 1497 at Bologna a memorable observation of Aldebaran, the brightest star in the Taurus constellation, whose results reinforced his doubts as to the geocentric system. Copernicus the humanist sought confirmation for his growing doubts through close reading of Greek and Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos of Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos, Plato), gathering, especially while at Padua, fragmentary historic information about ancient astronomical, cosmological and calendar systems.
Copernicus spent the jubilee year 1500 in Rome, where he arrived with his brother Andrew that spring, doubtless to perform an apprenticeship at the Papal Curia. Here, too, however, he continued his astronomical work begun at Bologna, observing, for example, a lunar eclipse on the night of 5–6 November 1500. According to a later account by Rheticus, Copernicus also—probably privately, rather than at the Roman Sapienza--as a "Professor Mathematum" (professor of astronomy) delivered, "to numerous... students and... leading masters of the science," public lectures devoted probably to a critique of the mathematical solutions of contemporary astronomy.
On his return journey doubtless stopping briefly at Bologna, in mid-1501 Copernicus arrived back in Warmia. After on 28 July receiving from the chapter a two-year extension of leave in order to study medicine (since "he may in future be a useful medical advisor to our Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the gentlemen of the chapter"), in late summer or in the fall he returned again to Italy, probably accompanied by his brother Andrew and by Canon B. Sculteti. This time he studied at the University of Padua, famous as a seat of medical learning, and—except for a brief visit to Ferrara in May–June 1503 to pass examinations for, and receive, his doctorate in canon law—he remained at Padua from fall 1501 to summer 1503.
Copernicus studied medicine probably under the direction of leading Padua professors—Bartolomeo da Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read medical treatises that he acquired at this time, by Valescus de Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Villa Nova, and Michele Savonarola, which would form the embryo of his later medical library.
One of the subjects that Copernicus must have studied was astrology, since it was considered an important part of a medical education. However, unlike most other prominent Renaissance astronomers, he appears never to have practiced or expressed any interest in astrology.
As at Bologna, Copernicus did not limit himself to his official studies. It was probably the Padua years that saw the beginning of his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized himself with Greek language and culture with the aid of Theodorus Gaza's grammar (1495) and J.B. Chrestonius' dictionary (1499), expanding his studies of antiquity, begun at Bologna, to the writings of Bessarion, J. Valla and others. There also seems to be evidence that it was during his Padua stay that there finally crystallized the idea of basing a new system of the world on the movement of the Earth.
As the time approached for Copernicus to return home, in spring 1503 he journeyed to Ferrara where, on 31 May 1503, having passed the obligatory examinations, he was granted the degree of doctor of canon law. No doubt it was soon after (at latest, in fall 1503) that he left Italy for good to return to Warmia.
Work
Astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God, by Matejko. In background: Frombork Cathedral.
Having completed all his studies in Italy, 30-year-old Copernicus returned to Warmia, where — apart from brief journeys to Kraków and to nearby Prussian cities (Toruń, Gdańsk, Elbląg, Grudziądz, Malbork, Königsberg) — he would live out the remaining 40 years of his life.
The Prince-Bishopric of Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its own diet (parliament), army, monetary unit (the same as in the other parts of Royal Prussia) and treasury.
From 1503 to 1510, or perhaps till his uncle's death (29 March 1512), Copernicus was his personal secretary and physician and resided in the Bishop's castle at Lidzbark Warmiński (Heilsberg). It is there that he began work on his heliocentric theory. In his official capacity, he took part in nearly all his uncle's political, ecclesiastic and administrative-economic duties. From the beginning of 1504, Copernicus accompanied Watzenrode to sessions of the Royal Prussian diet held at Malbork and Elbląg and, write Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated... in all the more important events in the complex diplomatic game that that ambitious politician and statesman played in defense of the particular interests of Prussia and Warmia, between hostility to the [Teutonic] Order and loyalty to the [Polish] Crown."
Copernicus' translation of Theophylact Simocatta's Epistles. Cover shows coats-of-arms of (clockwise from top) Poland, Lithuania and Kraków.
In 1504–12 Copernicus made numerous journeys as part of his uncle's retinue—in 1504, to Toruń and Gdańsk (Danzig), to a session of the Royal Prussian Council in the presence of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to sessions of the Prussian diet at Malbork (1506), Elbląg (1507) and Sztum (1512); and he may have attended a Poznań session (1510) and the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I the Old in Kraków (1507). Watzenrode's itinerary suggests that in spring 1509 Copernicus may have attended the Kraków sejm.
It was probably on the latter occasion, in Kraków, that Copernicus submitted for printing at Jan Haller's press his translation, from Greek to Latin, of a collection, by the 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, of 85 brief poems called Epistles, or letters, supposed to have passed between various characters in a Greek story. They are of three kinds—"moral," offering advice on how people should live; "pastoral," giving little pictures of shepherd life; and "amorous," comprising love poems. They are arranged to follow one another in a regular rotation of subjects. Copernicus had translated the Greek verses into Latin prose, and he now published his version as Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated to his uncle in gratitude for all the benefits he had received from him. With this translation, Copernicus declared himself on the side of the humanists in the struggle over the question whether Greek literature should be revived. Copernicus' first poetic work was a Greek epigram, composed probably during a visit to Kraków, for Johannes Dantiscus' epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's 1512 wedding to King Zygmunt I the Old.
Some time before 1514, Copernicus wrote an initial outline of his heliocentric theory known only from later transcripts, by the title (perhaps given to it by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium a se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred to as the Commentariolus. It was a succinct theoretical description of the world's heliocentric mechanism, without mathematical apparatus, and differed in some important details of geometric construction from De revolutionibus; but it was already based on the same assumptions regarding Earth's triple motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus consciously saw as merely a first sketch for his planned book, was not intended for printed distribution. He made only a very few manuscript copies available to his closest acquaintances, including, it seems, several Kraków astronomers with whom he collaborated in 1515–30 in observing eclipses. Tycho Brahe would include a fragment from the Commentariolus in his own treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Prague in 1602, based on a manuscript that he had received from the Bohemian physician and astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, a friend of Rheticus. The Commentariolus would appear complete in print for the first time only in 1878.
Copernicus' tower at Frombork, where he lived and worked; rebuilt recently
Frombork Cathedral mount and fortifications. In foreground: statue of Copernicu
In 1510 or 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to the northwest at the Vistula Lagoon on the Baltic Sea coast. There, in April 1512, he participated in the election of Fabian of Lossainen as Prince-Bishop of Warmia. It was only in early June 1512 that the chapter gave Copernicus an "external curia"—a house outside the defensive walls of the cathedral mount. In 1514 he purchased the northwestern tower within the walls of the Frombork stronghold. He would maintain both these residences to the end of his life, despite the devastation of the chapter's buildings by a raid against Frombork carried out by the Teutonic Order in January 1520, during which Copernicus' astronomical instruments were probably destroyed. Copernicus conducted astronomical observations in 1513–16 presumably from his external curia; and in 1522–43, from an unidentified "small tower" (turricula), using primitive instruments modeled on ancient ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere. At Frombork Copernicus conducted over half of his more than 60 registered astronomical observations.
Having settled permanently at Frombork, where he would reside to the end of his life, with interruptions in 1516-19 and 1520–21, Copernicus found himself at the Warmia chapter's economic and administrative center, which was also one of Warmia's two chief centers of political life. In the difficult, politically complex situation of Warmia, threatened externally by the Teutonic Order's aggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish-Teutonic War of 1519-21; Albrecht's plans to annex Warmia), internally subject to strong separatist pressures (the selection of the prince-bishops of Warmia; currency reform), he, together with part of the chapter, represented a program of strict cooperation with the Polish Crown and demonstrated in all his public activities (the defense of his country against the Order's plans of conquest; proposals to unify its monetary system with the Polish Crown's; support for Poland's interests in the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously a citizen of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic. Soon after the death of uncle Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in the signing of the Second Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December 1512), governing the appointment of the Bishop of Warmia, declaring, despite opposition from part of the chapter, for loyal cooperation with the Polish Crown.
That same year (before 8 November 1512) Copernicus assumed responsibility, as magister pistoriae, for administering the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office again in 1530), having already since 1511 fulfilled the duties of chancellor and visitor of the chapter's estates.
His administrative and economic dutes did not distract Copernicus, in 1512-15, from intensive observational activity. The results of his observations of Mars and Saturn in this period, and especially a series of four observations of the Sun made in 1515, led to discovery of the variability of Earth's eccentric and of the movement of the solar apogee in relation to the fixed stars, which in 1515-19 prompted his first revisions of certain assumptions of his system. Some of the observations that he made in this period may have had a connection with a proposed reform of the Julian calendar made in the first half of 1513 at the request of the Bishop of Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their contacts in this matter in the period of the Fifth Lateran Council were later memorialized in a complimentary mention in Copernicus' dedicatory epistle in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and in a treatise by Paul of Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (1516), which mentions Copernicus among the learned men who had sent the Council proposals for the calendar's emendation.
Olsztyn Castle
During 1516–21, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn Castle as economic administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn (Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack). While there, he wrote a manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), with a view to populating those fiefs with industrious farmers and so bolstering the economy of Warmia. When Olsztyn was besieged by the Teutonic Knights during the Polish–Teutonic War (1519–21), Copernicus directed the defense of Olsztyn and Warmia by Royal Polish forces. He also represented the Polish side in the ensuing peace negotiations.
Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian diet, and with Duke Albert of Prussia (against whom Copernicus had defended Warmia in the Polish-Teutonic War), and advised King Sigismund, on monetary reform. He participated in discussions in the East Prussian diet about coinage reform in the Prussian countries; a question that concerned the diet was who had the right to mint coin. Political developments in Prussia culminated in the 1525 establishment of the Duchy of Prussia as a Protestant state in vassalage to Poland.
In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of money, Monetae cudendae ratio. In it he formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called Gresham's Law, that "bad" (debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation—70 years before Thomas Gresham. He also formulated a version of quantity theory of money. Copernicus' recommendations on monetary reform were widely read by leaders of both Prussia and Poland in their attempts to stabilize currency.
Thorvaldsen's Copernicus Monument in Warsaw
In 1533, Johann Widmanstetter, secretary to Pope Clement VII, explained Copernicus' heliocentric system to the Pope and two cardinals. The Pope was so pleased that he gave Widmanstetter a valuable gift.
In 1535 Bernard Wapowski wrote a letter to a gentleman in Vienna, urging him to publish an enclosed almanac, which he claimed had been written by Copernicus. This is the first and only mention of a Copernicus almanac in the historical records. The "almanac" was likely Copernicus' tables of planetary positions. Wapowski's letter mentions Copernicus' theory about the motions of the earth. Nothing came of Wapowski's request, because he died a couple of weeks later.
Following the death of Prince-Bishop of Warmia Mauritius Ferber (1 July 1537), Copernicus participated in the election of his successor, Johannes Dantiscus (20 September 1537). Copernicus was one of four candidates for the post, written in at the initiative of Tiedemann Giese; but his candidacy was actually pro forma, since Dantiscus had earlier been named coadjutor bishop to Ferber.
At first Copernicus maintained friendly relations with the new Prince-Bishop, assisting him medically in spring 1538 and accompanying him that summer on an inspection tour of Chapter holdings. But that autumn, their friendship was strained by suspicions over Copernicus' housekeeper, Anna Schilling, whom Dantiscus removed from Frombork in 1539.
Copernicus with medicinal plant
In his younger days, Copernicus the physician had treated his uncle, brother and other chapter members. In later years he was called upon to attend the elderly bishops who in turn occupied the see of Warmia—Mauritius Ferber and Johannes Dantiscus—and, in 1539, his old friend Tiedemann Giese, Bishop of Chełmno (Kulm). In treating such important patients, he sometimes sought consultations from other physicians, including the physician to Duke Albert and, by letter, the Polish Royal Physician.
In the spring of 1541, Duke Albert summoned Copernicus to Königsberg to attend the Duke's counselor, George von Kunheim, who had fallen seriously ill, and for whom the Prussian doctors seemed unable to do anything. Copernicus went willingly; he had met von Kunheim during negotiations over reform of the coinage. And Copernicus had come to feel that Albert himself was not such a bad person; the two had many intellectual interests in common. The Chapter readily gave Copernicus permission to go, as it wished to remain on good terms with the Duke, despite his Lutheran faith. In about a month the patient recovered, and Copernicus returned to Frombork. For a time, he continued to receive reports on von Kunheim's condition, and to send him medical advice by letter.
Throughout this period of his life, Copernicus continued making astronomical observations and calculations, but only as his other responsibilities permitted and never in a professional capacity.
Some of Copernicus' close friends turned Protestant, but Copernicus never showed a tendency in that direction. The first attacks on him came from Protestants. Wilhelm Gnapheus, a Dutch refugee settled in Elbląg, wrote a comedy in Latin, Morosophus (The Foolish Sage), and staged it at the Latin school that he had established there. In the play, Copernicus was caricatured as a haughty, cold, aloof man who dabbled in astrology, considered himself inspired by God, and was rumored to have written a large work that was moldering in a chest.
Elsewhere Protestants were the first to react to news of Copernicus' theory. Melanchthon wrote:
Some people believe that it is excellent and correct to work out a thing as absurd as did that Sarmatian [i.e., Polish] astronomer who moves the earth and stops the sun. Indeed, wise rulers should have curbed such light-mindedness.
Nevertheless, in 1551, eight years after Copernicus' death, astronomer Erasmus Reinhold published, under the sponsorship of Copernicus' former military adversary, the Protestant Duke Albert, the Prussian Tables, a set of astronomical tables based on Copernicus' work. Astronomers and astrologers quickly adopted it in place of its predecessors.
Heliocentrism
Mid-16th-century portrait
Some time before 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his "Commentariolus" ("Little Commentary"), a forty-page manuscript describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis. It contained seven basic assumptions. Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work.
About 1532 Copernicus had basically completed his work on the manuscript of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium; but despite urging by his closest friends, he resisted openly publishing his views, not wishing—as he confessed—to risk the scorn "to which he would expose himself on account of the novelty and incomprehensibility of his theses."
In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered a series of lectures in Rome outlining Copernicus' theory. Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals heard the lectures and were interested in the theory. On 1 November 1536, Cardinal Nikolaus von Schönberg, Archbishop of Capua, wrote to Copernicus from Rome:
Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At that time I began to have a very high regard for you... For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe... Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject...
By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticism—a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent dedication of his masterpiece to Pope Paul III. Scholars disagree on whether Copernicus' concern was limited to possible astronomical and philosophical objections, or whether he was also concerned about religious objections.
The book
De revolutionibus, 1543. Click on image to read book.
Copernicus was still working on De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 Georg Joachim Rheticus, a Wittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork. Philipp Melanchthon, a close theological ally of Martin Luther, had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them.
Rheticus became Copernicus' pupil, staying with him for two years and writing a book, Narratio prima (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on trigonometry by Copernicus (later included in the second book of De revolutionibus).
Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give De revolutionibus to his close friend, Tiedemann Giese, bishop of Chełmno (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by the German printer Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg (Nürnberg), Germany. While Rheticus initially supervised the printing, he had to leave Nuremberg before it was completed, and he handed over the task of supervising the rest of the printing to a Lutheran theologian, Andreas Osiander.
Osiander added an unauthorised and unsigned preface, defending the work against those who might be offended by the novel hypotheses. He explained that astronomers may find different causes for observed motions, and choose whatever is easier to grasp. As long as a hypothesis allows reliable computation, it does not have to match what a philosopher might seek as the truth.
Death
Copernicus' 1735 Latin epitaph in Frombork Cathedral. An earlier 1580 epitaph had been destroyed during wars.
Casket with Copernicus' remains, St. James' Cathedral Basilica, Olsztyn, March 2010
Frombork Cathedral
Copernicus' 2010 grave, Frombork Cathedral
Copernicus died in Frombork on 24 May 1543. Legend has it that the first printed copy of De revolutionibus was placed in his hands on the very day that he died, allowing him to take farewell of his life's work. He is reputed to have awoken from a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and then died peacefully.
Copernicus was reportedly buried in Frombork Cathedral, where archaeologists for over two centuries searched in vain for his remains. Efforts to locate the remains in 1802, 1909, 1939 and 2004 had come to nought. In August 2005, however, a team led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an archaeology and anthropology institute in Pułtusk, after scanning beneath the cathedral floor, discovered what they believed to be Copernicus' remains.
The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3, 2008. Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it is Copernicus."
Forensic expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of the Polish Police Central Forensic Laboratory used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features—including a broken nose and a scar above the left eye—on a Copernicus self-portrait.
The expert also determined that the skull belonged to a man who had died around age 70—Copernicus' age at the time of his death.
The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains of the skeleton were found; missing, among other things, was the lower jaw. The DNA from the bones found in the grave matched hair samples taken from a book owned by Copernicus which was kept at the library of the University of Uppsala in Sweden.
On 22 May 2010 Copernicus was given a second funeral in a Mass led by Józef Kowalczyk, the former papal nuncio to Poland and newly named Primate of Poland. Copernicus' remains were reburied in the same spot in Frombork Cathedral where part of his skull and other bones had been found. A black granite tombstone now identifies him as the founder of the heliocentric theory and also a church canon. The tombstone bears a representation of Copernicus' model of the solar system—a golden sun encircled by six of the planets.
Copernican system
Main article: Copernican heliocentrism
Predecessor
Philolaus (c. 480–385 BCE), a Greek philosopher of the Pythagorean school, described an astronomical system in which the Earth, Moon, Sun, planets, and stars all revolved about a central fire. Heraclides Ponticus (387–312 BCE) proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis. According to Archimedes, Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BCE) wrote of heliocentric hypotheses in a book that does not survive. Plutarch wrote that Aristarchus was accused of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion".
In a manuscript of De revolutionibus, Copernicus wrote, "It is likely that... Philolaus perceived the mobility of the earth, which also some say was the opinion of Aristarchus of Samos", but later struck out the passage and omitted it from the published book.
Ptolemy
Main article: Almagest
The prevailing theory in Europe during Copernicus' lifetime was the one that Ptolemy published in his Almagest circa 150 CE. Ptolemy's system drew on previous Greek theories in which the Earth was the stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated rapidly, approximately daily, while each of the planets, the Sun, and the Moon were embedded in their own, smaller spheres. Ptolemy's system employed devices, including epicycles, deferents and equants, to account for observations that the paths of these bodies differed from simple, circular orbits centered on the Earth. Ptolemy's model was refined by the 10th-century astronomer Muhammad al Battani, working at Ar-Raqqah in modern-day Syria. Although al Battani accepted the validity of the Ptolemaic model, Copernicus made much use of his astronomical observations in demonstrating the heliocentric theory, and gave acknowledgement to his predecessor in De revolutionibus.
Copernicu
Copernicus' vision of the universe in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
Copernicus' major theory was published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), in the year of his death, 1543, though he had formulated the theory several decades earlier.
Copernicus' "Commentariolus" summarized his heliocentric theory. It listed the "assumptions" upon which the theory was based as follows:
1. There is no one center of all the celestial circles or spheres.
2. The center of the earth is not the center of the universe, but only of gravity and of the lunar sphere.
3. All the spheres revolve about the sun as their mid-point, and therefore the sun is the center of the universe.
4. The ratio of the earth's distance from the sun to the height of the firmament (outermost celestial sphere containing the stars) is so much smaller than the ratio of the earth's radius to its distance from the sun that the distance from the earth to the sun is imperceptible in comparison with the height of the firmament.
5. Whatever motion appears in the firmament arises not from any motion of the firmament, but from the earth's motion. The earth together with its circumjacent elements performs a complete rotation on its fixed poles in a daily motion, while the firmament and highest heaven abide unchanged.
6. What appear to us as motions of the sun arise not from its motion but from the motion of the earth and our sphere, with which we revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth has, then, more than one motion.
7. The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent inequalities in the heavens.
De revolutionibus itself was divided into six parts, called "books":
General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World
Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books)
Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena
Description of the Moon and its orbital motion
Concrete exposition of the new system
Concrete exposition of the new system
Successor
Georg Joachim Rheticus could have been Copernicus' successor, but did not rise to the occasion. Erasmus Reinhold could have been his successor, but died prematurely. The first of the great successors was Tycho Brahe (though he did not think the earth orbitted the sun), followed by Johannes Kepler, who had worked as Tycho's assistant in Prague.
Copernicanism
See also: Catholic Church and science
Copernicus, astronomer
At original publication, Copernicus' epoch-making book caused only mild controversy, and provoked no fierce sermons about contradicting Holy Scripture. It was only three years later, in 1546, that a Dominican, Giovanni Maria Tolosani, denounced the theory in an appendix to a work defending the absolute truth of Scripture. He also noted that the Master of the Sacred Palace (i.e., the Catholic Church's chief censor), Bartolomeo Spina, a friend and fellow Dominican, had planned to condemn De revolutionibus but had been prevented from doing so by his illness and death.
Arthur Koestler, in his popular book The Sleepwalkers, asserted that Copernicus' book had not been widely read on its first publication. This claim was trenchantly criticised by Edward Rosen, and has been decisively disproved by Owen Gingerich, who examined every surviving copy of the first two editions and found copious marginal notes by their owners throughout many of them. Gingerich published his conclusions in 2004 in The Book Nobody Read.
It has been much debated why it was not until six decades after Spina and Tolosani's attacks on Copernicus's work that the Catholic Church took any official action against it. Proposed reasons have included the personality of Galileo Galilei and the availability of evidence such as telescope observations.
In March 1616, in connection with the Galileo affair, the Roman Catholic Church's Congregation of the Index issued a decree suspending De revolutionibus until it could be "corrected," on the grounds that the supposedly Pythagorean doctrine that the Earth moves and the Sun does not was "false and altogether opposed to Holy Scripture." The same decree also prohibited any work that defended the mobility of the Earth or the immobility of the Sun, or that attempted to reconcile these assertions with Scripture.
On the orders of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to be issued, and warned him that he could not "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine. The corrections to De revolutionibus, which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620.
In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for "following the position of Copernicus, which is contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture," and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.
The Catholic Church's 1758 Index of Prohibited Books omitted the general prohibition of works defending heliocentrism, but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored versions of De revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Those prohibitions were finally dropped from the 1835 Index.
Nationality
Bust by Schadow, 1807, Walhalla temple
Former Polish coins with image of Copernicus, by Gosławski
The question of Copernicus' nationality, and indeed whether it is meaningful to ascribe to him a nationality in the modern sense, has been the subject of some discussion.
Historian Michael Burleigh describes the nationality debate as a "totally insignificant battle" between German and Polish scholars during the interwar period.
Astronomer Konrad Rudnicki calls the discussion a "fierce scholarly quarrel in... times of nationalism", and describes Copernicus as an inhabitant of a German-speaking territory belonging to Poland, himself of mixed Polish-German extraction.
According to Czesław Miłosz, the debate is an "absurd" projection of a modern understanding of nationality on Renaissance people, who identified with their home territories rather than with a nation.
Similarly, historian Norman Davies states that Copernicus, as was common for his era, was "largely indifferent" to nationality, being a local patriot who considered himself "Prussian".
Miłosz and Davies both say that despite Copernicus' German-speaking background, his working language was Latin, though according to Davies there is evidence that Copernicus also knew Polish. Davies concludes: "Taking everything into consideration, there is good reason to regard him both as a German and as a Pole, yet in the sense that modern nationalists understand it, he was neither."
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Copernicus as "the child of a German family [who] was a subject of the Polish crown." Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana, The Columbia Encyclopedia, The Oxford World Encyclopedia, and the Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia identify Copernicus as Polish.
Copernicium
On July 14, 2009, the discoverers, from the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt, Germany, of chemical element 112 (temporarily named ununbium) proposed to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry that its permanent name be "copernicium" (symbol Cn). "After we had named elements after our city and our state, we wanted to make a statement with a name that was known to everyone," said Hofmann. "We didn't want to select someone who was a German. We were looking world-wide." On the 537th anniversary of his birthday the official naming was released to the public.
Veneration
Copernicus is honored, together with Johannes Kepler, in the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA), with a feast day on May 23.