阅读古斯塔夫·福楼拜 Gustave Flaubert在小说之家的作品!!! |
出生年代:1821-1880
法国重要的批判现实主义作家
国籍:法国
19世纪中叶法国重要的批判现实主义作家居斯达夫·福楼拜,1821年12月17日出生在卢昂一个著名的外科医生家庭。其作品反映了1848-1871年间法国的时代风貌,揭露了丑恶鄙俗的资产阶级社会。他的“客观而无动于衷”的创作理论和精雕细刻的艺术风格,在法国文学史上独树一帜。从小生活在医院环境培养了福楼拜实验主义倾向,使他注意对事物的缜密观察,而与宗教格格不入。他与青年哲学家普瓦特万很早就结成了亲密的友谊,普瓦特万的悲观主义思想和唯美主义观点对福楼拜有相当影响。福楼拜思想上还有着斯宾诺莎无神论思想的明显影响。他在上中学时就热心阅读浪漫主义作品,并从事文学习作。这些作品表现了“恶魔式的利己主义”和无政府主义式的狂热,带有浓厚的浪漫主义色彩。《狂人回忆》(1838)写他对一位音乐出版商妻子的炽热感情,这位出版商的妻子就是《情感教育》中阿尔努夫人的原型。
居斯达夫·福楼拜-生平 1840年福楼拜赴巴黎攻读法律,因患神经系统的疾病于1843年秋辍学。在巴黎,他结识了另一位大文豪雨果。1846年他认识了女诗人路易丝·高莱,两人有将近十年的交往。1843-1845年间,他写了《情感教育》初稿。1846年父亲去世后,他在卢昂附近的克罗瓦塞别墅定居,埋头于文学创作,除偶尔到巴黎拜会一下文艺界的朋友外,在那里独身终其一生。
1849-1851年福楼拜和杜刚去马其顿、埃及、巴勒斯坦、叙利亚、土耳其、希腊和意大利旅行,这为他日后的创作积累了丰富的素材。他在近东各国所见到的社会现象使他大为失望。在国内外见到的种种丑恶现象,加深了他的悲观主义倾向,甚至对人类的前途失去信心。
十九世纪五、六十年代,他完成了三部主要作品:《包法利夫人》、《萨朗波》和《情感教育》。《包法利夫人》的发表,轰动了当时的法国文坛。但是这部作品却很快受到了当局的指控,罪名是败坏道德,诽谤宗教。当局要求法庭对“主犯福楼拜,必须从严惩办!”幸赖有律师塞纳的声望和辩护,福楼拜才免于处分。但是“政府攻击、报纸谩骂、教士仇视”的局面,对他是很大的压力,使他放弃了现实题材的创作,转向古代题材。经过六年的艰苦写作,历史小说《萨朗波》终于问世。
《萨朗波》共十五章,描写公元前3世纪迦太基的雇佣军哗变起义的历史故事。起义军在首领马托的率领下,很快得到全国群众揭竿响应。迦太基统帅汉密迦的女儿萨朗波倾慕马托的勇敢,在哗变之初就对马托表示过好感,马托也爱上了她。义军虽经过艰苦的浴血战斗,最终还是被镇压下去。马托被俘。政府当局决定在萨朗波和纳哈法举行婚礼时处决马托。萨朗波在神殿石阶上见到马托鲜血淋漓被押解过来时,便仰身倒地而死。
《情感教育》是作者第二部以当代生活为题材的重要小说。小说的副题是“一个青年的故事”。小说主人公弗雷德利克·莫罗出身于法国外省的一个中产阶级家庭。1840年去巴黎上大学。在旅途中与画商阿尔努夫妇相识,对阿尔努夫人一见钟情,回巴黎后想方设法跟她接近。阿尔努夫人稳重端庄,不滥用感情。莫罗由于得不到阿尔努夫人的爱情,又和交际花萝莎妮媾合,还有了一个孩子。从此他陷入双重恋爱中不能自拔。与此同时,他和各种政治倾向的人物交往,终于学业荒废。后来由于家庭经济困难,只得蛰居家乡。直到1845年他得到叔父的一笔遗产,才重返巴黎,做股票投机生意。1848年二月革命爆发,他狂热了一阵;但到六月革命时,他的政治热情已经完全消失。为了跻入上流社会,他又去追求大银行家唐布罗士的妻子,但遭到拒绝。他不得已返回家乡,想去找过去一直迷恋着他的女子路易丝,但此时她已嫁给他的朋友戴洛立叶。小说以他和戴洛立叶在炉边一起回忆无聊虚度的一生而结束。
1871年,爆发了巴黎公社革命,福楼拜对此采取了敌视和诋毁的态度。70年代,他又一次修改了《圣安东的诱感》。这部于1874年定稿的作品,通过一系列群魔作恶的场面,描写了中世纪埃及一位圣洁隐士克服魔鬼种种诱惑的故事,表达了作者对社会贪欲的极端厌恶,也反映出作者的悲观主义和宿命论情绪。
晚年的福楼拜除悉心指导莫泊桑写作外,一直在写最后一部长篇小说《布瓦尔和佩居榭》(1881),只差一章没有完成。这部小说可以说是《情感教育》的姊妹篇,可称为“理智教育”。它描写的是1848年革命在外省的反响,与《情感教育》所描写的1848年革命时期的巴黎相呼应。革命期间外省保守势力的惶恐不安与嚣张气焰,拿破仑三世上台时教士们欢欣鼓舞的情态,以及工农群众的情绪和动向,在小说里都有真实的描绘。小说还写了两个抄写员有了钱,去“探索”科学和真理,但一一遭到失败,最后只好又回到抄写的老本行。作者对他们进行科学试验的漫画化的描绘,影射了资产阶级文化所面临的危机。调整和揭露了资产阶级科学文化领域里的主观主义和经验主义。福楼拜对资本主义社会的方方面面都感到失望,他的这种情绪在他身后才出版的讽刺性作品《众所周知的真理辞典》中也有所表现。
居斯达夫·福楼拜-贡献
福楼拜是十九世纪中后期法国一个重要的现实主义小说家.在现实主义向现代主义转型中,福楼拜起了承前启后的作用.他是十九世纪现实主义的杰出代表,是现实主义的集大成者;但他又被誉为现代主义"鼻祖".他提倡的"客观化写作"为现代主义叙述中零焦聚的使用提供了范例.出于对现实和历史的厌恶,他在创作中非常重视描绘平庸的日常生活,这使得其作品在情节构造上出现一种日常化的趋势.这一创作手法也给现代主义作家很大启发,并最终导致了"淡化情节"这种现代主义创作手法的出现.文章以客观化写作、情节的日常化为切入点,。.
居斯塔夫·福楼拜(1821-1880)是19世纪中叶法国现实主义作家。生于法国诺曼底卢昂医生世家。童年在父亲医院里度过,医院环境培养了他细致观察与剖析事物的习惯,对日后文学创作有极大的影响。福楼拜在中学时就热爱浪漫主义作品,并从事文学习作。早期习作有浓厚浪漫主义色彩。1840年,他赴巴黎求学,攻读法律,期间结识雨果。1843年放弃法律,专心文学。1846年,回卢昂,结识女诗人路易丝·柯莱,随后有近十年的交往。定居卢昂期间,他埋头写作,偶尔拜会文艺界朋友,直到生命最后时刻。晚年,他曾悉心指导莫泊桑写作。
1857年,福楼拜出版代表作长篇小说《包法利夫人》,轰动文坛。但作品受到当局指控,罪名是败坏道德,毁谤宗教。此后,他一度转入古代题材创作,于1862年发表长篇小说《萨朗波》。但1870年发表的长篇小说《情感教育》,仍然是一部以现实生活为题材的作品。小说在揭露个人悲剧的社会因素方面,与《包法利夫人》有异曲同工之妙。此外,他还写有《圣·安东的诱惑》(1874)、未完稿的《布瓦尔和佩居谢》、剧本《竞选人》(1874)和短篇小说集《三故事》(1877)等。小说集中的《一颗简单的心》,出色地刻画了一个普通劳动妇女的形象,是他短篇中的杰作。
福楼拜主张小说家应像科学家那样实事求是,要通过实地考察进行准确地描写。同时,他还提倡“客观而无动于衷”的创作理论,反对小说家在作品中表现自己。在艺术风格上,福楼拜从不作孤立、单独的环境描写,而是努力做到用环境来烘托人物心情,达到情景交融的艺术境界。他还是语言大师,注重思想与语言的统一。他认为:“思想越是美好,词句就越是铿锵,思想的准确会造成语言的准确。”又说:“表达愈是接近思想,用词就愈是贴切,就愈是美。”因此,他经常苦心磨练,惨淡经营,注意锤炼语言和句子。他的作品语言精练、准确、铿锵有力,是法国文学史上的“模范散文”之作。
居斯达夫·福楼拜-《福楼拜家的星期天》
那时福楼拜住在六层楼的一个单身宿舍里,屋子很简陋,墙上空空的,家具也很少。他很讨厌用一些没有实用价值的古董来装饰屋子。他的办公桌上总是散乱地铺着写满密密麻麻的字的稿纸。
每到星期天,从中午一点到七点,他家一直都有客人来。门铃一响,他就立刻把一块很薄的红纱毯盖到办公桌上,把桌上的稿纸、书、笔、字典等所有工作用的东西都遮了起来。他总是亲自去开门,因为佣人几乎每个星期日都要回家的。
第一个来到的往往是伊万•屠格涅夫。他像亲兄弟一样地拥抱着这位比他略高的俄国小说家。屠格涅夫对他有一种很强烈并且很深厚的爱。他们相同的思想、哲学观点和才能;共同的趣味、生活和梦想;相同的文学主张和狂热的理想,共同的鉴赏能力与博学多识使他们两人常常是一拍即合,一见面,两人都不约而同地感到一种与其说是相互理解的愉快,倒不如说是心灵内在的欢乐。
屠格涅夫仰坐在一个沙发上,用一种轻轻并有点犹豫的声调慢慢地讲着;但是不管什么事情一经他的嘴讲出,就都带上非凡的魅力和极大的趣味。福楼拜转动着蓝色的大眼睛盯着朋友这张白晳的脸,十分钦佩地听着。当他回答时,他的嗓音特别洪亮,仿佛在他那古高卢斗士式的大胡须下面吹响一把军号。他们的谈话很少涉及日常琐事,总是围绕着文学史方面的事件。屠格涅夫也常常带来一些外文书籍,并非常流利地翻译一些歌德和普希金的诗句。
过了一会儿,都德也来了。他一来就谈起巴黎的事情,讲叙着这个贪图享受、寻欢作乐并十分活跃和愉快的巴黎。他只用几句话,就勾画出某人滑稽的轮廓。他用他那独特的、具有南方风味和吸引人的讽刺口吻谈论着一切事物和一切人……
他的头很小却很漂亮,乌木色的浓密卷发从头上一直披到肩上,和卷曲的胡须连成一片;他习惯用手捋着自己的胡子尖。他的眼睛像切开的长缝,眯缝着,但却从中射出一道墨一样的黑光。也许是由于过度近视,他的眼光有时很模糊;讲话时调子有些像唱歌。他举止活跃,手势生动,具有一切南方人的特征。
接着来的是左拉。他爬了六层楼的楼梯累得呼呼直喘。一进来就歪在一把沙发上,并开始用眼光从大家的脸上寻找谈话的气氛和观察每人的精神状态。他很少讲话,总是歪坐着,压着一条腿,用手抓着自己的脚踝,很细心地听大家讲。当一种文学热潮或一种艺术的陶醉使谈话者激动了起来,并把他们卷入一些富于想象的人所喜爱的却又是极端荒谬、忘乎所以的学说中时,他还变得忧虑起来,晃动一下大腿,不时在发出几声:“ 可是……可是……”然而却被别人的大笑声所淹没。过了一会儿,当福楼拜的激情冲动过去之后,他就不慌不忙地开始说话,声音总是很平静,句子也很温和。
左拉中等身材,微微发胖,一副朴实但很固执的面庞。他的头像古时意大利版画中人物的头颅一样,虽然不漂亮,但表现出他的聪慧和坚强性格。在他那很发达的脑门上竖立着很短的头发,直挺挺的鼻子像是被人很突然地在那长满浓密胡子的嘴上一刀切断了。这张肥胖但很坚毅的脸的下半部都覆盖着修得很短的胡须,黑色的眼睛虽然近视,但透着十分尖锐的探求的目光。他的微笑总使人感到有点嘲讽,他那很特别的唇沟使上唇高高地翘起,又显得十分滑稽可笑。
渐渐地,人越来越多,挤满了小客厅。新来的人只好到餐厅里去。这时只见福楼拜做着大幅度的动作(就像他要飞起来似的),从这个人面前一步跨到那个人面前,带动得他的衣裤鼓起来,像一条渔船上的风帆。他时而激情满怀,时而义愤填膺;有时热烈激动,有时雄辩过人。他激动起来未免逗人发笑,但激动后和蔼可亲的样子又使人心情愉快;尤其是他那惊人的记忆力和超人的博学多识往往使人惊叹不已。他可以用一句很明了很深刻的话结束一场辩论。思想一下子飞跃过纵观几个世纪,并从中找出两个类同的事实或两段类似的格言,再加以比较。于是,就像两块同样的石块碰到一起一样,一束启蒙的火花从他的话语里迸发出来。
最后,他的朋友们一个个地陆续走了。他分别送到前厅,最后再单独和每个人讲一小会儿,紧紧握握对方的手,再热情地大笑着用手拍打几下对方的肩头……
居斯达夫·福楼拜-代表作品
居斯达夫·福楼拜福楼拜的代表作是《包法利夫人》
《包法利夫人》是法国著名福楼拜的代表作。作者以简洁而细腻的文笔,通过一个富有激情的妇女爱玛的经历,再现了19世纪中期法国的社会生活。《包法利夫人》的艺术形式使它成为近代小说的一个新转机。从《包法利夫人》问世以后,小说家知道即使是小说,也要精雕细琢。这不仅是一部模范小说,也是一篇模范散文。但是,《包法利夫人》也为作者带来了麻烦。许多人对号入座,批评福楼拜这部书“破坏社会道德和宗教”,他还被法院传了去:原来是有人告他“有伤风化”。这时许多读者纷纷向福楼拜表示同情和支持,甚至连一向反对他的浪漫主义作家也为他辩护。法庭上,经过一番激烈的辩论,作家被宣告无罪——由此可见《包法利夫人》的影响。
米兰·昆德拉有一句流传很广的名言,大意是,直到福楼拜的出现,小说才终于赶上了诗歌。众所周知,欧洲的小说最早是从叙事长诗中分化出来的。也就是说,叙事诗中描述事件进程的部分被剥离出来,渐渐成为一种专门的说故事的体裁。小说的诞生使诗歌失去了“叙事”的天然权利,而较多地从事抒情。然而,与诗歌这种古老的艺术相比,小说的幼稚是毋庸置疑的。它长期以来遭受冷落与歧视也就不足为怪了。在我看来,小说的不成熟,除了它作为一门专门的艺术尚未得到充分的发育之外,更重要的是,它与诗歌的关系十分暧昧,没有摆脱对于诗歌母体的依赖。它自身特殊而严格的文体上的规定性在相当长的时间内未能形成。早期小说的故事性到是大大增强了,然而诗歌也可以讲故事,而且一度讲得很好,那么小说与叙事诗的差别究竟在哪儿?甚至就连小说艺术的评价尺度,也是从诗歌那里借用过来的。一个最明显的例子是,直到今天,我们在评价一部伟大小说时最常用的语汇仍然是“这种一部伟大的史诗”。“史诗”的风范依旧是小说的最高评判标准。这就好比说,在小说的园地里获得成就,却要到诗歌的国度去领受奖赏。
福楼拜的出现是具有划时代意义的,而《包法利夫人》更被认为是“新艺术的法典”,一部“最完美的小说”,“在文坛产生了革命性的后果”。波德莱尔、圣伯父、左拉等人纷纷给予这部作品极高的评价。由于这部作品的问世,福楼拜在一夜之间成为足可与巴尔扎克、司汤达尔比肩的小说大师,举世公认的杰出的文体家。福楼拜的巨大声誉在相当程度上是因为《包法利夫人》无懈可击的文体成就。到了本世纪初,福楼拜的影响与日俱增,现代主义的小说家也把他奉为始祖与楷模,尤其是50年代后的法国“新小说”,对福楼拜更是推崇备至,他们认为正是福楼拜使小说获得了与诗歌并驾齐驱的地位。新小说的重要代表阿兰·罗布-格里耶为了进行所谓的文学变革,将福楼拜看成叙事艺术上真正的导师和启蒙者,甚至把福楼拜视为巴尔扎克的对立面,对巴尔扎克似的“过时的”写作方式展开彻底地批判和清算。那么,《包法利夫人》在文体和叙事上究竟取得怎样不同凡响的成就,对于小说的发展又起到了怎样的作用呢?
《包法利夫人》上卷的第一小结是采用第一人称来叙事故事的。从第二小结开始直至作品结束用的是第三人称。这部作品的第一行出现了这样一个句子:“我们正上自习,校长进来了,后面跟着一个没有穿制服的新生和一个端着一张大书桌的校工。”
在这里,“我们”这个词可不是随便写写的,它的意义非同一般。诸位不妨回忆一下巴尔扎克的小说通常是如何开头的。比如说:“路易·朗贝尔于1797年生于旺代省的一个小镇蒙特瓦尔,他的父亲在那里经营着一所不起眼的制革厂”(巴尔扎克《路易·朗贝尔于》)。有人曾针对这个开头提出了这样一个问题:谁在讲述这个故事呢?是作者吗?作者的语调为什么那么不容置疑?他为什么会无所不知?当然,并不是每一位小说读者都会提出这样的问题,但是这种坚定、明确、无所不知的语调显示出作者凌驾于故事、读者之上,当属没有疑问。而且这种口吻尚未完全摆脱口头故事的讲述形式。如果有人针对《包法利夫人》提出同样的问题:谁在讲述《包法利夫人》的故事?答案是“我们”;讲述者是如何知道的?答案是 “我们看到了”;而且叙事者在“看到”的同时,读者也看到了。故事展开的时间与读者阅读的时间是同步的(在巴尔扎克那里,故事早就发生过了),这样一来,作者一下子把读者带入到事件的现场,相对于巴尔扎克,这里的故事显然更具有逼真的效果。用今天的眼光来看,类似的第一人称叙事并不是什么了不起的玩艺儿,可在当时,福楼拜所跨出的这一小步,其意义却不同寻常。而且我认为福楼拜在文体上的贡献当然不只是人称的变化。在这种变化的背后,一种完全不同于雨果、司汤达、巴尔扎克的叙事方式真正确立了起来,在福楼拜的笔下,以往全知的叙事视角受到了严格的限制:作者不再站在无所不知的立场,模仿上帝的口吻说话;不会随时从叙事中“现身”,对作品的人物、主题展开评述,提供意义;不再拥有将自己的思想和倾向强加给读者的特权。
福楼拜是欧洲文学史上最早的要求作者退出小说,并开始在实践中成功实现这一信条的作家之一。他要求叙事排除一切的主观抒情,排除作者的声音,让事实展现它自己。他认为作者的意图和倾向,如果让读者模模糊糊地感觉和猜测到,都是不允许的;文学作品的每一个段落,每一个字句都不应有一点点作者观念的痕迹。正如他的学生莫泊桑所说的那样,福楼拜总是在作品中“深深地隐藏自己,像木偶戏演员那样小心翼翼地遮掩着自己手中的提线,尽可能不让观众觉察出他的声音”。福楼拜在给乔治·桑的信中也曾这样写到:“说到我对于艺术的理想,我认为就不该暴露自己,艺术家不该在他的作品里露面,就像上帝不该在大自然里露面。”法国学者布吕纳曾敏锐地指出,“在法国小说史里,《包法利夫人》具有划时代的意义,它说明某些东西的结束和某些东西的开始。”我们从后来的罗兰·巴特、德里达等人的叙事理论中都可以清晰地听到福楼拜的声音。如果说欧洲小说文体变革的历史,可以像布思所描述的那样,被看成是作者的声音不断从作品中消退的历史,那么福楼拜无疑是一个不可忽略的关键性人物。
也许会有同学提出这样的观点:既然小说都是虚构的,在作者与读者之间早就达成了一种默契,也就是说,读者在阅读小说之前早就预先接受了小说的虚构性这样一个事实,那么作者如何讲述这个故事(是客观化还是主观化的叙事)并不重要,重要的是作品能否打动读者,更何况,作者故意在作品中隐藏自己,并未完全放弃对读者的“引导”,只不过这种“引导”更为隐蔽、更为机巧。对一种修辞的放弃就必然意味着另一种修辞的确立,说到底,“客观化”也只能是一种修辞手段而已。我认为这种观点是很有意思的,也很合理。坦率地说,我也是从修辞学的角度来理解福楼拜文体变革的意义的。实际上,福楼拜将自己从叙事中隐藏起来,其目的只是为了更好地“显露”;对叙事视角进行限制,其目的正是为了让叙事获取更大的自由。
在全知视角的叙事中,作者与读者之间的交流是公开进行的(在古老的说书的场合,听众甚至还可以直接向讲述者提问,或者进行讨论):作者讲述,读者阅读。但福楼拜不满足于这种公开的交流,因为交流的效果受到限制。他更喜欢一种暗中交流,也就是说,作者并不告诉读者自己的见解和倾向,而让读者通过阅读得出自己的结论,这样一来,读者与作者之间交流的疆域一下子就扩大了。
福楼拜的客观化叙事并没有完全放弃了自己“引导”读者的权利。因为从《包法利夫人》这个作品来看,作者本人的倾向、立场和意图仍然可以在阅读中被我们感觉到。另外我也不同意“纯客观”这样的说法。因为这个概念把一些本来很清楚的事实弄得一团糟。况且,《包法利夫人》并不是一个“纯客观”的作品,它与后来“新小说”的罗布-格里耶等人所谓的“物化小说”、“纯客观叙事”有着本质的不同(我也不是说罗布-格里耶的作品就一无是处,至少他的《嫉妒》相当不错),但罗布-格里耶把福楼拜在修辞上的一些趣向极端化之后,紧接着就出现了一个他本人也始料不及的问题:“非人格化叙事”也好,纯客观、物化叙事也好,作者又如何能做到这种“纯客观”呢?一个明显的事实是,作家写作当然不能离开语言文字这一工具,语言文字本来就是“文化”的产物,它既不“纯”,也非“物”,“纯客观”如何实现呢?它不是神话又是什么?后来罗布-格里耶干脆不写小说(据说最近他又从重操旧业),去搞电影了,因为他觉得摄影机更接近他的“物化”要求。在我看来,这仍然不能自圆其说。摄影机固然是物,但操纵摄影机的人当然也是“文化”的产物,他(她)有着自己的特殊的价值观和感情上的喜、憎、哀、乐,如何能够“纯客观”呢?就《包法利夫人》而言,福楼拜的变革并未抛弃传统的叙事资源,也没有损害作品文体的和谐与完美,以及最为重要的,叙事分寸感。我们在以前曾说过像列夫·托尔斯泰这样的作家是不太可能轻易模仿的,他巨大的才华本身就是一个奇迹(茨威格说他比伟人还伟大),而福楼拜的身上更具有匠人的特点。毫无疑问,他是一个卓越的巧匠。《包法利夫人》是一部精心制作出来的杰作,自从问世以来,即成为“完美”的象征。福楼拜对语言和文体十分敏感,创作态度更是兢兢业业、一丝不苟,在《包法利夫人》这部作品中,作者并未随意处理任何一个细节和线索,力图做到尽善尽美。叙事的节奏,语言的分寸,速度和强度的安排都恰到好处,作品中的每一个人物的出场次序,在故事中占的比重,主要人物与次要人物的关系都符合特定的比例。比如说,爱玛首先与莱昂相遇,但在爱玛与莱昂的关系急剧升温的时候,作者却让他去了巴黎,莱昂离开后留下的巨大情感空缺使她飞蛾扑火地投入鲁道尔弗的怀抱,而当爱玛与鲁道尔弗的情感冷却之后,莱昂又从巴黎回来了。这样的安排不仅使情节的发展合情合理,而且叙事亦出现跌宕和变化,避免了平铺直叙的通病。再比如,子爵与瞎子在作品中都是象征性的人物,虽然着笔不多,但他们每次出现都会有特定的意味,似乎都预示着故事进程的某种微妙变化。爱玛的“失足”(她与鲁道尔弗坠入欲望的河流)在小说的故事中十分重要,但作者所挑选的地点既非鲁道尔弗的木屋,也非他们散步的树林和花园,而是别出心裁地安排在一次农业展览会的会议厅里。其间,鲁道尔弗对爱玛发动的语言攻势常常被大会主席的讲话所打断。虚伪的爱情誓言和表白与公牛、种子、奖章、粪池一类的话语完全并列在一起,作者未加任何说明。整个调情过程看上去既滑稽,又荒谬,而字里行间却到处弥漫着被压抑的、急不可待的欲火。不同类型话语的陈列所形成的张力使这个场景令人十分难忘。事实上,这也是我所读过的有关“调情”的最美妙的篇章。
关于语言,福楼拜在小说中有过这样一断描述:我们敲打语言的破铁锅,试图用它来感动天上的星星,其结果只能使狗熊跳舞。看来,福楼拜对语言有着特殊的敏感,对于语言在表述意义方面的巨大困难有着十分清醒的认识。由此我们可以了解,为什么福楼拜把语言的准确性看成是作者表述上的唯一使命;也可以理解作者对语词的甄别和取舍为什么会到了走火入魔的地步。有人将《包法利夫人》视为学习写作者的最好教科书,这样的评价并不过分。
居斯达夫·福楼拜-名言
人的一生中,最光辉的一天并非是功成名就那天,而是从悲叹与绝望中产生对人生的挑战,以勇敢迈向意志那天。
涂改和难产是天才的标志。
作家在作品中应该像上帝在宇宙中一样,到处存在,又无处可见。
对你所要表现的东西,要长时间很注意地去观察它,以便能发现别人没有发现过和没有写过的特点。
所有杰作的秘诀全在这一点:题旨同作者性情符合。
写书跟养儿子不一样,却和建造金字塔一般,需要预先拟定计划,然后花费脑力、时间和汗水,将石头一块一块地堆砌上去。
形式和思想就像身体和灵魂;在我看来,这是一个整体,是不可分割的,我不知道没有这一个,另一个会变成什么。
在文笔,犹如在音乐上:最美而且最珍贵的,是声音的纯洁。
一个人大爱文笔,就有看不见自己写什么的危险!
不论一个作家所要描写的东西是什么,只有一个名词可供他使用,用一个动词要使对象生动,一个形容词要使对象的性质鲜明。因此就得用心去寻找,直至找到那一个名词,那一个动词和那一个形容词。
非凡的激情才能产生卓越的作品。
Early life and education
Flaubert was born on December 12, 1821, in Rouen, Seine-Maritime, in the Haute-Normandie region of France. He was the second son of Achille-Cléophas Flaubert (1784–1846), a surgeon, and Anne Justine Caroline (née Fleuriot) (1793–1872). He began writing at an early age, as early as eight according to some sources.
He was educated in his native city and did not leave it until 1840, when he went to Paris to study law. In Paris, he was an indifferent student and found the city distasteful. He made a few acquaintances, including Victor Hugo. Towards the close of 1840, he traveled in the Pyrenees and Corsica. In 1846, after an attack of epilepsy, he left Paris and abandoned the study of law.
Personal life
From 1846 to 1854, Flaubert had a relationship with the poet Louise Colet (his letters to her survive). After leaving Paris, Flaubert returned to Croisset, near the Seine, close to Rouen, and lived with his mother in their home for the rest of his life; with occasional visits to Paris and England, where he apparently had a mistress. Flaubert never married. According to his biographer Émile Faguet, his affair with Louise Colet was his only serious romantic relationship. He sometimes visited prostitutes. Eventually, the end of his affair with Louise Colet led Flaubert to lose interest in romance and seek platonic companionship, particularly with other writers.
With his lifelong friend Maxime du Camp, he traveled in Brittany in 1846. In 1849-1850 he went on a long journey to the Middle East, visiting Greece and Egypt. In Beirut he contracted syphilis. He spent five weeks in Constantinople in 1850. He visited Carthage in 1858 to conduct research for his novel Salammbô.
Flaubert was a tireless worker and often complained in his letters to friends about the strenuous nature of his work. He was close to his niece, Caroline Commanville, and had a close friendship and correspondence with George Sand. He occasionally visited Parisian acquaintances, including Émile Zola, Alphonse Daudet, Ivan Turgenev, and Edmond and Jules de Goncourt.
The 1870s were a difficult time for Flaubert. Prussian soldiers occupied his house during the War of 1870, and his mother died in 1872. After her death, he fell into financial straits. Flaubert suffered from venereal diseases most of his life. His health declined and he died at Croisset of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1880 at the age of 58. He was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A monument to him by Henri Chapu was unveiled at the museum of Rouen.
Writing career
His first finished work was November, a novella, which was completed in 1842.
In September 1849, Flaubert completed the first version of a novel, The Temptation of Saint Anthony. He read the novel aloud to Louis Bouilhet and Maxime du Camp over the course of four days, not allowing them to interrupt or give any opinions. At the end of the reading, his friends told him to throw the manuscript in the fire, suggesting instead that he focus on day to day life rather than on fantastic subjects.
In 1850, after returning from Egypt, Flaubert began work on Madame Bovary. The novel, which took five years to write, was serialized in the Revue de Paris in 1856. The government brought an action against the publisher and author on the charge of immorality, which was heard during the following year, but both were acquitted. When Madame Bovary appeared in book form, it met with a warm reception.
In 1858, Flaubert traveled to Carthage to gather material for his next novel, Salammbô. The novel was completed in 1862 after four years of work.
Drawing on his childhood experiences, Flaubert next wrote L'Éducation sentimentale (Sentimental Education), an effort that took seven years. L'Éducation sentimentale, his last complete novel, was published in 1869.
He wrote an unsuccessful drama, Le Candidat, and published a reworked version of La Tentation de Saint-Antoine, portions of which had been published as early as 1857. He devoted much of his time to an ongoing project, Les Deux Cloportes (The Two Woodlice), which later became Bouvard et Pécuchet, breaking from the obsessive project only to write the Three Tales in 1877. This book comprised three stories: Un Cœur simple (A Simple Heart), La Légende de Saint-Julien l'Hospitalier (The Legend of St. Julian the Hospitaller), and Hérodias (Herodias). After the publication of the stories, he spent the remainder of his life toiling on the unfinished Bouvard et Pécuchet, which was posthumously printed in 1881. It was a grand satire on the futility of human knowledge and the ubiquity of mediocrity. He believed the work to be his masterpiece, though the posthumous version received lukewarm reviews. Flaubert was a prolific letter writer, and his letters have been collected in several publications.
At the time of his death, he may have been working on a further historical novel, based on the Battle of Thermopylae
Work and legacy
Gustave FlaubertFlaubert scrupulously avoids the inexact, the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression which is the bane of ordinary methods of composition. As a writer, Flaubert was nearly equal parts romantic, realist, and pure stylist. Hence, members of various schools, especially realists and formalists, have traced their origins to his work. The exactitude with which he adapts his expressions to his purpose can be seen in all parts of his work, especially in the portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances. The degree to which Flaubert's fame has extended since his death presents an interesting chapter of literary history in itself. He is also accredited with spreading the popularity of the colour Tuscany Cypress, a colour often mentioned in his chef-d'oeuvre Madame Bovary.
Flaubert was fastidious in his devotion to finding the right word ("le mot juste"), and his mode of composition reflected that. He worked in sullen solitude - sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page - never satisfied with what he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for the best turn of phrase, the final adjective. His private letters indeed show that he was not one of those to whom correct, flowing language came naturally. His style was achieved through the unceasing sweat of his brow. Flaubert’s just reward, then, is that many critics consider his best works to be exemplary models of style.
“ Novelists should thank Flaubert the way poets thank spring; it all begins again with him. There really is time before Flaubert and a time after him. Flaubert decisively established what most readers and writers think of as modern realist narration, and his influence is almost too familiar to be visible. We hardly remark of good prose that it favors the telling of brilliant detail; that it privileges a high degree of visual noticing; that it maintains an unsentimental composure and knows how to withdraw, like a good valet, from superfluous commentary; that it judges good and bad neutrally; that it seeks out the truth, even at the cost of repelling us; and that the author's fingerprints on all this are paradoxically, traceable but not visible. You can find some of this in Defoe or Austen or Balzac, but not all of it until Flaubert. ”
—Critic James Wood in How Fiction Works (2008)
Flaubert's lean and precise writing style has had a large influence on 20th century writers such as Franz Kafka through to J. M. Coetzee. As Vladimir Nabokov discussed in his famous lecture series:
The greatest literary influence upon Kafka was Flaubert's. Flaubert who loathed pretty-pretty prose would have applauded Kafka's attitude towards his tool. Kafka liked to draw his terms from the language of law and science, giving them a kind of ironic precision, with no intrusion of the author's private sentiments; this was exactly Flaubert's method through which he achieved a singular poetic effect.
This painstaking style of writing is also evident when one compares Flaubert’s output over a lifetime to that of his peers (see, for example Balzac or Zola). Flaubert published much less prolifically than was the norm for his time and never got near the pace of a novel a year, as his peers often achieved during their peaks of activity. The legacy of his work habits can best be described, therefore, as paving the way towards a slower and more inspective manner of writing.
The publication of Madame Bovary in 1856 was followed by more scandal than admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning of something new: the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life. Gradually, this aspect of his genius was accepted, and it began to crowd out all others. At the time of his death he was widely regarded as the most influential French Realist. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary influence over Guy de Maupassant, Edmond de Goncourt, Alphonse Daudet, and Zola. Even after the decline of the Realist school, Flaubert did not lose prestige in the literary community; he continues to appeal to other writers because of his deep commitment to aesthetic principles, his devotion to style, and his indefatigable pursuit of the perfect expression.
He can be said to have made cynicism into an art form, as evinced by this observation from 1846:
To be stupid, and selfish, and to have good health are the three requirements for happiness; though if stupidity is lacking, the others are useless.
His Œuvres Complètes (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the two plays, Le Candidat and Le Château des cœurs. Another edition (10 vols.) appeared in 1873–1885. Flaubert's correspondence with George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by Guy de Maupassant.
He has been admired or written about by almost every major literary personality of the 20th century, including philosophers and sociologists such as Pierre Bourdieu and Jean Paul Sartre whose partially psychoanalytic portrait of Flaubert in The Family Idiot was published in 1971. Georges Perec named Sentimental Education as one of his favourite novels. The Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa is another great admirer of Flaubert. Apart from Perpetual Orgy, which is solely devoted to Flaubert's art, one can find lucid discussions in Vargas Llosa's recently published Letters to a Young Novelist.