| 姓： | 愛新覺羅 | |||||||||||||
| 名： | 弘歷 | |||||||||||||
| 網筆號： | 清高宗 | |||||||||||||
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乾隆
乾隆在平定天山南路時，清軍俘虜了小和卓木的一個妃子，她是一位絶色佳人，身上又散發出一種天然的奇香，人稱香妃。乾隆便將她收為妃子送入宮中，還特地招來回教徒服侍她的吃穿。又在宮中西苑造了回族的住房、禮拜堂，以博取她的歡心。香妃卻毫不動心，堅决不從。一天，宮女奉乾隆之命來勸說，香妃猛地取出一把匕首，嚇得宮女四散躲避。太後怕乾隆遭到不測，趁乾隆去郊祭時，把香妃召來，令其自殺。乾隆知道後還生了一場病，事後下令將香妃遺體用軟轎擡回新疆喀什入葬，建香妃墓。近年來，專傢經過大量考證。認為香妃實為乾隆的容妃，在宮中生活了28年，55歲時病歿，葬於東陵，棺上書有阿拉伯文的《可蘭經》。
乾隆帝嚮慕風雅，精於騎射，曾先後六次下江南，遍遊名城，筆墨留於大江南北。乾隆還是一個有名的文物收藏傢。清宮書畫大多是他收藏的，他在位期間編纂的《四庫全書》共收書3503種，79337捲，36304册，但是因編纂此書而禁毀的古書達十萬册之多。但乾隆所興起的文學獄，在清朝歷代中為數最多。如有個文人鬍中藻寫了一句“一把心腸論濁清”的詩句，乾隆認為這是誹謗清朝，將鬍中藻滅族
乾隆好大喜功,為人重奢靡，鋪張浪費，並自稱為“十全老人”。他在位後期任用和坤二十年。和坤是中國歷史上最大的貪官，致使這二十年間貪污成風，政治腐敗，各地農民起義頻繁。清王朝開始從強盛走嚮衰敗。
乾隆驕淫奢侈，不顧國庫空虛，六下江南，導致江南民衆無以為生。妄想以徵戰各國超越其祖父，發動了十次戰爭，窮兵黷武，勞民傷財，乾隆也是清朝皇帝中製造文字獄最多的皇帝，達160多起，多則達百人，使全國百姓噤若寒蟬，思想禁錮，文化科學無法正常發展
乾隆六十年（1795年）底，乾隆决定將皇位禪讓給皇太子。他下詔說：“我25歲時繼位，當時曾經對天起誓，如果能夠在位60年，就一定自行傳位給皇太子，不敢與皇祖（指康熙）的在位年數一樣。現在我在位已經滿60年，不敢食言，决定禪位與皇十五子顒琰。他如一時難以處理朝政，由我訓政。”和坤等大臣極力勸阻，乾隆不聽，於嘉慶元年（1796年）正月初一在太極殿舉行禪位大典，自稱太上皇，但仍掌握着朝廷實權。嘉慶四年（1799年）正月，乾隆得病，雖經過不少名醫醫治，都不見起色，初三死於養心殿。
對於中國來說，滿清那時是北方自稱滿洲的外族，他們將其入主中原的王朝命名為“清”，意為清白無瑕，儘管這個王朝所做所為與這個詞毫不相幹。滿族人是由蒙古人，朝鮮人，回族人和Jurchen部族混合而成。他們的文化繼承自那些已並入中東，印度，西藏 和歐洲文明的遊牧徵服者們。那幅官方冕禮上的乾隆---這次展出就是突現這廝的---的畫像，是由一個意大利耶穌教士所畫的。
乾隆是一個有趣的帝王，一個真正的唯我獨尊的皇帝，談到他就要涉及幾個讓人印象深刻的數字。從 1736至1795，他統治了當時一個世界上最富裕的國傢，近3億人口。他智商不低，寫出了超過44000多首所謂“詩”和數千散文。他還是一個音樂傢（展出中有他使用過的琴或錚），一個水平出衆的書法傢，也是一個熱心的三流的畫傢。作為統治者他事必躬親，對行政事務有着驚人的記憶力，親自簽署其政權所頒發的每一條法令，並在中國進行了超過150次長時期民間巡遊，會見，探訪和核查以保證地方官員對他言聽必從。他對歷史文化興趣極濃，同時也很實用主義。他清楚由於滿清在政治上不受信任，不得已保持與中國的傳統緊密聯繫。為此他想出了一個辦法，以修書為名將過去所有幸存下來的漢語著作收集起來。這項工作耗費了300名犬儒和3600名抄寫者10年的時間纔得以完成近420萬頁文字，作為一種預防措施價值無可估量。與此同時，這也讓這個皇帝得以審查中國的文字史並加以大肆篡改。他毀滅了數以千計他認為反帝製的書籍，幾與他所保存的書籍數量相若。這次展示在證明滿清在何等憎惡被中國人同化方面尢其有用，通過插入一個滿族標志將其加於屬民上。在他們統治下，中國境內所有人都不得不紮起滿洲式的豬尾巴辮子。滿人婦女不許束腳。在婦女服飾中，漢人的寬袖服飾被禁，滿人的窄袖服飾興起，如同馬靴一樣，提醒着他們不忘其久遠的遊牧歷史。滿清歷史在乾隆手中到達了它的頂峰，但在其統治結束前就已然黯淡無光。乾隆絶非智慧之神，隨着年歲增長他變得逾加殘暴，並重用一群腐敗而又貪得無厭的顧問，焚書坑儒事件也日益增多。社會風氣也變得粗蠻狹隘。滿清王朝從一個擁有着徵服世界的潛力的可怖高度，滑嚮了衰敗，直至1911年最後一個滿清皇帝將紫禁城和它的寶藏棄之身後落荒而逃。中國和西方的當代藝術史學者們長久以來都對這些館藏不屑一顧，相反他們專註於滿清時期藝術的另一個方面，一種從明朝延襲下來的學院派繪畫傳統。誠然，這次將持續到9月12日展出是在一個自然歷史，種族學和人類學博物館，而不是在藝術博物館舉行也說明了些什麽。實際上，儘管滿清時期諸如玉雕等形式的藝術技巧達到了顛峰，但以大多數21世紀人的眼光來看，他們的這種精益求精的審美觀衹是一種過時的品味。沒有比通過Field博物館負責人Chuimei Ho和Bennet Bronson所寫就的展品目錄，以一種歷史講述者的技巧來獲取那段苦澀歷史的地道樣例更佳的途徑了。這個展示是一次很好的介紹，但效果和宣揚者的初衷截然不同。擁擠不堪，矯揉造作，它展現了一種完全不思進取的對寄生文化的沉溺，而這種沉溺被可恥地加以拋光美化的程度之如它的荒繆程度，傳統的中國和紫禁城的圖蘭多會聚在了一起（譯者註：圖蘭多是意大利歌劇大師普契尼的同名歌劇中的一個滿清格格，在此可能指代滿洲統治階層），展覽中幾乎占據了半壁江山的禮品售賣店也頗具說明意義。這確實很有滿清的風格，很有我們的風格。
乾隆自稱“十全老人”，有“十全武功”——發動了十次戰爭，窮兵黷武，勞民傷財，把“盛世”的傢底耗盡，1、1747年：平大小金川；2、1755年：平準部；3、1757年：再平準部；4、1759年：平回部；5、1769年：平緬甸；6、 1776年：再平大小金川；7、1788年：平臺灣；8、1789年：平越南；9、1791年：平尼泊爾；10、1792年：再平尼泊爾。
縱觀乾隆的“十大武功”，絶大多數都是自我宣傳的結果：大金川（四川靖化）和小金川（四川懋功）是西藏民族部落間的紛爭，清政府加以干涉；臺灣是漢人林爽文的抗暴革命；這三大武功都是血腥的對內鎮壓，不能稱之為“武功”。平緬甸、平越南和平尼泊爾都是醜劇和敗仗，更稱不上“武功”。其實乾隆的武功衹有一個——徵服準噶爾汗國，開闢新疆省，可乾隆卻把這一個分為三個——平準部、再平準部、平回部。乾隆非要湊足十項不可，進一步襯托出他的虛榮浮華和把肉麻當有趣。
乾隆的虛榮心還體現在滿清帝國的“外交”上。乾隆的外交理念可以用兩個字來概括：那就是“進貢 ”。凡是肯嚮清國“進貢”的國傢都是小國和窮國。清國和這些國傢“建交”並沒有多少實質性的“益處”，他們嚮清國進貢的目的很少是出於“友好”的動機，而是貪圖清國的“賞賜”。乾隆皇帝為了鼓勵清國以外的國傢嚮他“進貢”，對前來“進貢”的“藩屬國”的“賞賜”十分豐厚，賞賜的價值往往十倍甚至百倍於“貢金”的價值。例如清國與印度之間有一個芝麻國巨坎堤王國，它每三年嚮中國進貢一次，每次進貢砂金一兩五錢。清國的回報則是堆積成山的綢緞、銀幣和茶葉。假使世界上有一種一本萬利的交易，那就莫過於嚮乾隆皇帝進貢了。當周邊的國傢發現嚮乾隆進貢的好處時，就紛紛利用進貢的名義敲詐中國，並不惜用戰爭相威脅要求增加“進貢”的次數。乾隆皇帝為了一己虛榮和“面子”，把百姓的稅錢不當回事，使中華帝國的財富大量外流。四、惡直好諛，重用大貪官和紳。
乾隆對部下的阿諛奉承有狂熱的愛好，這一嗜好直接導致了中國歷史上前於古人後無來者的大貪官和紳的出場。
和紳是一位侍衛出身的滿洲花花公子，因為特殊的機緣受到乾隆的信任和重用，在他統治的後期把帝國的行政大權交給他，擢升他為大學士.軍機大臣兼首都治安總司令（九門提督）。和紳有着絶頂的小聰明，熟諳做官技巧，用肉麻的諂媚和恭謹的外貌，把自以為英明蓋世的乾隆玩弄於股掌之上。和紳的全部行政才能是貪污和弄權，對乾隆重用他的回報是在全國建立一個史無前例的貪污係統，把清帝國的墻基掏空。全國官員發現，如果不嚮上級行使巨額賄賂，就要被無情地淘汰出局，甚至被投入監獄，他們不得不適應這一形式。乾隆死後，和紳也跟着倒臺，查抄他的傢産折合白銀九億兩，相當於全國十二年財政收入的總和。如果包括他揮霍掉的和親人貪污的款項，總數應該不下二十年的財政收入，和紳當權剛好二十年！清朝在他手上由盛轉衰。為了衝淡武夫形象，他極力附庸風雅，舞文弄墨，寫了幾千首詩，收藏歷代書法精品，到處題字，仿佛是一個極有文化修養的儒雅之士。然而，在這迷人的表象掩蓋下，他的另一面卻是一個文化專製主義的狂熱推行者。帝製時代的獨裁君主都推行文化專製主義，而以清朝為最甚，清則以乾隆為最甚。這樣說，决不是誇張。
文化專製的突出表現就是大興文字獄，對知識分子的詩文吹毛求疵，捕風捉影，無中生有，上綱上綫，動輒殺頭抄傢充軍。文壇上，一片肅殺之氣。康熙時，戴名世的著作《南山集》，被當局認為有“政治問題”，遭到嚴懲，主犯戴名世被殺頭，株連親戚朋友幾百人。五十多年以後，乾隆皇帝再次舊事重提，利用“南山集案”大興冤獄，殺害了71歲的舉人蔡顯，株連24人。
事情的起因並不離奇。蔡顯的詩文集《閑閑錄》出版以後，被邀功的小人揭發，說是其中有“怨望訕謗”之詞。那麽所謂“怨望訕謗”之詞是什麽呢？說來可笑，不過是蔡顯引用古人《詠紫牡丹》詩句：“奪朱非正色，異種盡稱王”。詩的原意無非是說，紅色的牡丹是上品，紫色的牡丹稱為上品，是奪了牡丹的“正色”，是“異種稱王”。如此而已。那些官僚們竟望文生義，強詞奪理地指責蔡顯含沙射影，“奪朱”是影射滿人奪取朱明天下，“異種稱王”是影射滿人建立清朝。
兩江總督高晉、江蘇巡撫明德把這個案件上報皇帝，主張按照“大逆”罪，凌遲處死蔡顯。乾隆皇帝仔細看了高晉和明德的奏摺，以及隨同奏摺附上的《閑閑錄》，下了一道聖旨，把凌遲改為斬首，同時對高晉、明德大加訓斥。這是什麽道理？難道他大發善心了嗎？非也。原來他從《閑閑錄》中找到了“戴名世以《南山集》棄市”之類字句，以為蔡顯是在發泄對現實政治的不滿，而高晉、明德查辦此案時竟然沒有發現這類字句，是可忍，孰不可忍！於是乎，他在聖旨中狠狠訓斥這兩個封疆大吏，是“有心隱曜其詞，甘與惡逆之人為伍”，故意縱容包庇、同流合污，需要承擔一部分罪責。因此把蔡顯由凌遲改為斬首，意在警告大臣們，以後經辦此類案件，務必處心積慮地收集罪證，不能有所遺漏。結果，蔡顯和他的17歲兒子被處死，幼子及門生多人充軍。原因就是一句吟詠牡丹的詩句，以及一句反映事實的大白話：“戴名世以《南山集》棄市”。
在大興文字獄這點上，乾隆皇帝比他的大臣要厲害百倍。這從“字貫案”可以更加清楚。舉人王錫侯，為了給參加科舉考試的士子提供方便，把《康熙字典》加以精減，編了一本《字貫》。這種事情，在現在看來十分尋常。殊不知，這一舉動在當局的眼中，已經屬於“大逆不道”。因為，《康熙字典》是康熙皇帝“欽定”的，王錫侯膽敢擅自刪改，便是一大罪狀。何況《字貫》沒有為清朝皇帝的名字避諱，構成另一罪狀。不但王錫侯遭到嚴懲，書板、書册全部銷毀，而且經辦此案的江西巡撫海成也因“失察”而治罪。
江西巡撫海成受到牽連是為什麽呢？原來海成在嚮皇帝報告時，說有人揭發王錫侯刪改《康熙字典》，另刻《字貫》，實在狂妄不法，建議革去王錫侯的舉人功名。但他並沒有細細審查《字貫》本身的文字是否有問題。乾隆卻很細心，看了海成的奏摺後，又仔細審查了隨同奏摺附上的《字貫》。發現事情並非尋常狂誕之徒妄行著書立說那麽簡單，他在《字貫》序文後面的“凡例”中發現，王錫侯居然把聖祖（康熙）、世宗（雍正）的“廟諱”，以及他自己的“禦名”，也就是玄燁、胤禛、弘歷之類，毫無避諱的開列出來。他認為這是“深堪發指”、“大逆不法”之舉，應該按照“ 大逆”律問罪。但是，江西巡撫海成僅僅建議革去舉人，大錯特錯。盛怒之下，他給軍機大臣發去一道諭旨，狠狠訓斥道：海成既然經辦此案，竟然沒有看過原書，草率的憑藉庸陋幕僚的意見上報。而那些“大逆不法”的內容，就在該書的第十頁，開捲即見。海成因此被革職查辦，押送京城，交刑部治罪。最具諷刺意味的是，海成是貫徹乾隆的文化專製主義最為賣力的人，是各省禁書的始作俑者，備受皇帝信任，他怎麽也想不到自己竟然自掘墳墓栽在查辦文字獄的“失察”上。
王錫侯當然要按照皇帝的諭旨重新審問，留下審訊筆錄十分滑稽，其中的片斷如：
——官員問：你身為舉人，應該知道尊親大義，竟然敢於對聖祖仁皇帝欽定的《康熙字典》擅自進行辯駁，另編《字貫》一本。甚至敢於在編寫凡例內把皇帝的禦名毫無避諱的寫出來。這是大逆不道的行為。你打的是什麽主意？
——王錫侯答：因為《康熙字典》篇幅太大，我精減為《字貫》，無非是為了方便後生學子。書內把皇帝禦名寫出來，目的是要後生學子知道避諱，實在是草野小民無知。後來我發覺不對，就把書內應該避諱之處，重新改板另刻，現有書板可據，請求查驗。
儘管如此辯解，既然皇帝已經說“人人得而誅之”，王錫侯自然難逃一死。
根據《清代文字獄檔》，從乾隆六年到五十三年，有文字獄53起，幾乎遍及全國各地，到處都充斥着以文肇禍的恐怖氣氛，迫使知識分子遠離現實，躲進故紙堆裏討生活。此外，人們似乎忘記了這樣一點，乾隆時代由大興文字獄進而發展到全面禁書、焚書；開館編纂《四庫全書》的過程，就是一個禁書、焚書的過程，禁毀書籍達幾千種。無怪乎一代宗師孟森要感嘆：“明清之間著述，幾遭盡毀”，“始皇當日焚書之厄，决不至離奇若此”！政治上也越來越腐敗。尤其是其晚年重用大姦臣、“貪官之王”--和珅，使清朝國庫逐漸虛空，百姓生活貧苦，嘉慶元年（1796年），發生白蓮教民變。應該說，清朝是從乾隆中後期開始走嚮衰落的。乾隆六十年（1795年），高宗以在位期不越祖父康熙帝為名禪位於子顒琰，是為清仁宗，又號嘉慶帝，自稱太上皇，仍然繼續執政，直到嘉慶四年（1799年）去世為止。
六下江南遊逸揮霍，耗盡國力民財
乾隆皇帝和七世紀中國歷史上著名的亡國之君楊廣有一個同樣的愛好：那就是喜好去繁華似錦的江南遊玩。
乾隆的南巡集團聲勢浩大，每次都在萬人以上，所到之處極盡奢侈糜費，地方供給極盡華麗壯觀，百姓的財富經歷巨大的浩劫。江蘇學政（教育廳長）尹會一曾上奏章說南巡造成“民間疾苦，怨聲載道”，乾隆大為光火：“民間疾苦，你指出什麽地方疾苦？怨聲載道，你指出什麽人載道？”被乾隆封為“滿清第一才子”的皇傢教師紀曉嵐曾趁便透露江南人民的財産已經枯竭，乾隆怒不可遏：“我看你文學上還有一點根基，纔給你一個官做，其實不過當作娼妓豢養罷了，你怎麽敢議論國傢大事？”看看今天的影視劇《鐵齡銅牙紀曉嵐》，和真實的歷史相差究竟有多大？乾隆南巡的花費超過康熙百倍以上。如今天的影視劇津津樂道乾隆下江南時“微服私訪”的“美政”，何其可笑，將觀衆們愚弄於股掌之間。乾隆從不“微服私訪”，即使有也是出於 “獵奇”和“瓢妓”的用心，絶不是因為瞭解民生疾苦。乾隆第二次下江南時，就因為“微服出巡”，去秦淮河上瓢妓徹夜不歸，皇后在傷透了心的情況下把萬縷青絲一刀剪下，成為中國歷史上唯一的一個截發皇后。
乾隆除了下江南遊蕩獵奇外，還花費巨資在北京西郊營造繁華蓋世的皇傢園林“圓明園”。東造琳宮，西增復殿，南築崇臺，北構傑閣，說不盡的巍峨華麗。又經文人學士，良工巧匠，費了無數心血這裏鑿池，那裏疊石，此處栽林，彼處蒔花，繁麗之中，點綴景緻，不論春秋鼕夏，都覺相宜。又責成各省地方官，搜羅珍禽異卉，古鼎文彝，把中外九萬裏的奇珍，上下五千年的寶物，一齊陳列園中，作為皇帝傢常的供玩。從前秦二世鬍亥築阿房宮，陳後主起臨春、結綺、望仙三閣，隋煬帝營顯仁宮芳華苑，華麗也不過如此，所不同的是前兩位是著名的亡國君王。
乾隆的揮金如土，使康熙、雍正辛苦搜刮的的“傢當”很快被消耗殆盡。
總之，以乾隆中期為界，清王朝開始走嚮它的衰弱。而到了乾隆末期，所謂歌舞升平，“十全武功” 的“盛世”已經宣告結束。在60年漫長的“盛世”之後，是成倍增長的人口壓力和尖銳的民族矛盾及階級矛盾，以及統治集團的徹底腐敗。如同曹雪芹在《紅樓夢》中所說的：“如今外面的架子雖未甚倒，內蘘卻已盡上來了。”清王朝已經像即將傾頽的大廈勢難支撐，而英國殖民主義者的炮艦卻正在隆隆地駛近，中國的歷史，即將翻開令人痛心疾首的一頁。
乾隆的後妃
孝賢純皇后，富察氏，察哈爾總管李榮保之女。乾隆十三年，崩，年三十七。
繼皇后，烏喇那拉氏，佐領那爾布之女，乾隆二年，封嫻妃，乾隆十年，晉貴妃。孝賢皇后崩後，晉皇貴妃，主後宮事，乾隆十五年，册為皇后。三十一年七月崩，乾隆命喪葬儀式等同於皇貴妃。生有二子，永璂、永璟，一女，夭折。
孝儀純皇后，魏佳氏，內管領清泰之女。生四子，永璐夭折，嘉慶皇帝、永璘，還有一個未曾命名已夭折，二女，分別下嫁拉旺多爾濟、札蘭泰。
慧賢皇貴妃，高佳氏，大學士高斌之女。當乾隆還是太子時，是側室福晉。乾隆初封為皇貴妃，薨，謚為慧賢皇貴妃。
純慧皇貴妃，蘇佳氏，乾隆為太子時，就已在服侍乾隆。乾隆皇帝即位後，封純嬪，纍進純皇貴妃。薨，謚純慧皇貴妃。生一子，永瑢。一女，下嫁福隆安。
慶恭皇貴妃，陸氏，初封慶嬪，纍晉慶貴妃。薨。嘉慶皇帝曾經被她撫育過，被嘉慶帝追尊為慶恭皇貴妃。
哲憫皇貴妃，富察氏，雍正十三年，薨，被乾隆追封為哲妃，晉皇貴妃。一子，永璜，為高宗的長子，一女，殤。
淑嘉皇貴妃，金佳氏，乾隆為皇子時，就已嫁給他，乾隆初，封嘉妃，晉嘉貴妃。四子，永珹、永璇、永瑆，還有一個未曾命名已殤。
婉貴妃，陳氏，乾隆為皇子時已嫁給他，乾隆間，自貴人纍晉婉妃。嘉慶間，尊為婉貴太妃。薨，年九十二。
穎貴妃，巴林氏，自貴人纍晉穎貴妃，尊為太妃，薨，年七十。
貴人，西林覺羅氏，柏氏，皆從常在尊為貴人。
晉太妃，富察氏，初為貴人，待到道光帝時，仍未逝世，被道光帝尊為皇祖晉太妃。
容妃，和卓氏，回族人，初入宮，封貴人，纍進為妃，薨。
忻貴妃，戴佳氏，總督那蘇圖之女，生二女，皆殤。
愉貴妃，珂裏葉特氏，生一子，永琪。
舒妃，葉赫那拉氏，生一子，殤。
惇妃，汪氏，生一女，下嫁和珅的兒子豐紳殷德。
子女
乾隆生有17子10女。
愛新覺羅·永璜，長子，定安親王。母哲憫皇貴妃富察氏（時為寶親王側妃）
愛新覺羅·永璉，次子，端慧太子。母孝賢純皇后富察氏（時為寶親王嫡妃）
愛新覺羅·永璋，三子，循郡王。母寶親王側妃蘇佳氏。
愛新覺羅·永珹，四子，履端親王，出為履懿親王愛新覺羅允祹後。母嘉嬪金佳氏。
愛新覺羅·永琪，五子，榮純親王。母愉貴人珂裏葉特氏。
愛新覺羅·永瑢，六子，質莊親王，出為慎靖郡王愛新覺羅允禧後。母純妃蘇佳氏。
愛新覺羅·永琮，七子，哲親王。母孝賢純皇后富察氏
愛新覺羅·永璇，八子，儀慎親王。母嘉妃金佳氏。
愛新覺羅·永瑜，第九子，早殤。母嘉妃金佳氏。
愛新覺羅·永玥，第十子，早殤。母舒妃葉赫那拉氏。
愛新覺羅·永瑆，十一子，成哲親王。母嘉貴妃金佳氏。
愛新覺羅·永璂，十二子，貝勒。母繼皇后烏喇那拉氏。
愛新覺羅·永璟，早殤。母繼皇后烏喇那拉氏。
愛新覺羅·永璐，早殤。母令貴妃魏佳氏。
愛新覺羅·顒琰，十五子，清仁宗，嘉慶帝。母孝儀純皇后魏佳氏。
未 命 名，第十六子，早殤。母孝儀純皇后魏佳氏。
愛新覺羅·永璘，十七子，慶僖親王。母孝儀純皇后魏佳氏。
皇長女（1728～1729），雍正六年十月生，雍正七年十二月殤。母孝賢純皇后富察氏（時為寶親王嫡妃）
皇二女（1731），雍正九年四月生，當年十二月殤。母哲憫皇貴妃富察氏（時為寶親王側妃）
皇三女固倫和敬公主（1731～1792），雍正九年五月二十四生，母孝賢純皇后富察氏（時為寶親王嫡妃）
皇四女和碩和嘉公主（1745～1767），乾隆十年十二月初二生，母純貴妃蘇佳氏。
皇五女（1753～1755），乾隆十八年六月二十三生，乾隆二十年四月二十二殤。母繼皇后烏喇那拉氏。
皇六女（1755～1758），乾隆二十年七月十七生，乾隆二十三年八月二十六殤。母忻嬪戴佳氏。
皇七女固倫和靜公主（1756～1775），乾隆二十一年七月十五生，母孝儀純皇后魏佳氏。
皇八女（1757～1767），乾隆二十二年十二月初七生，乾隆三十二年五月二十一殤， 葬於端慧皇太子園寢。母忻嬪戴佳氏。
皇九女和碩和恪公主（1758～1780），乾隆二十三年七月十四生，母孝儀純皇后魏佳氏。
皇十女固倫和孝公主（1775～1823），乾隆四十年正月初三生，母惇妃汪氏。
養女和碩和婉公主(1734～1760)，雍正十二年(1734)六月二十四日生，父為和親王弘晝，母為福晉烏札庫氏。
乾隆死後的廟號為高宗純皇帝，史稱乾隆帝。
正說乾隆
乾隆皇帝弘歷在位60年，做的事情太多，光記載他言行的《清高宗實錄》就達1500捲，據筆者統計，共有13580136字，還未計標點符號。乾隆皇帝所做出的主要功績歸納起來，有八件事：
第一件是編修文化典籍。北京內城南面東為“崇文門”，標榜皇帝“崇文”。明清28位皇帝，真正稱得上“崇文”的，衹有兩位，就是康熙和乾隆。康熙前面已經敘述，是一位學習型皇帝，雍正是一位改革型皇帝，乾隆則是一位文化型皇帝。乾隆在文治方面做的事情很多，主要有：
（1）主持纂修《四庫全書》。《四庫全書》第一份告成，共收書3461種、79309捲。隨後繼續進行，到五十二年(1787年)六月，又告成6份，已歷時15年。後再查核、校誤和補遺，直到五十八年(1793年)纔告結束，參與者前後4186 人，時間長達20年。乾隆編纂《四庫全書》，是對中國文化的一大貢獻：其一，保存珍貴遺産。集中全國的力量，對各地圖書典籍進行了一次全面係統地清理，選擇重要的刻本、抄本，繕錄采入《四庫全書》，使大量書籍雖經天災人禍而被保存下來。其二，方便學人利用。北到關外，南到江浙，禁城之內，皇傢禦苑，士林學子，閱覽抄錄，嘉惠讀者。其三，有利文化傳承。1983年將文淵閣本《四庫全書》影印出版，化身千百，流傳世界。其四，便於分類檢索。“以類求書，因書治學”。全書分經、史、子、集四部，再分44類，又分66目，條理井然，易於查檢。但是，乾隆在編纂《四庫全書》的過程中，也刪了不少書、改了不少書、禁了不少書、毀了不少書。有人據《辦理四庫全書檔案》、《禁書總目》等資料統計，毀書約3000餘種、六七萬部。可見，乾隆編纂《四庫全書》的負面影響同樣不可忽視。總之，要給予客觀的、公正的評價。
乾隆佛裝像（2）編修《滿文大藏經》。乾隆命將漢文、蒙古文《大藏經》譯成滿文，由章嘉呼圖剋圖總其事，“每得一捲，即行進呈，以候裁定”。後用朱文刻印的《滿文大藏經》，是一項巨大的文化工程。又刻印《大藏經》（也稱“竜藏”）。
（3）整理《無圈點老檔》。《無圈點老檔》（又稱《滿文老檔》、《老滿文原檔》、《舊滿洲檔》）是以無圈點老滿文為主書寫的，現存最為原始、係統、詳盡、珍貴的清太祖、太宗時期編年體史料長編。該檔形成於清入關前，到乾隆中期已經百餘年，以老滿文書寫，文字難以辨識，紙張年久糟舊，字跡漫漶不清。乾隆命對《無圈點老檔》進行整理，用無圈點老滿文和加圈點新滿文分別重抄——先抄出草本各一部，再抄出正本存內閣各一部，另抄出副本存瀋陽崇謨閣各一部，並抄出存上書房一部。總計共抄錄七份：《無圈點字檔》（草本）、《加圈點字檔》（草本），《無圈點字檔》（內閣本）、《加圈點字檔》（內閣本），《無圈點字檔》（崇謨閣本）、《加圈點字檔》（崇謨閣本），還有《加圈點字檔》（上書房本）。《無圈點老檔》原本40册，現藏臺北故宮博物院。
（4）乾隆敕編《八旗通志》、《滿洲源流考》、《欽定滿洲祭神祭天典禮》（滿文本、漢文本）等。
（5）《御制五體清文鑒》則是多民族文化的一個碩果。
（6）乾隆重視京師文化，體現在：一是編繪《京城全圖》；二是於敏中等奉敕撰《日下舊聞考》，共160捲，為北京歷史文獻集大成之作；三是編修《國朝宮史》，對宮廷的歷史、建築、文化、典製等做了載述。
第二件是維護、興建皇傢園林。乾隆在北京及京畿保護、維修、興建的皇傢宮殿園林，如皇宮的寧壽宮及其花園、天壇祈年殿（換成藍色琉璃瓦）、清漪園（頤和園）、圓明園三園、靜宜園(香山)、靜明園(玉泉山)、避暑山莊暨外八廟和木蘭圍場等，其中清漪園改甕山為萬壽山，上建大報恩延壽寺（排雲殿），又建佛香閣。這些皇傢園林，無不體現着清代園林文化的輝煌，是園林藝術史上的一串串璀璨的明珠。除圓明園被焚毀外，多成為世界文化遺産。
第三件是貢獻詩文才華。乾隆天資聰穎，勤奮好學，擅書畫，兼長詩文，是一位非凡的文學家、語言學家、書法傢、詩人和學者。他不僅精通新滿文，而且熟知老滿文；不僅對漢語漢文十分精通，還懂蒙、藏、維等多種語言文字。乾隆喜愛書法，造詣精深。他長期癡於書法，至老不倦。自內廷到禦苑，從塞北到江南，園林勝景，名山古跡，所到之處，揮毫題字，墨跡之多，罕與倫比。乾隆撰寫了大量文章，僅編成文集的就有《御制文初集》、《御制文二集》、《御制文三集》、《御制文餘集》，共1350餘篇，還有《清高宗聖訓》300捲。乾隆尤喜愛作詩。他的御制詩集，登極前有《樂善堂全集》，禪位後有《御制詩餘集》，凡750首。在位期間的《御制詩集》共有5集，434捲，有人統計，其初集4166首，二集8484首，三集 11519首，四集9902首，五集7792首，共計41863首。他的詩總計42613首。而《全唐詩》所收有唐一代2200多位詩人的作品， 48000多首。乾隆帝是個業餘詩人，以一人之力，其詩作數量竟與留傳下來的全唐詩相仿佛，其數量之多，創作之勤，令人敬佩（當然，其中有一些詩為他人代筆）。可以說，乾隆詩作之多，有史以來，首屈一指。他說：“幾務之暇，無他可娛，往往作詩。”又說：“每天餘時，或作書，或作畫，而作詩最為常事，每天必作數首。”
第四件是蠲免天下錢糧。御史赫泰曾上疏：“國傢經費，有備無患，今當無事之時，不應蠲免一年錢糧。”乾隆認為：百姓富足，君孰與不足？朝廷恩澤，不施及於百姓，那將施於何處！所以，乾隆斷然下令蠲免全國錢糧。據統計，乾隆十年、三十五年、四十三年、五十五年和嘉慶元年，先後五次普免全國一年的錢糧，三次免除江南漕糧（其中一次為400萬石米），纍计蠲免賦銀2萬萬兩，約相當於5年全國財賦的總收入。蠲免全國錢糧，收到社會效益：“詔下之日，萬方忭舞。”這話雖有誇飾，但說明此舉確實受到歡迎。乾隆蠲免全國錢糧，其次數之多，地域之廣，數量之大，效果之好，在封建王朝中，前無古人，後無來者。
第五件是統一整個新疆。北京內城南面西為“宣武門”，標榜皇帝“宣武”。明清28位皇帝，真正稱得上“宣武”的，明朝有洪武、永樂，清朝則有太祖、太宗、康熙、乾隆。乾隆不僅“崇文”，而且“宣武”。他的武功之一是用兵西陲，鞏固新疆。在北疆，兩次平準噶爾，使土爾扈特部回歸，基本上解决了北疆的問題。
南疆，主要指天山以南的維吾爾族地域，清代稱“回部”。準噶爾部強大時，回部受準噶爾貴族的欺凌與侵逼。但是，清軍平定北疆後，回部貴族試圖擺脫清朝，自長一方。為此，清軍同回部軍在庫車、葉爾羌（莎車）等幾座南疆重鎮進行了激戰，最終獲勝，重新統一南疆。乾隆在南疆實行因俗而治，設立阿奇木伯剋製，由清廷任命。並設參贊大臣（駐葉爾羌）等官，分駐各城，加強統轄。製訂《回部善後事宜》，對南疆管理體製做出改革。乾隆在新疆設伊犁將軍，實行軍府製，修築城堡，駐紮軍隊，設置卡倫，巡查邊界，移民實邊，進行屯墾，加強了對新疆地區的管轄。
乾隆平準定回諸役，統一了準、回各部，加強了中央政府對西域的統轄，鏟除了準噶爾東犯喀爾喀、威脅京師及大西北的禍根，保持了西北、漠北及青海、西藏的社會安定。
第六件是完善治理西藏。乾隆兩次派兵打敗廓爾喀（今尼泊爾）的侵犯，製定《欽定西藏章程》。規定：設駐藏大臣督辦藏內事務；在西藏駐軍，分駐前藏、後藏；達賴喇嘛、班禪額爾德尼等圓寂後，在駐藏大臣親監下，靈童轉世設立金奔巴瓶製，用金奔巴瓶掣簽决定繼承人，這是乾隆的一個創造；西藏對鄰國貿易必須進行登記；西藏貨幣一律用白銀鑄造，正面鑄“乾隆寶藏”四個字；等等。《欽定西藏章程》是西藏歷史上重要的文獻，標志着清朝對西藏進行全面有效的管轄。在雍和宮的“金奔巴瓶”已成歷史文物，在大昭寺內的“金奔巴瓶”製沿襲至今。
第七件是修砌浙江海塘。浙江原有的柴塘、土塘，經不住海潮的衝擊。乾隆命撥銀兩將柴塘改為石塘。共修建石砌海塘4000餘丈，加強了這一地區抗禦海潮侵襲的能力。
第八件是中華各族一統。清朝已經歷“三祖三宗”——太祖努爾哈赤、世祖順治、聖祖康熙和太宗皇太極、世宗雍正、高宗乾隆六代，乾隆則是集大成者。乾隆在其祖宗既有成就的基礎上，進一步鞏固並開拓了中國的疆域版圖，維護並加強了中華的多民族統一。乾隆時的中國疆域，東起大海，西達蔥嶺，南極曾母暗沙，北跨外興安嶺，西北到巴爾喀什湖，東北到庫頁島。清乾隆時的人口達3億。清朝“三祖三宗”對中國歷史最大的貢獻是維護了中國的邊疆版圖，鞏固了多民族國傢的統一。
乾隆皇帝能將祖宗的基業發揚光大，在文治武功方面都有建樹，確為一代有為之君。尤為難能可貴的是，他在有生之年做出了“禪位”的决定。乾隆四十三年（1778年）九月二十一日，乾隆宣諭：至六十年內禪。他說：
昔皇祖禦政六十一年，予不敢相比。若邀穹蒼眷佑，至乾隆六十年，予壽八十有五，即當傳位太子，歸政退閑。
這道諭旨的意思是說，他的祖父康熙皇帝在位61年，自己不敢相比。如果能在位60年，就當傳位給太子。到乾隆六十年（1795年）九月初三日，85歲的乾隆皇帝，禦圓明園勤政殿，召見皇子皇孫、王公大臣，宣示立皇十五子嘉親王顒琰為皇太子，以明年為嗣皇帝嘉慶元年，屆期歸政。嘉慶元年（1796年）正月初一日，乾隆帝禦太和殿，舉行內禪大禮，授璽。顒琰即皇帝位，尊弘歷為太上皇帝，訓政。由禮部鴻臚寺官詣天安門城樓上，恭宣嘉慶欽奉太上皇帝傳位詔書，金鳳頒詔，宣示天下。
這裏解釋一下“金鳳頒詔”。皇帝從太和殿頒發的詔書，擡上黃輿，鼓樂高奏，禮儀隆重，由禮部官員，送上天安門。天安門城樓上有一隻“金鳳”，口銜詔書，從城樓上徐徐降下；城樓下的禮部官員跪接詔書，分送各地，公佈天下。
乾隆內禪皇位後，又訓政三年零三天。後人多譏評乾隆名為退位，實禪而不退。其實不然，縱觀中國自秦始皇以下兩千年的皇朝歷史，由內禪歸政者，前君罕見，後君亦無。宋仁宗儲位既定，鬱悶不樂；宋英宗立太子後，泫然淚下。
乾隆在位既長，享年又高。在中國有文字記載的歷史上，享年80歲以上的皇帝衹有四人。除乾隆而外的三位皇帝是：
（1）梁武帝蕭衍，享年85歲，在位48年。但他局處一隅，三次捨身入寺，長於文學，精通音律；侯景之亂後，饑病而慘死。
（2）宋高宗趙構，享年80歲，在位36年，建都臨安（今杭州），半壁山河。
（3）元世祖忽必烈，享年81歲，在位35年。
以上三位皇帝，或國偏一隅，或半壁江山，或在位不長，或國亡而死。都不能與乾隆皇帝相比擬。難怪乾隆帝自稱“得國之正，擴土之廣，臣服之普，民庶之安”，罕與倫比。曾自我總結一生有“十全武功”，自詡為“十全老人”。並作《御制十全記》，令寫滿、漢、蒙、藏四種文體，建碑勒文。乾隆的“十全武功”是：
十功者，平準噶爾為二，定回部為一，掃金川為二，靖臺灣為一，降緬甸、安南各一，即今二次受廓爾喀降，合為十。
乾隆的“十全武功”，情況不同，性質各異：有鎮壓民變，有平息叛亂，有揚兵耀武，有小題大做，有得不償失，有多管閑事，有維護正義，有反擊侵略。如新疆用兵三次，廓爾喀用《平定臺灣戰圖册》乾隆《平定金川戰圖册·收復小金川》兵兩次，這五次用兵對新疆、西藏的鞏固統一具有重大的歷史意義。但是，也有的用兵是小題大做，窮兵黷武。如大小金川之役就是這樣的。
大金川、小金川在大渡河上遊，居民主要是藏族，高山環繞，道路崎嶇，氣候寒冷，終年積雪，人口不過3萬，周圍不過二三百裏。當地土司內部紛爭，乾隆發兵攻打，前後兩次：第一次打了兩年，殺大員訥親、張廣泗，耗銀2000萬兩。第二次，清軍分路進攻，每座山峰、乾隆《平定金川戰圖册·紫光閣賜宴》
每座官寨、每座石卡、每座碉房，反復廝殺，寸步難進。是役“費五年之功，十萬之師，七千餘萬之帑”，纔將兩金川平定。這件事可謂小題大做，得不償失，但為北京留下文物勝跡——香山演武廳。
乾隆帝執政時間過長，雖然自勵“持盈保泰”，但是月盈則虧，泰極否來。乾隆晚年，志驕意滿，思想僵化，喜諛惡諫，懶於進取，老人禦政，宵小環繞，做了許多錯誤事情，積纍了嚴重的社會矛盾。而吏治腐敗，人口膨脹，財政緊缺，兩極分化加劇，是導致社會矛盾激化的重要原因。
在乾隆執政的60年間，西方世界卻發生了歷史性的、劃時代的巨大變化。
（1）英國發生工業革命：乾隆三十年（1765年），英國紡織工哈格裏夫斯發明新式紡車珍妮紡紗機；乾隆五十年（1785年），英國卡特萊特發明水力織布機；同年，英國瓦特改良蒸汽機。爾後，嘉慶十二年（1807年），美國富爾頓發明輪船，嘉慶十九年（1814年）英國史蒂芬孫發明蒸汽機車。這就是說，西方開始了工業革命。
（2）美利堅合衆國建立：乾隆三十九年（1774年），美國獨立戰爭開始；乾隆四十八年（1783年），北美獨立戰爭取得勝利；乾隆五十三年（1788年），第一屆美國國會在紐約召開；乾隆五十四年（1789年），華盛頓就任美國第一任總統。兩年後，美國通過《人權法案》。
（3）法國資産階級革命：乾隆五十四年（1789年），法國舉行三級會議，爆發資産階級大革命，發表《人權宣言》。乾隆五十八年（1793年），法國國王路易十六被處死。
（4）乾隆二十年（1755年），俄國建立莫斯科大學；乾隆四十五年（1780年），美國科學院在波士頓成立；乾隆四十九年（1784年），哥倫比亞大學成立；同年，德國出現第一位女醫學博士。而在清朝，乾隆六十年（1795年）會試，各省上報 80歲以上參加會試者116人，實際參加會試並三場完竣者92人，俱加賞賜。大清帝國尚陶醉於孫子打着燈籠，照着“百歲應試”的爺爺參加科舉考試呢！乾隆藉興教尊老之名，行粉飾太平之實。這一幕人間喜劇，掩飾了乾隆盛世下的悲哀！
綜合起來說，在乾隆時代，世界上主要發生了三件大事：第一件是英國工業革命；第二件是美利堅合衆國成立；第三件是法國大革命。這三件大事再加上此前的英國資産階級革命，具有劃時代的意義，影響了世界歷史的進程，改變了整個世界的格局。但是在乾隆五十八年（1793年）八月十三日，當乾隆皇帝在避暑山莊接見英國使臣馬戛爾尼時，還傲慢地聲稱“天朝統馭萬國”、“天朝撫有四海”、“天朝物産豐盈，無所不有，原不藉外夷貨物，以通有無”等等，說明乾隆皇帝根本看不到西方工業科技的進步和世界發展的潮流，依然陶醉在“天朝上國”、“千古第一全人”的迷夢之中。
乾隆退位、嘉慶繼位後，南方的白蓮教，京師的天理教，京城內外，大江南北，烽火四起，遍地燃燒。乾隆盛世下的危機，不論國內，還是國外，都已經充分暴露出來。這個爛攤子，衹好由他的兒孫們去承受和收拾了。
姓名：愛新覺羅·弘歷出生：康熙五十年（1711年）八月十三日
屬相：兔卒年：嘉慶四年(1799年)
享年：89歲執政：實際掌權64年
謚號：純皇帝廟號：高宗
陵寢：裕陵（清東陵）父親：胤禛（雍正）
母親：鈕祜祿氏，後尊為孝聖憲皇后
初婚：16歲結婚，配偶富察氏
配偶：29人，皇后富察氏
子女：16子，8女
繼位人：顒琰（嘉慶）
最得意：“十全武功”
最失意：皇后怒斷青絲
最不幸：生母身世有異說
最痛心：孝賢後不幸死去
最擅長：詩文、書法
參考資料：閻崇年《正說清朝十二帝》
關於乾隆帝的影視及文學作品
乾隆君臣的事故同樣也是影視及文學作品的一個重要題材，其主要影視作品及其主要扮演者有：
《上書房》（袁弘飾乾隆），《戲說乾隆》（第一、二部）（鄭少秋飾乾隆），《乾隆王朝》（焦晃飾乾隆），《乾隆大帝》（古天樂飾乾隆），《宰相劉羅鍋》（張國立飾乾隆），《鐵齒銅牙紀曉嵐》（第一、二、三部）及《還珠格格》（第一、二部）（張鐵林飾乾隆），《還珠格格》（第三部）（狄竜飾乾隆），《大內群英》（第二部）（萬梓良飾乾隆）《江南京華夢》（陳浩民飾乾隆）
主要文學作品有：
《乾隆皇帝》（含《風華初露》《日照空山》《天步限難》《日落長河》《雲暗鳳闕》《秋聲紫宛》）（二月河著）
《乾隆韻事》（高陽著），此外，金庸小說《書劍恩仇錄》很多筆墨也是描寫乾隆身世傳說的
Early yearsHongli was adored both by his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor and his father, the Yongzheng Emperor. Some historians argue that the main reason why Kangxi Emperor appointed Yongzheng as his successor was because Qianlong was his favourite grandson. He felt that Hongli's mannerisms were very close to his own. As a teenager he was very capable in martial arts, and possessed a high literary ability.
After his father's succession in 1722, Hongli became the Prince Bao (宝亲王/寶親王). Like many of his uncles, Hongli entered into a battle of succession with his older half-brother Hongshi, who had the support of a large faction of court officials, as well as Yinsi, Prince Lian. For many years the Yongzheng Emperor did not appoint anyone to the position of Crown Prince, but many in court speculated his favoring of Hongli. Hongli went on inspection trips to the south, and was known to be an able negotiator and enforcer. He was also chosen as chief regent on occasions, when his father was away from the capital.
Ascension to the throneEven before Hongli's succession was read out to the assembled court, it was widely known who the new emperor would be. The young Hongli had been a favorite of his grandfather, Kangxi, and his father alike; Yongzheng had entrusted a number of important ritual tasks to him while Hongli was still a prince, and included him in important court discussions of military strategy. Hoping to avoid repetition of the succession crisis that had tainted his own accession to the throne, he had the name of his successor placed in a sealed box secured behind the tablet over the throne in the Palace of Heavenly Purity (Qianqing Gong 乾清宫). The name in the box was to be revealed to other members of the imperial family in the presence of all senior ministers only upon the death of the Emperor. Yongzheng died suddenly in 1735, the will was taken out and read out before the entire Qing Court, and Hongli became the 6th Manchu Emperor of China. He took the era name of Qianlong (乾隆), 乾 means heaven, 隆 means eminence, which means "Lasting Eminence".
Frontier warsFurther information: Ten Great Campaign
Military costume of Emperor Qianlong. Musée de l'Armée, Paris.
Chinese soldier of Emperor Qianlong, by William Alexander, 1793.
The Qianlong Emperor Viewing Paintings
Qianlong Emperor watching a wrestling match.
The emperor in old age
The Qianlong Emperor in Armor on Horseback, by Italian Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione(Long shining)(1688–1766 AD).
Consorts of Emperor Qianlong
Consorts and children of Emperor Qianlong
Emperor Qianlong in his study, painting by Giuseppe Castiglione, 18th centuryThe Qianlong Emperor was a successful military leader. Immediately after ascending the throne, he sent armies to suppress the Miao rebellion. His later campaigns greatly expanded the territory controlled by the Qing dynasty. This was made possible not only by Qing strength, but also by the disunity and declining strength of the Inner Asian peoples. Under Qianlong, Dzungar Khanate was incorporated into the Qing dynasty's rule and renamed Xinjiang, while to the West, Ili was conquered and garrisoned. The incorporation of Xinjiang into the Qing empire resulted from the final defeat and destruction of the Dzungars (or Zunghars), a coalition of Western Mongol tribes. According to Qing scholar Wei Yuan, 40% of the 600,000 Zunghar people were killed by smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or Kazakh tribes, and 30% were killed by the army, in what Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people." Historian Peter Perdue has argued that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of massacre launched by the Qianlong emperor (See Zunghar Khanate#Fall).
Throughout this period there were continued Mongol interventions in Tibet and a reciprocal spread of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia. After the Lhasa riot of 1750 he sent armies into Tibet and firmly established the Dalai Lama as ruler, with a Qing resident and garrison to preserve Chinese sovereignty. Further afield, military campaigns against Nepalese, and Gurkhas forced these peoples to submit and send tribute.
The Qianlong Emperor sought to conquer Burma to the south, but the Sino–Burmese War ended in complete failure. He initially believed that it would be an easy victory against a barbarian tribe, and sent only the Green Standard Army based in Yunnan, which borders Burma. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in their latest invasion of Siam. Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765–1766 and 1766–1767 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military maneuvers nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite Manchu Bannermen nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from the capital, Ava. But the Bannermen of northern China could not cope with unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases, and were driven back with heavy losses. After the close-call, King Hsinbyushin redeployed his armies from Siam to the Chinese front. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769. The Qing kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of Yunnan for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. When Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790, the Qing unilaterally viewed the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory.
The circumstances in Vietnam were not successful either. In 1787 the last Le king Le Chieu Thong fled Vietnam and formally requested that he be restored to his throne in Thanglong (Hanoi today). The Qianlong Emperor agreed and sent a large army into Vietnam to remove the Tay Son (peasant rebels who had captured all of Vietnam). The capital, Thanglong, was conquered in 1788 but a few months later, the Chinese army was defeated and the invasion turned into a debacle due to the surprise attack during Tết by Nguyen Hue, the second and most capable of the three Tay Son brothers. The Chinese[who?] gave formal protection to the Le emperor and his family, and would not intervene in Vietnam for another 90 years.
Despite setbacks in the south, overall the Qianlong Emperor's military expansion nearly doubled the area of the already vast empire, and brought into the fold many non-Han-Chinese peoples—such as Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, Evenks and Mongols—who were potentially hostile. It was also a very expensive enterprise; the funds in the Imperial Treasury were almost all put into military expeditions. Though the wars were successful, they were not overwhelmingly so. The army declined noticeably and had a difficult time facing some enemies: the Jin Chuan area took 2–3 years to conquer—at first the Qing army were mauled, though Yue Zhongqi later took control of the situation. The battle with the Dzungars was closely fought, and caused heavy losses on both sides.
At the end of the frontier wars, the army had started to weaken significantly. In addition to a more lenient military system, warlords became satisfied with their lifestyles. Since most of the warring had taken place, warlords no longer saw any reason to train their armies, resulting in a rapid military decline by the end of Qianlong's reign. This is the main reason for the military's failure against the White Lotus Sect, at the very end of Qianlong's years.
Cultural achievementsThe Qianlong Emperor was a major patron of the arts, seeing himself as an important "preserver and restorer" of Chinese culture. He had an insatiable appetite for collecting, and acquired much of China's "great private collections" by any means necessary, and "reintegrated their treasures into the imperial collection." Qianlong, more than any other Manchu emperor, lavished the imperial collection with his attention and effort:
The imperial collection had its origins in the first century B.C., and had gone through many vicissitudes of fire, civil wars and foreign invasions in the centuries that followed. But it was Qianlong who lavished the greatest attention on it, certainly of any of the Manchu rulers.... One of the many roles played by Qianlong, with his customary diligence, was that of the emperor as collector and curator....how carefully Qianlong followed the art market in rare paintings and antiquities, using a team of cultural advisers, from elderly Chinese literati to newly fledged Manchu connoisseurs. These men would help the emperor spot which great private collections might be coming up for sale, either because the fortunes of some previously rich merchant family were unraveling or because the precious objects acquired by Manchu or Chinese grandees during the chaos of the conquest period were no longer valued by those families’ surviving heirs. Sometimes, too, Qianlong would pressure or even force wealthy courtiers into yielding up choice art objects: he did this by pointing out failings in their work, which might be excused if they made a certain “gift,” or, in a couple of celebrated cases, by persuading the current owners that only the secure walls of the forbidden City and its guardians could save some precious painting from theft or from fire.
His massive art collection became an intimate part of his life; he took landscape paintings with him on his travels in order to compare them with the actual landscapes, or to hang them in special rooms in palaces where he lodged, to inscribe them on every visit there. "He also regularly added poetic inscriptions to the paintings of the imperial collection, following the example of the emperors of the Song dynasty and the literati painters of the Ming. They were a mark of distinction for the work, and a visible sign of his rightful role as Emperor. Most particular to the Qianlong Emperor is another type of inscription, revealing a unique practice of dealing with works of art that he seems to have developed for himself. On certain fixed occasions over a long period he contemplated a number of paintings or works of calligraphy which possessed special meaning for him, inscribing each regularly with mostly private notes on the circumstances of enjoying them, using them almost as a diary."
"Most of the several thousand jade items in the imperial collection date from his reign. The Emperor was also particularly interested in collecting ancient bronzes, bronze mirrors and seals," in addition to pottery, ceramics and applied arts such as enameling, metal work and lacquer work, which flourished during his reign; a substantial part of his collection is in the Percival David Foundation in London. The Victoria and Albert Museum and The British Museum also have good collections of Qianlong period Art.
"The Qianlong Emperor was a passionate poet and essayist. In his collected writings, which were published in a tenfold series between 1749 and 1800, over 40,000 poems and 1,300 prose texts are listed, making him one of the most prolific writers of all time. There is a long tradition of poems of this sort in praise of particular objects ('yongwu shi), and the Qianlong Emperor used it in order to link his name both physically and intellectually with ancient artistic tradition."
One of Qianlong’s grandest projects was to "assemble a team of China’s finest scholars for the purpose of assembling, editing, and printing the largest collection ever made of Chinese philosophy, history, and literature." Known as The Four Treasuries project, or Siku Quanshu (四庫全書) it was published in 36,000 volumes, containing about 3450 complete works and employing as many as 15,000 copyists. It preserved numerous books, but was also intended as a way to ferret out and suppress political opponents, requiring the "careful examination of private libraries to assemble a list of around eleven thousand works from the past, of which about a third were chosen for publication. The works not included were either summarized or—in a good many cases—scheduled for destruction."
Burning of books and modification of textsMain article: literary inquisition#Qing
Some 2,300 works were listed for total suppression and another 350 for partial suppression. The aim was to destroy the writings that were anti-Qing or rebellious, that insulted previous "barbarian" dynasties, or that dealt with frontier or defense problems.
The full editing of Siku Quanshu was completed in about ten years; during these ten years, 3100 titles (or works), about 150,000 copies of books were either burnt or banned. Of those volumes that had been categorized into Siku Quanshu, many were subjected to deletion and modification. Books published during the Ming dynasty suffered the greatest damage.
The authority would judge any single character or any single sentence's neutrality; if the authority had decided these words, or sentence were derogatory or cynical towards the rulers, then persecution would begin. In Qianlong's time, there were 53 cases of literary inquisition, resulting in the victims being beheaded, or corpses being mutilated, or victims being slowly sliced into pieces until death (Lingchi).
European stylesArchitecturally, Qianlong took personal interest in the expansion of the Old Summer Palace and commissioned the Italian Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione for the construction of the Xiyanglou (西洋楼), or the Western-style mansion, to satisfy his taste for exotic buildings and objects. He also commissioned the French Jesuit Michel Benoist, to design a series of timed waterworks and fountains complete with underground machinery and pipes, for the amusement of the Imperial family. The French Jesuit Jean Denis Attiret also became "Painter to the Emperor" Qianlong.
During his reign the Emin Minaret was built in Turpan to commemorate his father.
Later yearsIn his later years, Qianlong was spoiled with power and glory, becoming disillusioned and complacent in his reign, placing his trust in corrupt officials like Yu Minzhong (于敏中), and later Heshen (和珅).
As Heshen was the highest ranked minister and most favoured by Qianlong at the time, the day-to-day governance of the country was left in his hands, while Qianlong himself indulged in the arts, luxuries and literature. When Heshen was executed it was found that his personal fortune exceeded that of the country's depleted treasury, amount to 900,000,000 taels of silver, the total of 12 years of Treasury surplus of Manchu Qing court.
Qianlong began his reign with about 33,950,000 taels of silver in Treasury surplus.
At the peak of Qianlong's reign, around 1775, even with further tax cuts, the treasury surplus still reached 73,900,000 taels, a record unmatched by his predecessors, Kangxi or Yongzheng both of whom had implemented remarkable tax cut policies.
However, due to numerous factors such as long term embezzlement and corruption by officials, frequent expeditions South, huge palace constructions, many war and rebellion campaigns as well as his own extravagant lifestyle, all of these cost the treasury a total of 150,200,000 silver taels.
This, coupled with his senior age and the lack of political reforms, ushered the beginning of the gradual decline and eventual demise of the Qing dynasty and empire, casting a shadow over his glorious and brilliant political life.
Macartney EmbassyMain article: Macartney Embassy
See also: All under heaven, Hua-Yi distinction, and Kowtow
Lord Macartney's embassy, 1793.
The French Jesuit Joseph-Marie Amiot (1718–1793) was the official translator of Western languages for Emperor Qianlong.
Illustration depicting the last European delegation to be received at the Qianlong Court in 1795 – Isaac Titsingh (seated European with hat, far left) and A.E. van Braam Houckgeest (seated European without hat).During the mid-eighteenth century, Qianlong began to face pressures from the West to increase foreign trade. The proposed cultural exchange between the British Empire at the time and the Qing Empire collapsed due to many factors. Firstly, there was a lack of any precedent interaction with overseas foreign kingdoms apart from neighbouring tributory states to guide Qianlong towards a more informed response. Furthermore, competing worldviews that were incompatible between China and Britain, the former holding entrenched beliefs that China was the "central kingdom", and the latter's push for rapid liberalization of trade relations, worsened ties.
George Macartney, was sent by King George III as ambassador extraordinary to seek a range of trade concessions. He was granted an audience with the Qianlong Emperor, and attended the Emperor's 80th birthday. There is continued discussion about the nature of the audience, and what level of ceremonials were performed. Demands from the Qing Court that the British Trade ambassadors kneel and perform the kowtow were strongly resisted by Macartney, and debate continues as to what exactly occurred, differing opinions recorded by Qing courtiers and British delegates.
A description of the Emperor is provided in the account of one of the visiting Englishmen, Aeneas Anderson:
The Emperor is about five feet ten inches in height, and of a slender but elegant form; his complexion is comparatively fair, though his eyes are dark; his nose is rather aquiline, and the whole of his countenance presents a perfect regularity of feature, which, by no means, announce the great age he is said to have attained; his person is attracting, and his deportment accompanies by an affability, which, without lessening the dignity of the prince, evinces the amiable character of the man. His dress consisted of a loose robe of yellow silk, a cap of black velvet with a red ball on the top, and adorned with a peacock's feather, which is the peculiar distinction of mandarins of the first class. He wore silk boots embroidered with gold, and a sash of blue girded his waist.
It is uncertain whether Anderson actually saw the Emperor, or repeated another's sighting, as he was not involved in the ceremonies.
George Macartney's Manchu Qing observationsIn George Macartney's memoirs, there were many passages describing what was, in his opinion, an overall poor quality of life for the Chinese under Qing rule. Macartney expressed opinions which were widely disseminated:
The Empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War, which a fortunate succession of and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past, and to overawe their neighbours merely by her bulk and appearance. But whenever an insufficient man happens to have the command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship. She may, perhaps, not sink outright; she may drift some time as a wreck, and will then be dashed to pieces on the shore; but she can never be rebuilt on the old bottom.
Titsingh EmbassyA Dutch embassy arrived to the Qianlong court in 1795, and would turn out to be the last occasion in which any European appeared before the Chinese Court within the context of traditional Chinese imperial foreign relations.
Representing Dutch and Dutch East India Company interests, Isaac Titsingh traveled to Pekin in 1794–95 for celebrations of the sixtieth anniversary of the Qianlong Emperor's reign. The Titsingh delegation also included the Dutch-American Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest, whose detailed description of this embassy to the Chinese court was soon after published in the U.S. and Europe. Titsingh's French translator, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes published his own account of the Titsingh mission in 1808. Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France provided an alternate perspective and a useful counterpoint to other reports which were then circulating. Titsingh himself died before he could publish his version of events.
In contrast to Macartney, Isaac Titsingh, the Dutch and VOC emissary in 1795 did not refuse to kowtow. In the year following Mccartney's rebuff, Titsingh and his colleagues were much feted by the Chinese because of what was construed as seemly compliance with conventional court etiquette.
AbdicationIn October 1795, Qianlong officially announced that in the spring of the following year he would voluntarily abdicate his throne and pass the crown to his son. It was said that Qianlong had made a promise during the year of his ascension not to rule longer than his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor, who had reigned for 61 years.
Qianlong anticipated moving out of the Hall of Mental Cultivation in the Forbidden City. The Hall had been conventionally dedicated for the exclusive use of the reigning sovereign, and in 1771 the emperor ordered the beginning of construction on what was ostensibly intended as his retirement residence in another part of the Forbidden City: a lavish, two-acre walled retreat called the Ningshou gong, or "Palace of Tranquil Longevity", today more commonly known as the Qianlong Garden. The complex, completed in 1776, is currently undergoing a ten-year restoration led by the Palace Museum in Beijing and the World Monuments Fund (WMF). The first of the restored apartments, Qianlong's Juanqinzhai, or "Studio of Exhaustion From Diligent Service," began an exhibition tour of the United States in 2010.
Qianlong resigned the throne at the age of 85, in the 60th year of his reign, to his son, the Jiaqing emperor in 1795. For the next four years, he held the title "Retired Emperor (太上皇)," though he continued to hold on to power and the Jiaqing Emperor ruled only in name. He never moved into his retirement suites in the Qianlong Garden. He died in 1799.
LegendsThere is a legend, popularized in fiction, that Qianlong was the son of Chen Yuanlong of Haining. Emperor Kangxi chose the heir to his throne based not just on his son's capability to govern the Empire, but also whether his grandson was of no lesser calibre, to ensure the Manchus' everlasting reign over the country. Yongzheng's own son was a weakling and he surreptitiously arranged for his daughter to be swapped for Chen Yuanlong's son, who became the apple of Kangxi's eye. Thus, Yongzheng got to succeed the throne, and his "son", Hongli, subsequently became Emperor Qianlong. Later, Qianlong went to the southern part of the country four times, he stayed in Chen's house in Haining, leaving behind his calligraphy and also frequently issued imperial decrees making and maintaining Haining as a tax-free state.
However there are major problems with this story being: 1) His eldest surviving son Hongshi was only 7 when Hongli was born far too early to make the drastic choice of replacing a child of royal birth with an outsider (and risking disgrace if not death) 2) Yongzheng had three other princes that survived to adulthood who had the potential of ascending the throne. Indeed given the fact that Hongshi was forced to commit suicide, the story would have been far more logical if he was the adopted child of Yongzheng.
Stories about Qianlong's 6 visits to the Jiangnan area disguised as a commoner have been a popular topic for many generations. In total, he has visited Jiang Nan eight times, as opposed to the Kangxi emperor's 6 inspections.
FamilySee also: Qing Dynasty nobility and Ranks of Imperial Consorts in China#Qing
Father: Yongzheng Emperor
Mother: Empress Xiaoshengxian
SpousesEmpresses:
Empress Xiaoxianchun
Ulanara, the Step Empre
Empress Xiaoyichun
Imperial Noble Consorts:
Imperial Noble Consort Huixian
Imperial Noble Consort Chunhui
Imperial Noble Consort Qinggong
Imperial Noble Consort Zhemin (哲憫皇貴妃), from the Fuca (富察) clan.
Imperial Noble Consort Shujia (淑嘉皇貴妃), from the Jingiya (金佳) clan.
Noble Consorts:
Noble Consort Wan
Noble Consort Ying
Noble Consort Xin
Noble Consort Yu (愉貴妃), from the Keliyete (珂里葉特) clan.
Noble Consort Xun
Consorts:
Consort Jin (晉妃), from the Fuca (富察) clan.
Consort Rong
Consort Shu
Consort Dun
Imperial Concubines:
Imperial Concubine Yi (儀嬪), from the Huang (黃) clan.
Imperial Concubine Xun (恂嬪), from the Huoshuote (霍碩特) clan.
Imperial Concubine Gong (恭嬪), from the Lin (林) clan.
Imperial Concubine Yi (怡嬪), from the Bo (柏) clan.
Imperial Concubine Shen (慎嬪), from the Bai'ergesi (拜爾噶斯) clan.
Imperial Concubine Cheng (誠嬪), from the Niuhuru clan.
Noble Ladies:
Noble Lady Shun
Lady Silin-Gioro (西林覺羅氏)
Lady Bo (柏氏)
Noble Lady Rui (瑞貴人), from the Suochuoluo (索綽絡) clan.
Noble Lady Duo (多貴人), from the Borjigit clan.
Noble Lady Wu (武貴人)
Noble Lady Jin (金貴人)
Noble Lady Xin (新貴人)
Noble Lady Fu (福貴人)
First Class Female Attendants:
First Class Female Attendant Bai (白常在)
First Class Female Attendant Kui (揆常在)
First Class Female Attendant Ning (寧常在)
First Class Female Attendant Ping (平常在)
First Class Female Attendant Na (那常在)
Sons# Name Mother Birth date Death date Title
1 Yonghuang (永璜) Imperial Noble Consort Zhemin 5 July 1728 21 April 1750 Prince Ding'an of the First Rank (定安親王)
2 Yonglian (永璉) Empress Xiaoxianchun 9 August 1730 23 November 1738 Crown Prince Duanhui (端慧太子)
3 Yongzhang (永璋) Imperial Noble Consort Chunhui 15 July 1735 26 August 1760 Prince Xun of the Second Rank (循郡王)
4 Yongcheng (永珹) Imperial Noble Consort Shujia 21 February 1739 5 April 1777 Prince Lüduan of the First Rank (履端親王)
5 Yongqi (永琪) Noble Consort Yu 23 March 1741 16 April 1766 Prince Rongchun of the First Rank (榮純親王)
6 Yongrong (永瑢) Imperial Noble Consort Chunhui 28 January 1744 13 June 1790 Prince Zhizhuang of the First Rank (質庄親王)
7 Yongcong (永琮) Empress Xiaoxianchun 27 May 1746 29 January 1748 Prince Zhe of the First Rank (哲親王)
8 Yongxuan (永璇) Imperial Noble Consort Shujia 31 August 1746 1 September 1832 Prince Yishen of the First Rank (儀慎親王)
9 (Unnamed) Imperial Noble Consort Shujia 2 August 1748 11 June 1749
10 (Unnamed) Consort Shu 12 June 1751 7 July 1753
11 Yongxing (永瑆) Imperial Noble Consort Shujia 22 March 1752 10 May 1823 Prince Chengzhe of the First Rank (成哲親王)
12 Yongji (永璂) Empress Ulanara 7 June 1752 17 March 1776 Beile (貝勒)
13 Yongjing (永璟) Empress Ulanara 2 January 1756 7 September 1757
14 Yonglu (永璐) Empress Xiaoyichun 31 August 1757 3 May 1760
15 Yongyan (永琰) Empress Xiaoyichun 13 November 1760 2 September 1820 Jiaqing Emperor
16 (Unnamed) Empress Xiaoyichun 13 January 1763 6 May 1765
17 Yonglin (永璘) Empress Xiaoyichun 17 June 1766 25 April 1820 Prince Qingxi of the First Rank (慶僖親王)
DaughtersThe personal names of the Qianlong Emperor's daughters are not known.
The Qianlong Emperor adopted a niece, Heshuo Princess Hewan (和碩和婉公主; 24 July 1734 – 2 May 1760). She was the daughter of the Qianlong Emperor's younger half-brother Hongzhou and Hongzhou's primary spouse Lady Ujaku (烏札庫氏).
# Title Mother Birth date Death date Spouse
1 (Unnamed) Empress Xiaoxianchun 1728 1729
2 (Unnamed) Imperial Noble Consort Zhemin 1731 1731
3 Kurun Princess Hejing (固倫和敬公主) Empress Xiaoxianchun 28 June 1731 15 August 1792 Sebutengbalezhu'er (色布騰巴勒珠爾) of the Borjigit clan
4 Heshuo Princess Hejia (和碩和嘉公主) Imperial Noble Consort Chunhui 24 December 1745 29 October 1767 Fulong'an (福隆安) of the Fuca (富察) clan
5 (Unnamed) Empress Ulanara 1753 1755
6 (Unnamed) Noble Consort Xin 24 August 1755 27 September 1758
7 Kurun Princess Hejing (固倫和靜公主) Empress Xiaoyichun 10 August 1756 9 February 1775 Lawangduo'erji (拉旺多爾濟) of the Borjigit clan
8 (Unnamed) Noble Consort Xin 1758 1767
9 Heshuo Princess Hege (和碩和恪公主) Empress Xiaoyichun 17 August 1758 14 April 1780 Zhalantai (札蘭泰) of the Uya (烏雅) clan.
10 Kurun Princess Hexiao (固倫和孝公主) Consort Dun 2 February 1775 13 October 1823 Fengshen Yinde (豐紳殷德) of the Niuhuru clan
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