gōng yuán   shǐ qián 'ōu zhōu Prehistoric Europe    diǎn shí dài Classical Antiquity   zhōng shì Middle Ages   jìn dài 'ōu zhōu Early Modern Europe   zōng jiào gǎi Reformation   cóng mìng dào guó zhù From revolution to imperialism   


  zài zhè shí tiān zhù jiào huì de bài zāo dào xīn jiào gǎi de qiáng fǎn dànhòu zhě huò zhū duō zhī chí bié shì zài xún qiú qiáng guó zhī bǎi tuō tiān zhù jiào huì yǐng xiǎng de zhū hóu zhī jiān dīng · zhī hòu rén céng chū qióng yuē hàn · jiā 'ěr wén de jiā 'ěr wén zhù zài hěn duō guó yōng yòu yǐng xiǎngyīng guó guó wáng hēng shì shǐ yīng lán cóng tiān zhù jiào huì lìng chuàng shèng gōng huì bān kàn tóng de shì zhè zhǐ shì bàn zhèng què de 'ér suō bái shì wán chéng liǎo shèng gōng huì de chéng gōng zuò)。 zhè xiē zōng jiào fēn dǎo zhì yóu zōng jiào 'ōu xīn qiáng zhōng yāng quán de jūn zhù zhì guó jiā tuī dòng de lún xīn de zhàn zhēng
  
   xīn jiào gǎi shǐ tiān zhù jiào huì nèi kāi shǐ lún gǎi làng cháoshǐ chēng fǎn zōng jiào gǎi mùdì zài jiǎn shǎo bàizēng jìn jiā qiáng duì tiān zhù jiào jiào de xìn xīnzài zhè chǎng yùn dòng zhōng chū xiàn de zhòng yào zhì jiù shì huì xié zhù dōng 'ōu guó jiā liú zài liǎo tiān zhù jiào nèidàn shì tiān zhù jiào huì réng rán duō shǎo bèi zōng jiào gǎi suǒ xuē ruòōu zhōu de fēn cóng zài shòu zhǎng guǎn de tiān zhù jiào guó jiā de jūn zhù kāi shǐ zhǎng kòng běn guó de tiān zhù jiào huì zhì
  
   zhōng 'ōu guó jiā lán táo wǎn lián bāng xiōng 'ōu gèng jiā kuān róngsuī rán réng rán guī dìng tiān zhù jiào zhàn zhù dǎo wèi men yǔn liàng de zōng jiào shǎo shù pài bǎo chí de xìn yǎngtiān zhù jiào xīn jiào dōng zhèng jiào yóu tài jiào zài zhōng 'ōu shǒu fāngzhè shí de lìng zhòng yào de zhǎn shì fàn 'ōu zhōu xiǎng de xīng āi · ( EméricCrucé, 1623) chū liǎo 'ōu zhōu shì huì de gòu xiǎng de shì jié shù 'ōu zhōu de zhàn zhēngjiàn chí jiǔ píng de cháng shì méi yòu chéng gōngsuī rán 1518 nián suǒ yòu de 'ōu zhōu guó jiāchú liǎo 'é luó 'ào màn guóliǎng zhě bèi kàn zuò shì 'ōu zhōu guó jiāzài 1518 nián lún dūn tiáo yuē zhōng tóng wéi chí píng nián zhī hòu jiù zài bào liǎo hǎo chǎng zhàn zhēngzōng jiào gǎi shǐ 'ōu zhōu píng zài shì zhī nèi chéng wéi néng
  
   lìng wài jiēguǒ shì 'ōu zhōu zhì shàng zhù wén míng de gài niàn lái luó jiào chéng shì shēng huó shì wén míng kāi huà de yào tiáo jiànwén míng xìng shì pàn duàn 'ōu zhōu rén fēi 'ōu zhōu shú yōu shú liè de biāo zhǔnōu zhōu rèn yōu zhōudāng shí cún zài méng tián děng rén dòng de lìng yùn dòngrèn wéi 'ōu zhōu zhī wài de rén shì gèng hǎogèng rán gèng chún de rénzhěng 'ōu zhōu jiàn liǎo yóu zhèng tǒngshǐ 'ōu zhōu rén wén zhù zhī shí fènzǐ pāo kāi zōng jiào fēn xiāng lián xíng chéng wǎng luòdàn shì luó tiān zhù jiào huì chá fēng liǎo duō zhòng yào de xué zhù zuòzhè dǎo zhì liǎo xīn jiào guó jiā zài xué shù shàng hòu lái shàngyīn wéi chá fēng shū zhǐ zài mǒu yòu xiào lǎng · péi gēn xīn xué rén shì cháng shì qiáng diào rán de tǒng jiàn 'ōu zhōu de tǒng 1。 zài 15 shì de zhōng shì qiáng de yóu yōng yòu zhōng yāng quán de xīn jūn zhù men jiàn de shì mín guó jiā chū xiàn zài guóyīng lán bān lìng fāng miàn lán táo wǎn lián bāng de guó huì liàng zài duàn zhuàng cóng lán guó wáng shǒu zhōng duó guò quán xīn de guó jiā qiáng quán zài bié de guó jiā bié shì yīng lán shòu dào guó huì tiǎo zhàn tǒng zhì zhěchéng shìnóng mín gòng guó shì men zuò chéng de xīn xíng guó jiā kāi shǐ chū xiàn
  
   zōng jiào gǎi shì zōng jiào zài 16 shì zhì 17 shì jìn xíng de gǎi dài biǎo rén yòu dīng · jiā 'ěr wén yùn shèn huò yīng guó guó wáng hēng shì děng rénfēn liǎo xīn jiào jiù jiào bān rèn wéi zōng jiào gǎi shǐ 1517 nián dīng · chū jiǔ shí tiáo lùn gāngjié shù 1648 nián de wēi lún yuē
  
   gǎi jiào de xiān fēng
  
  * jiǎn dān de shuōjiào huì shǐ shàng zhòng yào de gǎi dōushì jiào de gǎi 'ér fēi zhì de gǎi gèng yán jǐn de shuō biàn shì zhì gǎi shì diàn jiào gǎi de chǔ shàng jìn xíng de shǐ shí dài jiào huì zhú jiàn duò luò shì huàzhè shí hòu de gǎi jiā jiù shì jiào shì yóu dīng( JustinMartyr)( c.100-165)、 liáng( Tertullian)、 shān de miǎn( ClementofAlexandria)、 diū( Igantius)( c.35-107)、 jiā( Polycap)( c.70-156) děng
  
  * - shì yòu yòu zhōng shèng jīngde jiào shìfǎn duì jiào huì tóng jiào de guì bài shén xiàng tái wéi shén de miù jiǔ shì zhōng wéi yào zhèng míng dāng shí jiào huáng suǒ xuān de zhù quán shì zǎo zài shù shì qián jiù shí xíng de jiǎ wén xiàn wěi duō 'ěr jiào lìng ( IsidorianDecretals) chū xiàn shí duō yòu liáng zhī de zhù jiào céng qún fǎn duì zhè piàn dàn zhōng bèi zhìshí 'èr shì yòu yòu guó de pài( Waldensians) zhù zhāng jiào huì yìng huī chún shèng jīngwéi wéi zhēn fǎn duì liàn xié shuōqiáng diào píng xìn shàng tái jiǎng dàojiào shì de yán lùn bìng fēi wán quán děngshēng shì xiāng dāng hào suī zāo dào jiào huáng shì wéi duān chú mínggǎi zhí shí jūn de zhēng dàn men zhì jīn réng rán cún zài 'ā 'ěr bēi shān chéng wéi shí 'èr shì qián gǎi jiào huì jìn jǐn cún shuò guǒ
  
  *1376 nián yīng guó de jiào cháng jiān yīng wáng huáng jiā shén xué wèn yuē hàn · wēi (JohnWycliff, 1320-1384 nián ), yǎn jiàn shí rèn jiào zōng liè gāo shí shì shēng huó shē jiào huì yīn zhēng jìng zhú cái 'ér huàbiàn zài niú jīn gōng kāi zhǐ jiào huì de zhù jué zhěshì shì yóu shén pài zhèng guǎn jiào huáng yìng gān shè huò yīng guó cháo de yōng wéi miǎn bèi jiào huáng zhuō bàn tuī dòng gǎi , 1377 nián yòu xuān chēng shèng jīng shì xìn yǎng wéi gēn jiào huì wéi jiē zhe jiāngshèng jīng chéng bái huà yīng wén (1384 nián wán chéng, 1388 nián xiū dìng ), jiēguǒ xiāo wài guǎng yòu zhù zhāngpíng mín zhù quán jiào huì yìng píng xìn wéi zhōng xīnér fēi jiào huángdàn yòu rén zūn zhào shèng jīng zǒng lǎn xiāng guān shì fǒu biàn shì zhěbìng yào 'èr rén chū wài chuán dàodàn fēi zhōng shēn zhíyīng guó hēi bìng liú xíng shí bèi bǎo shǒu pài guī jiù bàn de zhuī suí zhě bèi chēng wéi luó pài( Lollards), hòu shòu yīng wáng hēng shì shì cuī huǐ dài jìnxìng yīn chá 'èr shì gōng zhù 'ér zài chuán
  
  * yuē hàn · ( JohnHuss, 1369-1415 niánshì xué jiào chángyīn yuè wēi de zhù zuò hòu shēn shòu gǎn dòng kāi shǐ zuò lèi de yán lùn chū shòu cháo zàn shǎnghòu yīn yán zhǐ chū shòu shú zuì quàn shì wéi fǎn shèng jīng de zēng xíng wéizài 1409 nián huì bèi jiào huáng dìng zuì, 1414 nián jūn shì tǎn dīng bǎo huì hòu bèi liú nián yuè liù bèi chù huǒ xíngyǐn fǎn jiào huáng de mìng zhàn zhēng jīn gǎi huǒ miáo réng wèi miè
  
   zōng jiào gǎi de bèi jǐng
  
  * jiào huì bài - shàng shù gǎi jiào huì de xiān fēng suī wèi néng chéng gōngdàn zài shí - shí 'èr shì jiào huì jiē shòu liǎo xiē gǎi xīn yùn dòng (Clunny) de jiā qiáng guǎn xiū dào yuànyào qiú xiū shì xiū chóngxīn guò jìn shēng huóbìng zhuān xīn dǎo jīng xiǎngdàn jīng guò shù bǎi niándào shí liù shì chū jiào huì nèi bài de qíng kuàng yòu zài yán zhòngdào liǎo zhōng shì de wǎn jiào huì zhōng chōng chì zhe de zōng jiào zhōng zuì shòu bān rén zhǐ de jiù shì chū mài shè (Indulgences, yòu chēng shú zuì quàn ) sōu kuò mín cáizhēng shōu zhòng shuì mǎi mài jiào zhí děngshǐ bǎi xìng xìn xīn sàng shī dài jìnshú zuì quàn de fàn shòu shǐ dīng · zhèn shì gǎi de shēng zài gāo cóng shú zuì quàn de dōu shòu zhě tiē (JohannesTetzel) de míng yán chéng xiàn chū zhè shì de tài 。“ yín qián dīng dāng luò yín líng hún chū liàn 。”
  
  * zhèng hùn luàn - zōng jiào gǎi jiānshén shèng luó guó jǐn kōng yòu tǒng míng hào bān shì dāng shí zuì qiáng guó jiāguó wáng luò shì dēng liǎng nián hòu yòu zài 1519 nián bèi xuǎn wéi shén shèng luó guó huáng yōng luó tiān zhù jiàojié zhì dīng · xīn jiàodàn yīn tóng shí máng duì zhàn guówèi néng quán xiāo miè xīn jiàodāng shí yīng liǎng guó jūn yòu nèi luàn nán zhuān xīn zhì zhǐ gǎi jiào yùn dòngzhè biàn shì dāng shí yòu zōng jiào gǎi de huán jìngyóu guó shōu zhòng shuìjiā gěi rén mín de jīng dānzào chéng nóng rén tián táo wángchī kuī biàn rén xīn qiú biàn dàn yòu rén chū gǎi zhù zhāng lùn yuán lái mùdì jiù shòu dào liè zhī chíyīn dāng chū shēn guó 'āi běn chéng( Eisleben) qióng nóng jiā de dīng · wéi gǎi kāi fàng jiào huì bìng 'ér dēng gāo xiǎn rán zài de bèi hòu biàn yòu shì de zhù xiàng qián tuī jìn duàn
  
   zōng jiào gǎi de guò chéng zhòng yào rén
   dīng ·
  
   dīng (MartinLuther)( 1483-1546 niánzài 'ěr xué( Erfurt) huò wén xué shuò shìyòu xué bàn nián jiē zhe xiū dào yuàn xiū, 1507 nián huò wéi shén 。 1512 nián huò wēi dēng bǎo xué( Wittenburg) shén xué yuàn shìsuí jiào shòushèng jīngcéng jiǎng shòu shī piān( 1513~1515)、 luó shū( 1515~1516)、 jiā tài shū( 1516~1517) lái shū( 1517~1518)。 shì guó zuì zǎo yòng wén duì zhào xīn jiù yuē yuán wén shòu de jiào shòu zhī rán 'ér rán jiào huì qián xīn xiūjiēguǒshǐ gèng jiā qiáng liè de néng mǎn xīn de guān diǎndàn lùn dōubù néng dào nèi xīn de píng 'ānzhí dào yòu tiān zài yán shèng jīngshíkàn dào rén yīn xìn shēng”( luó shū 1: 17) shí rán jué xǐng dào yuán lái rén de jiù zhǐ shì yīn wéi duì shàng de xìn yǎng shàng de 'ēn qiē de dōubù néng bǎo zhèng shǐ rén chēng ”。 zhè xìn niàn zài huò tóng xiào xiē jiào shòu de zhī chíjiā shàng qīn yǎn kàn dào rén men shòu piàn gòu mǎi shú zuì quàn de qíng xíngyòu 'ěr wén jiào huì zhù jiào mǎi mài shèng zhí de chǒu shì kāi shǐ gōng jiào huì chū shòu shú zuì quàn de zuò 。 1517 nián 10 yuè 31 jiāng suǒ xiě duì shú zuì quàn de jiǔ shí tiáo lùn gāng kàn zhāng tiē zài wēi dēng bǎo xué de jiào táng mén kǒuyóu dāng tiān qià qiǎo shì rén men qián wǎng jiào táng cháo jiē suǒ bài de wàn shèng jié rán hěn duō rén kàn dào zhāng tiē de nèi róngsuī rán dāng yìn shuà shù cái shǐ yòng jiǔdàn liǎng zhōu hòu chuán biàn quán guó zhōu hòu zhǒng wén chuán biàn quán 'ōu。 1521 nián 1 yuè 3 jiào huáng 'ào shí shì zhōng xià lìng jiāng chú jiào yuán běn zhǐ yào gǎi jiào huì fēn zhì cóng zài chéng rèn jiào huáng de quán wēiwéi shèng jīngwéi quán wēi hòu suǒ dài biǎo de jiào pài zǒng chēng guógēngzhèng jiàohuòxīn jiào” (Protestantism), zhī xiāng duì de dōng fāng tiān zhù jiào chéng guó jiù jiào zhí jiē jiàn de jiào huì chéng wéi huìhuòxìn zōng”。 yóu xìng bǎo shǒuyīn gǎi de jiào huì réng bǎo liúshèng jīngméi yòu míng wén jìn zhǐ de jiù jiào chuán tǒng tán zhú huà xiànggào jiě zhōu bài shèng dàn jié děng
   yùn
  
   yùn ( UlrichZwingli)( 1484~1531) shēng zài ruì shì de wēi chéng( Wildhaus), zài sài 'ěr( Basel)、 'ēn( Bern), wéi ( Vienna) shòu jiào yùn zài wéi jiù xuédāng shí hòu de wéi xué zhèng zài tuī xíng xué gǎi dāng shí zài rén wén zhù zhě cǎi 'ěr děng rén de lǐng dǎo xià shǐ xué jiē shòu liǎo rén wén zhù zhě de gǎi suí hòu yòu zài sài 'ěr xué nèishēn shòu rén wén zhù de yǐng xiǎngqiáng huà liǎo duì rén wén zhù de chǎng ruì shì dōng jiē shòu de zhí zài 1519 nián chéng wéi shì jiào huì de shī yùn zài yán shàng shì hěn yòu néng de jiāng lùn shì lái wén wén huò shì dīng wén fān chéng shì de dāng yánhòu lái shì shì huì jué dìng liǎo shèng jīng gǎi fāng 'ànchéng wéi guān fāng zhèng zài 1525 nián shì shì huì fèi zhǐ gǎi yóu yùn de shèng cān bǎn běn dàigǎi jiào de zhù shì jiào huì nèi dào de zhòng zhěng kāi shǐ gōng shú zuì quànqiě shì yòu jìhuà xìng de gōng zài shèng shàng gèng yòu de zhù zhāngshèng cān shì xiàng niàn zhù de shìjǐn shì xiàng zhēng xìng zài shèng cān zhī zhōngzhè diǎn yòu hěn de tóng yùn zhēn duì shèng cān de wèn dīng · (M.Luther) jiàn tóngzhì shǐ 1529 nián zài 'ěr bǎo (ColloquyofMarburg) de huì zhōng xìn zōng fēn dào yáng biāo shì zōng pài zài fēn liè zài yùn shòu (Erasmus) de rén wén zhù yǐng xiǎng cānyù shì zhè chéng shì de zōng jiào gǎi yóu zài ruì shì shì lián bāng shì yòu chéng shì suǒ chéng deér shì yòu shì zhōng zuì yòu yǐng xiǎng de chéng shìsuǒ shì rèn wéi cóng chéng shì kāi shǐ ruò chéng gōng gǎi jiāng huì huǒ shū zhǎn kāitóng shí yóu shì cǎi jiào kuān róng de tài shǐ duō shì rén mín fēn fēn xiǎng yìngzài shì dài lǐng zhī xià zhēn shì zhú jiàn tuō liǎo luó gōng jiào de guǎn xiádàn jiù zài 1531 nián zhè shí shì zài yīcháng zhàn zhōng zhèn wángsuī yóu de zhù 'ér dài zhīdàn zhěng gǎi yùn dòng jiù zhú jiàn zhuǎn zhì ruì shì lìng chéng shì nèi suī rán yùn yǔn mìng guò de xué shuō zài dōng ruì shì shèn zhì 'ào guóréng yòu xiāng dāng de yǐng xiǎng
   jiā 'ěr wén
  
   jiā 'ěr wényòu zuò 'ěr wén)( 1509-1564 niánshēngzhǎng zài xué yán jiū shén xué sān niánhòu yòu dào wài xué 。 1536 nián chū bǎn jiào yuán shūsuí dào nèi dàn de gǎi jiào huì 'àn wèi bèi jiē qiě bèi zhú chū jìngjīng shù qián xīn yán jiū, 1541 nián zài fǎn nèi dào huān yíngbìng zhì dāng jiào huì 'èr shí sān niánshǐ chéng wéi xīn jiào de zhōng xīnjiā 'ěr wén zhù zhāng xuǎn shuōrén jiù fǒu wán quán shì shén suǒ dìng dedàn yòu zàn tóng mìng lùnxiāng fǎn de rèn wéi qián chéng de xìn yǎng wán měi de xíng shì měi jiāng yào jiù de de men yīnggāi zài shì jiān gōng zuò róng shén rénjiā 'ěr wén de jiào shòu dào duō gōng shāng zhě huān yíngchéng wéi xīn jiào zhù liú zhōng zhǎnglǎo huì zhǎn yòu duō yòu kuài
   yīng wáng hēng shì
  
   yīng guó guó wáng hēng shì( 1509-1547 niáncéng fǎn duì dīng · gēngzhèng jiào huìhòu wéi yào wáng hòu kǎi lín( Catherine) hūnshòu luó huáng yīn 1534 nián gēngzhèng jiào zuò bìng gòng tóng tōng guòzuì gāo zhì quán 'àn”( ActofSupremacy) xuān chuàng yīng guó guó jiào huìyòu chēng shèng gōng huì luó jiù jiào de jiào shì bìng 'èr zhìzhǐ shì yīng guó guó wáng dài luó jiào huáng chéng wéi zhèng jiào quán wēizhí dào 'ài huá liù shì wèi hòuzài sài gōng jué 'ài huá · de shè zhèng xiàshèng gōng huì kāi shǐ zhèng shì gǎi jiào bāo kuò bān xíng shí 'èr tiáo xìn jīngài huá liù shì gōng dǎo shū》。
   zōng jiào gǎi de
  
  * tiān zhù jiào de xīn
  
  * zōng jiào jué zōng jiào hài -1555 niánfèng xíng xīn jiàojiù jiào liǎng pài de guó jiā zhōng qiān dìngào bǎo yuē》, xié yóu guó tǒng zhì zhě quán quán jué dìng gāi guó rén mín suǒ xìn yǎng de jiào pài néng jiē shòu zhě zhǐ yòu qiān guó。 1598 nián guó huáng hēng shì bān nán chì lìng (EdictofNantes) zhǔn rén mín yóu xìn yǎng xīn jiàodàn xīn jiào què pài xiāng róng men běn zhe rén zhí jiē shàng gōu tōngchǎn shēngshèng jīng tóng de jiàn jiězhè zhǒng wéi shìde jiēguǒ yǎn biàn chéng zōng jiào hàiyuán xiān luó tiān zhù jiào jiù shì duān cái pàn suǒ”, xiàn zài lián xīn jiào hài jiàn xiāng zuǒ de rén
  
  * zōng jiào zhàn zhēng ōu zhōu zōng jiào gǎi yùn dòng jīng duō liúxiě zhàn shì 1610 nián hēng shì bèi shā guó zài nèi zhànxīn jiào xìn liàng táo wáng。 1618 nián guó pài yīn mǎnào bǎo yuēbèi huǐyóu ruì diǎn guó wáng 'èr shì( GustavusAdolphus) lǐng dǎo guó nèi luó tiān zhù jiào jiāo zhàn liǎo sān shí niánzhí dào 1648 nián qiān dìngwéi yuē》( PeaceofWestphalia), shuāng fāng zhòng huò píng xiāng chùyòu 1568 nián lán běi de jiā 'ěr wén pài xìn yīn fǎn jiù jiào tǒng zhì zhě bān guó wáng féi 'èr shì duì zhàndào 1609 nián zhōng huò jiàn guó xìn yǎng yóu
  
  * zài zōng jiào gǎi hòu de yīng guó guó jiàohái dài zhe shǎo luó gōng jiào cǎiyīng guó duō shòu jiā 'ěr wén pài yǐng xiǎng de chēng wéi qīng jiào ( Puritans) de rénxiǎng zài jiā gǎi shǐ chéng gèng shèng jīngde xìn yǎngquè shòu dào huī jiù jiào de guó wáng chá shì hài shì duō rén táo zhì běi měi zhōu xīn hòu lái de měi guóbìng bào 1640 nián -1649 nián de nèi zhànshǐ chēngqīng jiào gǎi ”。 qīng jiào huò shèng hòuxīn jiào tuán huò xiāng dāng yóu de zhǎnzhí dào 1685 nián xīn guó wáng zhān shì 'èr shì yòu xiǎng huī jiù jiào zhuān zhì zhèng zhìzài jīng 1685 nián méi yòu liúxiě deguāng róng mìng”, zhōng shǐ yīng guó xīn jiào zài nián huò 'ōu zhōu huò liàng xìn yǎng yóu de jié guó de zōng jiào zhàn zhēng zhōngcháng jiā jīng zhèng zhì děng de zhēng zhícóng shí liù shì zhōng dào shí shì zhōng de bǎi nián fēn rǎoōu zhōu rén kǒu liàng jiǎn shǎojīng shuāi tuì guó zhōng zhú jiàn rèn jiǔ zhàn shāng de jiào xùncái kāi shǐ cǎi zōng jiào kuān róng zhèng
  
   yìn shuà shù de yǐng xiǎng
  
   zài zōng jiào gǎi de yùn dòng zhōngyóu yìn shuà shù de míngshǐ yùn dòng de tuī dòng dài lái liǎo zhòng de yǐng xiǎngzōng jiào gǎi de yīn dāng zhōng yòu yuán yīn shì shèng jīng zhǐ néng yóu shèng zhí rén yuán yuè bān xìn yuè shèng jīngzhǐ néng wán quán tīng xìn shén duì jīng diǎn jiào de jiě shìrán 'ér zài 1456 nián téng bǎo( JohannGutenberg) zài měi yīn ( Mainz) de yìn shuà chǎng yìn shuà liǎo běn dīng wén shèng jīngyìn shuà shù de míng yòu zhù jiǎn chāo xiě wén běn 'ér chǎn shēng cuò de qíng xínglìng wàizhǐ yào jiāng suǒ yìn shuà de zuò pǐn pái hǎo liàng yìn shuàtóng shí jiàng shū běn de chéng běn jià mín zhòng zhǐ yào chū mǎi shū de qiánjiù yòu huì yuè yīn dāng dīng · yào chuán de zōng jiào gǎi niàn shízhǐ yào tòu guò yìn shuà mào xiàn de yào páo dào yáo yuǎn de yīng lán jiù chuán de xiǎng liǎo


  During this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the Protestant Reformation. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Figures other than Martin Luther began to emerge as well like John Calvin whose Calvinism had influence in many countries and King Henry VIII of England who broke away from the Catholic Church in England and set up the Anglican Church (contrary to popular belief, this is only half true; his daughter Queen Elizabeth finished the organization of the church). These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralized and powerful.
  
  The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation, which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic Dogma. An important group in the Catholic Church who emerged from this movement were the Jesuits who helped keep Eastern Europe within the Catholic fold. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the Church institutions within their kingdoms.
  
  Unlike Western Europe, the countries of Central Europe, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Hungary, were more tolerant. While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths. Central Europe became divided between Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox and Jews. Another important development in this period was the growth of pan-European sentiments. Eméric Crucé (1623) came up with the idea of the European Council, intended to end wars in Europe; attempts to create lasting peace were no success, although all European countries (except the Russian and Ottoman Empires, regarded as foreign) agreed to make peace in 1518 at the Treaty of London. Many wars broke out again in a few years. The Reformation also made European peace impossible for many centuries.
  
  Another development was the idea of European superiority. The ideal of civilization was taken over from the ancient Greeks and Romans: discipline, education and living in the city were required to make people civilized; Europeans and non-Europeans were judged for their civility, and Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents. There was a movement by some such as Montaigne that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a humanistic interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic Church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organized. Francis Bacon and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature.1 In the 15th century, at the end of the Middle Ages, powerful sovereign states were appearing, built by the New Monarchs who were centralizing power in France, England, and Spain. On the other hand the Parliament in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were cooperations between territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights.


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