别史 》 國語 Mandarin 》
國語 Mandarin
左丘明 Zuoqiu Ming
Mandarin
《國語》是中國最早的一部國別史著作。記錄了周朝王室和魯國、齊國、晉國、鄭國、楚國、吳國、越國等諸侯國的歷史。上起周穆王十二年（前990）西徵犬戎（約前947年），下至智伯被滅（前453年）。
【題解】
關於國語的作者是誰，自古至今學界多有爭論，現在還沒有形成定論。司馬遷最早提到國語的作者是左丘明（左丘失明，厥有《國語》），其後班固、劉知幾等都認為是左丘明所著，還把國語稱為《春秋外傳》或《左氏外傳》。但是在晉朝以後，許多學者都懷疑國語不是左丘明所著。直到現在，學界仍然爭論不休，一般都否認左丘明是國語的作者，但是缺少確鑿的證據。普遍看法是，國語是戰國初期一些熟悉各國歷史的人，根據當時周朝王室和各諸侯國的史料，經過整理加工匯編而成。國語按照一定順序分國排列，在內容上偏重於記述歷史人物的言論。這是國語體例上最大的特點。
【評價】
國語在內容上有很強的倫理傾嚮，弘揚德的精神，尊崇禮的規範，認為“禮”是治國之本。而且非常突出忠君思想。
國語的政治觀比較進步，反對專製和腐敗，重視民意，重視人才，具有濃重的民本思想。
國語記錄了春秋時期的經濟、財政、軍事、兵法、外交、教育、法律、婚姻等各種內容，對研究先秦時期的歷史非常重要。
【研究參考書目】
• 薛安勤、王連生《國語譯註》，吉林文史出版社，1991年 ISBN 780626138
• 董立章《國語譯註辨析》，暨南大學出版社，1993年
2、漢語的一種語音體係名
1949年中華人民共和國成立前推行的把北京話作為漢民族共同語的運動。它提出“言文一致”和“國語統一”兩大口號。“言文一致”是書面語不用古代文言，改用現代白話。“國語統一”是現代白話要以北京話為全國通用的國語。這個運動對於現代漢民族共同語的建立和推行，對於文體改革和文字拼音化，都有一定的貢獻。
【産生的經過】
由於受到日本明治維新的影響，在清末的後十年,就已經提出統一國語的問題。最早提到“國語”這個名稱的，是當時被委任為京師大學堂總教習的桐城派古文名傢吳汝綸。1902年他去日本考察學政，看到日本推行國語（東京話）的成績，深受感動，回國後寫信給管學大臣張百熙，主張在學校教學王照的官話合聲字母,推行以“京話”（北京話）為標準的國語。1909年，清政府資政院開會，議員江謙提出把“官話”正名為“國語”，設立“國語編查委員會”，負責編訂研究事宜。1911年學部召開“中央教育會議”，通過《統一國語辦法案》，决議在京城成立國語調查總會，各省設分會，進行語詞、語法、音韻的調查，審定“國語”標準，編輯國語課本、國語辭典和方言對照表等。1912年民國成立後，召開“臨時教育會議”，决定先從統一漢字的讀音做起，召開“讀音統一會”。 1913年“讀音統一會”開會，議定了漢字的國定讀音（即“國音”）和拼切國音的字母“註音字母”(也叫“國音字母”)。議定以後，北洋政府遲遲不予公佈。於是在1916年，北京教育界人士組織“中華民國國語研究會”（簡稱“國語研究會”）掀起了一個催促北洋政府公佈註音字母和改學校“國文”科為“國語”科的運動。
研究會規定了5項任務：①調查各省方言；②選定標準語；③編輯標準語的語法辭典；④用標準語編輯國民學校教科書及參考書；⑤編輯國語刊物。提出學校的“國文”教科書改稱“國語”教科書。運動得到各地教育界人士的響應。國語研究會的會員4年中增加到12000多人。1918年北洋政府教育部召開“全國高等師範校長會議”，决定在全國高等師範附設“國語講習科”,專教註音字母及國語,並於11月公佈了“註音字母”。同年，《新青年》等刊物提出“文學革命”的口號，開始用白話文寫作。1919年“五四”運動爆發，在這個運動的推動下，北洋政府教育部成立政府的推行機構“國語統一籌備會”，並訓令全國各國民學校改“國文”科為“國語”科。與此同時，又通令修改原來的《國民學校令》，規定首先教授註音字母，改革教科書的文體和教學方法等，這樣，國語運動在學校方面得到了初步的成功。
【“國語”的推行】
“五四”以後，國語運動進入推行期。主要工作是修訂註音字母方案，製訂國語羅馬字拼音法式，調整“國音”標準，擴大國語的教育和應用，以及出版、宣傳等。
臺灣語言與族群密切相關。按通俗的分法，臺灣人可分為4大族群，其中閩南人約占74%，客傢人約12%，外省人約 13%，原住民為1%左右。閩南人以閩南話為母語，客傢人以客傢話為母語，外省人以“國語”為母語。原住民分為11個民族，分別使用不同的原住民語，並把它們當做母語。
閩南話其實是正宗的中原古語。從漢末到唐末藩鎮之亂，黃河沿岸的中原人陸續嚮南方遷移，把河洛古語帶到東南沿海；明清時期一些大陸移民渡過海峽，又把這一語言帶到臺灣，因此閩南話又被稱為“河洛語”。後來，臺灣閩南話演變出“臺南腔”、“臺北腔”和“宜蘭腔”等，其中以“臺南腔”最具代表性。
唐代以來，中國北方持續動蕩，外族侵擾不斷，中原各民族的語言相互融合，相互吸收，逐漸形成元代白話、明清官話，最後演變為北平話，中原古語在北方完全消失。民國初期，北平話改名“國語”，成為中華民族的通用語。國民黨退踞臺灣後，設立“國語推行委員會”，研究並推廣“國語”。由於外省人中蘇、浙、閩、粵人較多，勢力較大，所以臺灣“國語”受到江浙方言及閩南方言的影響，帶有明顯的吳越腔調。新中國成立後，大陸以北京語音為標準音、以北方方言為基礎方言，對異讀字、輕聲和兒化等語言現象進行了進一步規範，兩岸“國語”差別由此拉大。
除了上述語言外，外語在臺灣也有一定地位。受過中學以上教育的人都會說一些英語。在涉外學術、商貿和旅遊領域，英語是通用語。現今70歲以上的臺灣人一般還會說一些日語。大量來自菲律賓、印尼和越南的外來勞工則使用其本國語言。
大部分臺灣人能夠使用母語及“國語”。“國語”是島內各族群的通用語，是學校教育使用的正式語言，是新聞、出版和公文中使用的官方語言。有研究說，在臺灣各地火車站，旅客使用頻率最高的語言是“國語”，平均約49%；閩南話次之，約 47%；“國語”∕閩南話混用約1.7%；客傢話約1.7%；原住民語約0.3%；其他語言約0.3%。一般來說，越是都市地區，越是經濟發達地區，使用 “國語”頻率越高，越是農村地區，越是經濟落後地區，閩南話使用頻率越高。年齡越小，使用“國語”頻率越高，年齡越大，使用閩南話頻率越高。女性比男性更傾嚮使用“國語”。
"Mandarin" is the earliest works on the history of a country. Lu Zhou royal family and the records, Qi, Jin, Zheng, Chu, Wu, Yue and other vassal state history. The years since King Mu of Zhou (formerly 990) expedition Quanrong (about 947 years ago), were destroyed down to the Zhi Bo (formerly 453).
【Title】
Evaluation】 【
Mandarin in a strong ethical content tend to carry forward the spirit of Germany, respected ritual norms, that "gift" is to govern. And very prominent loyalist thought.
Mandarin more progressive political outlook, oppose tyranny and corruption, public opinion and talent, with a heavy thought of the people.
Mandarin records the Spring and Autumn Period of the economic, financial, military, military science, diplomacy, education, law, marriage and other content, the study of the history of the Qin Dynasty is very important.
References】 【Research
• Xuean Qin, Lian-Sheng Wang, "Mandarin Annotation", Jilin Literature and History Press, 1991 ISBN 780626138
• Dong Li Zhang, "Analysis of Mandarin Annotation", Jinan University Press, 1993
2, the Chinese name of a voice system
Before the establishment of the PRC in 1949 introduced the Beijing dialect as the common language of the movement of Han nationality. It proposed "Genbunitchi" and the "national language unification," the two slogans. "Genbunitchi" is not written in ancient classical Chinese, use modern vernacular. "Mandarin reunification" is a modern vernacular to the Beijing dialect of Mandarin as the national general. The campaign for the modern Chinese nation to establish and implement a common language for writing style and spelling of the reform, there is some contribution.
After】 【generated
As a result of the impact of the Meiji Restoration in Japan, after decades in the late Qing Dynasty to the problem have been proposed unified national language. The earliest reference to "national language" of this name, was appointed as the Imperial instructors of the classical masters Tongcheng lun. In 1902 he went to Japan to study political science, see the implementation of Mandarin in Japan (Tokyo words) the results, deeply moved, after returning home wrote to the Minister Zhang Baixi management science, and holds teaching Mandarin king chorus according to the letter, the implementation of " If Beijing "(Beijing dialect) as the standard Mandarin. In 1909, the Qing government advisory council meeting, Mr Qian Jiang made the "official words" Name of "national language", a "Mandarin Code Review Committee", responsible for compiling the research matters. 1911 Division held a "meeting of the Central Education", through "the case of a unified national language approach", the resolution established national language survey in the capital Federation, the provinces _set_ up branches, the words, syntax, phonology investigation, validation "national language" standards, edit Mandarin textbooks Mandarin and other dialects table. After the founding of the Republic in 1912, held a "temporary educational conference", decided to start with the pronunciation of Chinese characters start with a unified, held a "unity of pronunciation will be." 1913, "the pronunciation of unity would" meet agreed national pronunciation of Chinese characters (ie the "National Music") and cut the country sounds of the letters spell "phonetic alphabet" (also known as the "National accented letters"). Agreed later, the Northern Government has been not published. Then in 1916, Beijing, the education sector organization "national language of the Republic of China will" (referred to as "Mandarin Research") _set_ off a press release phonetic alphabet and the Northern Government to change school "Chinese" subjects as the "national language" Section of movement.
Research tasks will require a 5: ① provincial dialect survey; ② standard language _select_ion; ③ Grammatical Dictionary of editorial standards; ④ national school with a standard language editing textbooks and reference books; ⑤ edit Mandarin publications. Made the school's "Chinese" textbook was renamed the "national language" textbook. Movement around the education sector received a response. Mandarin Research Council increased to 12,000 members in more than 4 years. Northern Government in 1918, the Ministry of Education held a "meeting of the National Teachers president," the decision attached at the National Higher Education Teachers "workshop Mandarin Branch", designed to teach phonetic alphabet and Mandarin, and in November announced the "phonetic alphabet." In the same year, the "New Youth" and other publications put forward the "Literary Revolution" slogan, starting with the vernacular writing. 1919 "May Fourth" movement broke out, under the impetus of this movement, the Northern Government's implementation of the Ministry of Education _set_ up a government agency "unified national language preparatory" and instructions to change the national schools across the country, "Chinese" subjects as the "national language" Section. At the same time, also issued an order to modify the original "National School Order", provides the first Professor of phonetic alphabet, reform the style of textbooks and teaching methods, so that National Language Movement in schools has been initially successful.
【"National language" of the implementation】
"May Fourth Movement" after the Language Movement into the implementation period. Main task is to amend the phonetic alphabet programs, development of French Mandarin Romanization, adjust the "national voice" standard, and expand the education and application of Mandarin, as well as publishing, publicity and so on.
Closely related to language and ethnic groups in Taiwan. The points system by popular people in Taiwan can be divided into 4 major groups, which account for about 74% of Taiwanese, Hakka, about 12%, and mainlanders, about 13%, indigenous 1% or so. Taiwanese people to the Minnan dialect is the mother tongue to Hakka-speaking Hakka, and mainlanders to the "national language" as the mother tongue. Divided into 11 indigenous ethnic groups were different aboriginal languages, and use them as a mother tongue.
Minnan dialect is authentic in the Central Plains as the old saying. From the late Han to Tang Military Rebellion, one after another along the Yellow River in the Central Plains of migration to the south, to the southeast coast of the Luo as the old saying; number of immigrants from the mainland through the Ming and Qing Dynasties Strait to Taiwan again this language, so Taiwanese then also known as "Hokkien." Later, Taiwan's Minnan dialect evolved, "Tainan cavity", "Taipei cavity" and "Ilan cavity", of which the "Tainan chamber" the most representative.
In addition to the above language, the language has a certain status in Taiwan. Who had secondary or higher education will speak some English. In the foreign academic, business and tourism areas, English is the lingua franca. Today the people of Taiwan over the age of 70 will generally say something in Japanese. A lot from the Philippines, Indonesia and Vietnam, use of foreign workers in their own language.
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【資料來源】百度國學 |
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